INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:
➢ It refers to variation among individual with reference to a single or a number of
characteristics. Individual differences are the unique characteristics and traits, which
distinguish us from others.
➢ Individual differences referring to the extent and kind of variations or similarities among
people on some of the important psychological aspects such as intelligence, personality,
interest, and aptitude.
➢ These differences may slight, moderate, extreme.
➢ These differences may be intra individual or inter individual.
• Physical differences
• Intelligence differences (IQ) = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100
• Difference on account of gender (women have greater memory, sensory distinction, more
suggestions, stories)
• Racial differences
• Difference due to economic status and interest
• Emotional differences (self-awareness, self-regulated, motivation, empathy, relationship
management)
• Personality differences
• Cultural differences (generational, ethnic) (eye contact)

CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

1..INHERITED DIFFERENCE

•By heredity is meant the influence of factors inherent in the individual himself from the time he is
conceived.
•Due to the hereditable physical and cognitive traits, an individual can differ on an intellectual and
physical level which can put an impact on the learning and behaviour.
•Individual difference is the result of a number of possible combinations of genes.
1. physical: like begets like, Set of Chromosomes (gender), siblings (identical twins and fraternal
twins)
2. mental: law of variation, law of regression
3. temperamental: different life events, experiences, maturity (age, gender)
AQUIRED FROM ENVIRONMENT:

Environmental factors reflect individual differences in behaviour, attitude, styles, personality, etc. The
environment does not refer only to physical surroundings, but it also includes different types of
people, society, culture, customs, ideas, and ideals.
1. Race: There may be some difference in behaviour among different races, but there is little scientific
evidence that favours the theory of native differences in mental traits.
2. Education
3. Social: caste, social connections, income, religion, family type, urban vs rural.
4. Cultural: Ethnicity, power-oriented; individualism vs collectivism, masculinity vs femineity,
geographical cultures.
5. Emotional : Pessimistic vs optimistic, EQ

MOTIVATION:
•The term ‘motivation’ is derived from a Latin word movere which means to move.
•Motivation can be defined as an inner state that activates, energizes or moves behaviour towards
goal
•"Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, striving, or needs direct,
control or explain the behaviour of human being."
According to Arnold, there are 3 components of motivation
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries.
2. Direction: intensity needs to be channelled in a direction favourable to the organization for
job satisfaction.
3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort

NATURE OF MOTIVATION:
1. •Human nature
2. •Psychological concept: performance = Motivation X Abilities
3. •Need-satisfying activity
4. •Motivation is total not part
5. •Financial and non-financial
6. •Constant process
7. •Complex and unpredictable
8. •Pervasive function

IMPORTANCE OR ROLE OF MOTIVATION:

1. Removal of Apathy
2. Combining ‘Will to work ’with ‘Capacity for work’
3. Securing Full Support and Energy of the Workers
4. Understanding the Employees’ Needs
5. Maximum Utilisation of the Resources
6. Increase in Efficiency and Output
7. Low Employee Turnover and Absenteeism
8. Acceptance of Organisational Changes
9. Better Industrial Relations
 10. Facilitating Other Functions of Management

TYPES OF MOTIVATION:
1.Positive Motivation
Positive motivators generally have an optimistic attitude behind, and they are generally given to
satisfy the psychological requirements of employees. For example-promotion, praise, recognition,
perks and allowances, etc.
2.Negative Motivation
Negative motivators are those whose purpose is to correct the mistakes or defaults of employees.
Negative incentive is generally resorted to when positive incentive does not work, and a psychological
set back has to be given to employees. For example- demotion, transfer, fines, penalties.
3.Monetary Motivation
Salaries, Fringe benefits (staff discounts, contributions to travel costs, staff uniforms etc), Time-rate
pay (pay based on time worked), Piece-rate pay (pay per item produced), Commissions, Performance-
related pay, Bonuses for achieving targets, Pensions, Additional paid vacation time, Profit sharing
4.Non-Monetary Motivation
Flexible work hours, Training & Professional Development, Status, Pleasant work environment,
Recognition (praise in verbal, written or ideally a public announcement), Involvement in key decisions,
Independence and Autonomy, Gifts & Awards, Personal Thank-You Notes, Job enrichment, Promotion
Opportunities.
5.Extrinsic motivation
•Motivation that comes from an external source.
•Have immediate and powerful effect but not necessarily last long
Examples: Climate in an organisation, Leadership styles, Autonomy, Rewards, and Punishments etc.
A study published in Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review in 2017 reveals that
extrinsic motivation plays a great role to enhance the productivity of an employee.
6.Intrinsic motivation
•The source of the motivation comes from an internal factor.
•Arise from self-generated factors
•Enhanced by job design, freedom to act, job enrichment
Examples: Belief, Attitude etc.

MORALE:
➢ •Morale is a person’s or a group’s emotional state and it can greatly affect a business.
➢ •Morale refers to an internal feeling, which depends on the overall environment which
surrounds the person.
➢ •It is based on the attitude, satisfaction level and outlook of the person.
➢ •Morale as the mental state that demonstrates courage, zeal, and confidence in one’s ability
to complete a goal.
➢ •It is an elusive element that is connected to the circumstances of the person and the
workplace in terms of a person’s resolve, self-assurance, and fervor when doing the work. The
state of being at ease, healthy, and happy is a mental attitude, an emotional force, and a state.
➢ •There appear to be two groups of morale i.e., a) Individual and b) Group morale
➢ •Factors that affect morale
1. the Organisation
 2. nature of Work
3. supervisory Techniques
4. Fellow-employees' Interaction

JOB SATISFACTION:
•Job satisfaction, an unquantifiable metric, is defined as a positive emotional response, person
experience when doing their job or when they are present at work.
•Job satisfaction is defined as the extent to which an employee feels self-motivated, content &
satisfied with his/her job.
•Hoppock defined job satisfaction as any combination of psychological, physiological and
environmental circumstances that cause a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job
(Hoppock, 1935).
•Job satisfaction represents a combination of positive or negative feelings that workers have towards
their work.

Job satisfaction can thus be understood as an important job attitude. As an attitude, it has three
elements: affective, cognitive and behavioural.
The affective component is the emotional response to the job situation and is reflected in the
statement “I feel good about my job”.
The cognitive element is the appraisal on the extent to which the job fulfills important needs
associated with one’s work. It is illustrated in the statement “My job helps me to achieve my goals”.
The behavioural component is the intention to engage in specific behaviours as manifested in
productivity, absenteeism, turnover and forms of organisational citizenship. It is reflected in the
statement “I want to give my best on the job”.

➢ Global and Facet Satisfaction

•Global satisfaction is defined as a general feeling that individuals hold about their job. It is an overall
affective reaction based on all characteristics of the job and the work environment.
•Facet satisfaction, on the other hand, is defined as the feelings about or affective responses to
particular job aspects. It is a constellation of attitudes about various facets of a job. Smith, Kendall and
Hulin (1969) have suggested that facet satisfaction is reflected in five characteristics of a job:
1) The work itself: The extent to which the job provides the individual with interesting tasks,
opportunities for learning, and the chance to accept responsibility.
2) Pay: The adequacy and perceived equity of financial remuneration.
3) Promotion opportunities: The chance for further advancements in the hierarchy.
4) Supervision: The abilities of the supervisor to provide technical assistance and behavioural support.
5) Coworkers: The degree to which fellow workers are technically proficient and socially supportive.

➢ Extrinsic and Intrinsic Satisfaction

Intrinsic job satisfaction is seen when workers consider only the kind of work they do, the tasks that
make up the job. The intrinsic elements of job satisfaction that arise from the nature of the work itself
have been described in the literature as “motivators” (Herzberg et al., 1959). They include the specific
nature of the work, recognition, achievement, and the possibility of growth, advancement, and
responsibility. Herzberg suggested that the true job satisfaction derives from the factors intrinsic to
the job.
Extrinsic job satisfaction is demonstrated when workers consider the conditions of work, such as their
pay, co-workers, and supervisor. The extrinsic elements have been described as “hygiene” (Herzberg
et al., 1959) and are measured as extrinsic job satisfaction. They include salary, benefits, and
institutional environment and they tend to influence job dissatisfaction

ANTECEDENTS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Personal Characteristics
1. Age and years of experience
2. Gender
3. Occupational level
4. Education (positive and negative relation)
5. Personality (Extrovert, agreeableness and conscientiousness)
6. Cultural factors (western culture employees are more satisfied than eastern culture)

Work Situation Characteristics

1. The work itself
2. Pay
3. Promotions
4. Supervision
5. Work group
6. Working conditions

OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION:

A useful theoretical model to organise and understand the consequences of job dissatisfaction is the
exit-voice-loyalty neglect (EVLN) model). The model identifies four ways in which employees respond
to dissatisfaction:
• Exit – The exit response refers to leaving the organisation, transferring to another work unit or at
least trying to make these exits.
• Voice – The voice response involves actively attempting to change, rather than escape from,
dissatisfying conditions. It can be a constructive response, such as recommending ways for
management to improve the situation, or it can be more confrontational, such as filing formal
grievances. In the extreme, some employees might engage in counterproductive behaviours to get
attention and force changes in the organisation.
• Loyalty – The loyalty response includes optimistically waiting for improvement and trusting the
organisation and its management to resolve the problem.
• Neglect – The neglect response involves passively ignoring or withdrawing effort and allowing
conditions to worsen. Chronic absenteeism and lateness, reduced work effort, reduced attention to
quality and increased error rate are some of the neglect responses.
Of the four responses to dissatisfaction, the one that will be used by an employee depends on the
availability of alternative employment, degree of organisational commitment, employee’s personality
and past experiences with the organisation. With poor job prospects and a high degree of
commitment to the organisation, employees are less likely to use exit. Highly conscientious people
are less likely to engage in neglect and more likely to use voice. Finally, employees who were
unsuccessful with voice in the past are more likely to engage in exit or neglect when experiencing
dissatisfaction in the future.
• Job Performance (task and contextual performance)
• Withdrawal Behaviours (low morale, feel stressed and perceive work pressure negatively)
• Workplace Deviance (unproductive behavior, abuse of property and aggressive behavior)
• Safety Performance
• Customer Satisfaction (tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy)
• Life Satisfaction

MODELS OF JOB SATISFACTION:

1.Affect theory:

Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model.
The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one
wants in a job and what one has in a job.
Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of
autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations
are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly
impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not
met), compared to one who doesn’t value that facet.
To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about
autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of
autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This
theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction
the more a worker values that facet

2.Dispositional approach:
 The dispositional approach suggests that individuals vary in their tendency to be satisfied with their
jobs, in other words, job satisfaction is to some extent an individual trait. This approach became a
notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over
time and across careers and jobs.
Research also indicates that identical twins raised apart have similar levels of job satisfaction A
significant model that narrowed the scope of the dispositional approach was the Core Selfevaluations
Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge, Edwin A. Locke, and Cathy C. Durham in 1997.Judge et al.
argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine one’s disposition towards job
satisfaction:
•Self-esteem,
• General self-efficacy,
• Locus of control, Neuroticism.
This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general
self-efficacy (the belief in one’s own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction

3.Equity theory:

Equity Theory shows how a person views fairness in regard to social relationships such as with an
employer. A person identifies the amount of input (things gained) from a relationship compared to
the output (things given) to produce an input/output ratio. They then compare this ratio to the ratio
of other people in deciding whether or not they have an equitable relationship. Equity Theory suggests
that if an individual thinks there is an inequality between two social groups or individuals, the person
is likely to be distressed because the ratio between the input and the output are not equal.

4.Discrepancy theory:

The concept of discrepancy theory is to explain the ultimate source of anxiety and dejection. An
individual who has not fulfilled his responsibility feels the sense of anxiety and regret for not
performing well. They will also feel dejection due to not being able to achieve their hopes and
aspirations. According to this theory, all individuals will learn what their obligations and
responsibilities are for a particular function, and if they fail to fulfill those obligations then they are
punished.

5.Two-factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory):

Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory (also known as motivator-hygiene theory) attempts to explain
satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction
are driven by different factors – motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An employee’s
motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate. Motivation can be seen
as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organizational goals (Hokinson, Porter,
& Wrench, p. 133). Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform,
and provide people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion
opportunities. These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried
out. Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies,
supervisory practices, and other working conditions.
METHODS OF MEASURING EMPLOYEES JOB SATISFACTION:
1) Rating Scales
Rating scales are the commonly adopted method that is used for measuring the job satisfaction. It
comprises of certain statements describing the attitude of the employees with respect to the job,
organization and personal factors. For each declaration or statement, the employee is invited to
express his opinion on a scale consisting of different expressions.
Four primary types of rating scales can be suitably used in an online survey:
•Graphic
•Numerical
•Descriptive
•Comparative
1.1. Graphic Rating Scale: It indicates the answer options on a scale of 1-3, 1-5, etc. Likert Scale is a
popular graphic rating scale example. Respondents can select a particular option on a line or scale to
depict rating. This rating scale is often implemented by HR managers to conduct employee evaluation.

1.2. Numerical Rating Scale: It has numbers as answer options and not each number corresponds to
a characteristic or meaning. For instance, a Visual Analog Scale or a Semantic Differential Scale can
be presented using a numerical scale.

1.3. Descriptive Rating Scale: Provide for each trait list of descriptive phrases from which the rater
selects the one most applicable item being rated, selected usually by mean of check mark

1.4. Comparative Rating Scale: As the name suggests, it expects respondents to answer a particular
question in terms of comparison, i.e., based on relative measurement or keeping other
organizations/products/features as a reference.
2. Job Descriptive Index
“The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is a 72-item adjective checklist type questionnaire developed by Smith,
Kendall and Hulin in 1969” and since then has been used by over 1,000 organizations in many sectors
(Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). Job Descriptive Index is a scale used to measure five major factors
associated with employees' satisfaction: work itself, supervision, pay, co-workers and promotion
opportunities. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or can‟t decide (indicated by
„?‟) in response to whether given statements accurately describe one‟s job.

3) Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), developed by Weiss, Dawis, England, and Lofquist
(1967). The MSQ is designed to measure an employee satisfaction with his/her particular job. Method
includes 100 items measuring 20 facets of job satisfaction. There are three versions available: two long
forms (1977 version and 1967 version) and a short form. The long form takes about 30 minutes to
minister while the short one can be completed within 10 minutes. MSQ provides a tailed picture of
the specific satisfaction and dissatisfaction of employees.
4) Critical Incidents
The critical incidents approach to the measurement of employee satisfaction was developed by
Herzberg and his associates in their research on the two-factor theory of motivation. Employees
were asked to describe incidents then content analysed in determining which aspects were closely
related to positive and negative attitudes.

5) Interviews
Interviewing employees as a method of measuring employees' satisfaction is mostly useful in
organizations that have positive relationships with employees and believe the problem is too
sophisticated to be understood with a survey. If employees do not trust the organization or
interviewer, then responses may not be entirely honest. Business, with low satisfaction of employees
who fear being let go, may find the employees reluctant to discuss the situation since they may fear;
it could negatively affect them in the future. The questions asked should be standardized in order to
compare different employee responses as well as the same employees' responses over time.

6) Survey
The most accurate method of assessing employee satisfaction is a well-constructed employee
satisfaction survey. Employees provide a rating against a series of questions or statements related to
their job, supervision and the work environment. Survey results are reported at a business unit or
workgroup level, offering a level of anonymity that encourages employees to respond honestly.
Surveys must be carefully worded, as there is no opportunity to clarify ambiguous questions or
statements. Care must be taken when comparing small departments or workgroups. Their results can
be unreliable, as a random error has greater effect when analysing a small number of responses.

PROCEDURE OF EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION SURVEY:

Step1. Define Survey Objectives and Target Group
•Define the objectives
•Define the final use of the results
•Ensure a perception survey is the adequate tool
•Define target group

Step 2. Draft Survey Questions

•Set up discussions with members of a target group to identify key issues
•Translate those into questions and answer categories
•Draft simple and clear questions
• Keep the questionnaire short to maximize response rate and concentration
•Ensure respondents have the opportunity to report problems

Step 3. Pilot and Re-adjusting the Questionnaire

•Test the survey on a smaller-scale target group to identify weaknesses in the survey design
•Possibly ask volunteers to think aloud while answering questions and analyses what motivated their
answers
•Adjust questionnaire if needed

Step 4. Select Respondents and the Data Collection Method

•Select a sample either by random sampling or other methods
•Ensure that the sample size allows drawing valid conclusions from the results
•Choose the data collection method: personal interviews, telephone interviews, internet surveys,
email surveys, etc.
•Maximize response rate through appropriate data collection method.

Step 5. Run the Survey

• Ensure high response-rate through follow-up emails otherwise conclusions to the survey could be
biased
•Use trained interviewers to avoid unintentional influence on responses

Step 6. Analyse the Results

•Interpret results as perceptions rather than facts
•Take into account the response rate. A low rate means that no general conclusions can be drawn.
•Take into consideration the number and the way respondents have been selected in the result
analysis.
•Understand how results were reached is essential to draw findings and conclusions.
•Write up a summary of what is found

7) Monitoring Performance Target

Monitoring performance targets is a method of measuring employee satisfaction that requires a
business to be an active observer. With this method, management monitors employee satisfaction by
using standard criteria, such as achieving bonus, participating in optional programs and performance
in reaching goals. This method provides indirect data on the levels of employee satisfaction. While it
can flag management that there is a problem with employee satisfaction, combining this with a survey
or interview can provide the company with a stronger analysis on the cause of low levels of
satisfaction.
8) Focus Groups
Companies can use focus groups to assess employee satisfaction. Focus groups produce responses
following discussions led by trained facilitators. Focus groups generate richer data than individual
interviews, as participants bounce ideas off one another. They also allow for follow-up questions and
probing to clarify and enrich the information generated. However, participants may be inhibited by
the lack of confidentiality and anonymity. The opinions of vocal group members may dominate the
discussion unless the facilitator has the skill required to control the group dynamic

STRESS:
•The terms stress has been derived from ‘stringere’ that is a Latin word and means ‘to draw tight’
(Cox, 1978).
•Hans Selye (1974) described stress as a response of the body to certain demand that is made on it
and he further stated that this response was nonspecific.
•Baum et al. (1981) have defined stress as a “process in which environmental events or forces, called,
stressors, threatens an organism’s existence and wellbeing”.
The above definitions mainly looked at stress from a western perspective. If we describe stress from
an eastern perspective, it denotes absence or lack on inner peace (Seaward, 2014).

STRESSORS:
•Stressors can be described as situation, event, person or anything that leads to the stress response.
•Gerrig and Zimbardo defined stressor as a stimulus event that places a demand on an organism for
some kind of adaptive response”.
•Stressors can also be described as varied external and internal stimuli that may lead to stress.
•Stressors can be categorised into physical, psychological, environmental, social and as life events.

NATURE OF STRESS:
1.Stress may be the result of individual's interaction with environmental stimuli. Such stimuli may be
in any form, interpersonal interaction event and so on. The impact of the stimuli produces
deviation in the individual.
2.Stress may result in any kind of deviation-physical, psychological or behavioural in the person. The
deviation is from the usual state of affairs. From this point of view, stress is different from
anxiety which operates solely in the emotional and psychological sphere.
3.Stress can be either temporary or long term, mild or severe, depending mostly on how long its
causes continue, how powerful they are and how strong the individual's powers are.
4.Two conditions are necessary for potential stress to become actual stress. There must be
A. Uncertainty over the outcome
B. Outcome must be important. Stress is usually very high when there is uncertainty over the outcome
and the outcome is very significant.
5. The term "burnout" is also closely associated with stress. Some researchers contend that burnout
is a type of stress, but others treat it differently. Burnout is closely associated with helping
professions like nursing, education and social work, is characterized by emotional exhaustion,
technically, burnout is different from stress, these are generally used interchangeably

TYPES OF STRESS
1)Esters: Stress can be good stress that is explained as ‘Eustress’. Eustress can be defined as “good
stress, caused by a positive response to a desired stressor, such as a wedding or a new job”
(Truxillo et al. (2016, pg. 441).
2) Neu stress: When stress is not helpful nor harmful, it can be described as ‘Neu stress’ (Schafer
(1998, pg. 7).
3) Distress: This is the third category of stress that most people commonly relate stress with. ‘Distress’
occurs when the arousal experienced by the individual is very high or very low (Schafer (1998,
pg. 8). Distress can also be categorised into acute and chronic stress. Acute stress can be termed
as stress that is intense but does not last for a prolonged period of time. Whereas chronic stress
may not be as intense but may exist for a prolonged period of time.
4) Hyper stress: Excessive stress is termed as ‘Hyper stress’.
5) Hypo stress: Insufficient stress is termed as ‘Hypo stress’.

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS:
SOURCES OF STRESS:
As such, the sources of stress can be categories in to three main sources, namely, Frustration, Conflict
of motives and Pressure (Coleman, 1970).
1.Frustration: Frustration can be described as occurring when a goal-oriented behaviour of an
individual is thwarted. As stated by Mangal (1984, pg. 46) “a wide range of environmental obstacles,
both physical and social and the internal factors in the form of personal limitations, biological
conditions and psychological barriers may lead to frustration of our needs, motives and efforts”. For
example, Ravi expected his promotion, however, when he did not receive the same, he experienced
frustration.

2.Conflicts of motive: As an individual has to choose between alternatives and decision making in this
regard can lead to stress. Conflict of motives can be of four different types, approach - approach
conflict, avoidance - avoidance conflict, approach - avoidance conflict and double approach -
avoidance conflict.
1) Approach-approach conflict: In this type of conflict the individual has to choose between two goals
that are positive and are similar. For example, an individual may have to choose between two similar
job opportunities.
2) Avoidance- avoidance conflict: The next type of conflict of motives is avoidance- avoidance conflict.
Here again there are two goals that are similar but as opposed to approach- approach conflict, the
goals here are negative. For example, an individual may have to take decision whether he/ she wants
to remain unemployed or take up a mediocre job that he/ she is not interested in.
3) Approach- avoidance conflict: Here there is a single goal which is both positive and negative. For
example, an individual taking up a job abroad may be excited about the opportunity but also has to
face the fact that he/ she will have to stay away from the family. Thus, this goal has both negative and
positive consequences and thus the individual may experience stress.
4) Multiple approach-avoidance conflict: It may so happen that the conflicts faced by us are quite
complex and they are combinations of approach and avoidance conflicts. In this conflict the individual
has to choose between the options that have both positive and negative consequences. For example,
a student may have to choose between two educational opportunities, one of pursuing music that he/
she is interested in which will make his/her parents unhappy and the other of pursuing engineering,
which will make his/ her parents happy but he/ she is really not interested in it.
3.Pressure: Pressure is yet another source of stress that can be external or internal. External pressures
are result of demands from the environment, responsibilities and obligations that are mainly social in
nature as well as demands and expectations of the significant persons in our lives. With regard to
internal pressures, Mangal (1984, pg. 46) states that “Internal pressures are caused by our own self
for maintaining the picture of ourselves - as we think we could and should be”. An example of external
pressure is when a child is pressurised by parents to do well in examination and an example of internal
pressure is when a child himself/ herself feels that he/ she needs to study and do well in examination.

Personality factors that may make an individual prone to stress.

In the context of personality, the type A and type B personalities can be discussed.
Individuals with Type A personality display hurriedness, restlessness and are often involved in
carrying out various activities at the same time. They are also competitive, anxious and are often
achievement oriented.
The individuals with type B personality, on the other hand, display behaviour that is relaxed. It can
be said that individuals with type A personality are comparatively more prone to stress when
compared with individuals with type B personality.

Some of the specific sources of stress:

1.Life events: Stress can be caused due to varied life events. These could be death of a loved one,
divorce or separation, losing one’s job, marriage and so on. These could be termed as significant life
events in one’s life that may put pressure on the adjustment and coping resources of the person as
they expose the individual to certain new and unique challenges. Thus, life events can lead to stress
which in turn can have detrimental effects on the day to day functioning as well as physical and
psychological health of the individual.
2.Daily hassles: Similar to life events, daily hassles can also create stress. Daily hassles like lack of time,
work overload, daily roles, responsibilities and duties and so on can lead to stress.
3.Interpersonal relationships: Stress can also be caused due to issues related to interpersonal
relationships. Interpersonal relationships could be in the context of family, work or it could be with
peer groups. Conflicts could occur between individuals that can have an impact on the interpersonal
relationship, which in turn may lead to stress. Issues in interpersonal relationship could range from
misunderstandings to violence and abuse and can have negative impact on the physical and
psychological wellbeing of the person.
4.Stress as a result of social conditions: Social conditions in which the individual exists can also lead
to development of stress. These social conditions can be related to crowding, discrimination,
technological developments and changes, pollution and so on. The individual today exists in a world
that is much more complex. There is globalisation, increased competition, and high amount of social
pressure. These have a negative impact on the individual and makes him/ her prone to stress.
other stressors:
• Job concerns
• Career changes
• Changes in life structures
• Economic problem
• Organizational life cycle
• Working conditions
HOW TO MANAGE STRESS:
Individual and organisational stimuli causes stress, and the implications are more negative at
individual and organisational levels. It needs to be managed both by adopting individual and
organisational strategies.
Individual Management
Individuals assume automatic responsibility and look for ways and means of dealing with their stress.
Individuals are more concerned about their health. There is an increasing rate of health clinics and
health consciousness observed in recent times.
1)Time Management : Time management and stress are inversely related. Improper and poor
management of time are the root cause of a greater degree of stress. Improper and inadequate
utilisation of time cause anxiety.
• Identifying and listing of daily activities in a logical order.
• Arranging the activities of the day based on importance and urgency.
• Preparing logical schedule of activities.
• Analysing and understanding the daily cycle and nature of the job.
• Allocating time properly to various activities based on time demands.
• Delegating minor tasks to the subordinates in order to make use of the time in a better manner.
• Discouraging unwanted visitors.
• Setting unfinished tasks on the top of list for tomorrow

2) Physical Management : Management of stress relates to understanding one’s own biological and
body conditions. Examining hereditary characteristics habits like smoking and drinking, life styles and
body conditions help in understanding one’s physiological conditions. Overcoming stress is possible
with managing physiological relaxation. Physical exercises greatly help in relieving tension and stress.
When body is conditioned with physical exercise, oxygen is inhaled properly and blood circulation
increases. This promotes healthy secretions from glands and the supply of blood to all the parts of the
body keeps every organ active. Consequently, immunity to withstand stress increases. Physical
exercises could be reactive or proactive. Non competitive physical exercises like walking, jogging,
swimming, riding, aerobics and playing games considerably increases heart capacity, provide mental
diversion from work pressures and increases heart capacity to withstand stressful situations. The
chances of heart attack, adverse blood pressure and diabetics reduce.

3) Psychological Management : Most of the stresses arise because of psychological tensions.

Therefore, it is suggested that managing psychological activities lead to effective management of
stress. The following are some of the psychological management techniques.
i)Relaxation : Relaxation of mind through meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback can effectively reduce
mental tensions. Meditation involves silently sitting on the ground taking deep inhalation and
chanting mantra. This takes the mind into deep relaxation. This technique relaxes muscles and
mind. It also brings significant changes in heart rate, blood pressure, lung capacity and other
biological organs of the body. Transcendental Meditation, Soul management, Atma yoga,
Anthahakarana, Silence sitting posture, Shavasana, Bhavathetha meditation and praying the
God are some of the relaxation techniques practiced for reducing stress.
ii)Behavioural Self-control: Stress also results from behavioural disorders. Exercising proper control
over behaviour in dealing with others can bring down the chance of stress. Self-introspection
brings self-awareness of the individual. Similarly knowing the antecedents and consequences
 of own behaviour enables behavioural self-control. Stress can be relaxed by developing proper
perception, practicing good listening, maintaining calm and tension free mind empathy and
positive attitude are some of the behavioural self control techniques.

iii) Cognitive Therapy: It is a technique of clinical psychology. Cognitive therapy involves knowing
ones’ own emotions to release anxiety and tension. In this technique, people are made to understand
the reasons causing stress in them by the process of self-observation. For example, if an employee
develops a feeling that he is incompetent to handle a new job, counselling is provided to develop a
confidence of competence to handle all the new jobs. Thus, with the help of cognitive therapy, a
positive impact is created for the mental satisfaction. Cognitive therapy enables people to exercise
self- control for relaxing stress.
iv) Yogic Management: In recent times, yoga is an effective technique of relieving stress. Yoga
practice involves Asana, Pranayama, Mudra and Kriya. Practicing a number of Yog asana relaxes
muscles, reduces blood pressure, controls asthma, relieves neurological problems, improves lung
capacity, enhances proper flow of blood and helps relax tensions and strains. Certain asanas which
help stress relaxation are pada Hast asana, vajra asana, Sashanka asana, camel asana, lotus asana,
crocodile asana, sarvanga asana, Shava asana

4) Social Management: Developing good social networks involves grouping of people who are good
listeners and confidence builders. This increases social support to individuals. Encouraging informal
groups to share information without inhibitions, developing free exchange of ideas, views and
distasteful experiences, promoting confidence of social support decrease tensions and stress. Social
clubs, recreation clubs, friendship clubs, informal gatherings, birthday parties, and family are some of
the social networks that increase social support and reduce stress.
5) Self-awareness Management: Self-awareness is similar to self-audit or personal audit. Managers
are required to understand themselves in a free and fair manner. They should encourage open
communication and willing to listen to others especially on their deficiencies. Being aware of self is a
difficult task, as individuals are unprepared to accept their defects. Self-awareness management
involves three stages.
• Stage – I: Identify, understand and analyse one’s own skills, capacities, limitations and defects.
• Stage – II: Encourage feedback from others viz., subordinates, peers, superiors, friends, family
members and other social associations. This requires patient hearing without inhibitions.
• Stage -III: Develop self-program to improve the skills, capacities to overcome the limitations in a
scientific way. Attend self-management-training programs to develop the personality for all round
development of self.

Organisational Management
1)Selection and Placement Policy: Stress and personality characteristics of employees are closely
related. Thus, selecting the employees by a proper personality fit suitable to jobs minimise the
chance of stress in the individuals. For instance, a salesperson jobs require extensive travelling
rather than experience. If a person having a poor attitude of travelling is selected, he is likely to
experience more stress in performing the job. Therefore, proper recruitment and selection
policy should be followed by the organisation to reduce stress.
2)Goal Setting: Goal ambiguity, lack of proper perception of goals, challenging goal and unattainable
goals cause stress in individuals. Therefore, organisations should follow a strategy of
 participation in goal setting to provide motivation, reduce frustration and ambiguity of goals.
Management by Objectives (MBO) is an appropriate technique of goal setting which reduces
stress.
3)Job Enrichment and Job Design: Job enrichment provides motivation to the employees. It enriches
job factors such as responsibility, recognition, and opportunity for advancement, growth and
self- esteem. Routine, unstructured and poorly designed jobs cause greater stress in individuals.
Job redesign provides more responsibility, more meaningful work, more autonomy and
increased feedback. This provides greater control over work activities and reduces dependence
on others. Therefore, job enrichment and job redesign provide an effective way of reducing
stress
4) Role Clarity: Organisational stress is associated with role ambiguity, role overlap, lack of role clarity
and role conflict. Proper role definition helps employees understand their role in organisation and
appraise interpersonal roles. This reduces the chance of role conflict and increases role compatibility.
This eliminates stress in the individuals. Wherever role conflict arises, counselling and negotiation can
be used to resolve inter- personal role conflict to avoid stressful situations.
5) Communication and Counselling: Barriers in communication are potential moderators of
organisational stress. In organisations formal communication creates a number of problems of
interpersonal misunderstandings. Thus, redesigning the formal communication channels can improve
understanding and consequently reduce stress caused by communication bottlenecks. Counselling is
exchange of ideas and views in a free and fair manner. It is intended to share problems of employees
and cope up with the stressful situation. Counselling consists of advice, reassurance, communication,
and release of emotional tensions, clarified thinking and reorientation. The techniques of counselling
are non-directive, participative and directive.
6) Carrier Planning and Development: Stress is caused when employees’ expectations of their career
in organisation are not fulfilled and when employees get promotion without the development of
corresponding skills. Organisations take less interest in career planning of the employees. Designing
appropriate career plans, education programs, development programs and organisation development
considerably reduce employee’s stress.
7) Democratic Leadership: Democratic leaders create confidence in the subordinates and allow
participation in the decision-making process. They create an atmosphere of warmth, friendship, and
supportive climate. Under such climate employees feel satisfied, motivated and psychologically
committed to the achievement of objectives. In addition, communication is open, conflicts are
avoided, and coordination improved. This enables employees to relieve stress and promote healthy
work.
8) Organisation Climate: Organisation design is the basic reason for job stress. Bureaucratic, directive
and ambiguous administration and poor organisational climate leads to greater stress. A sound
organisation climate and culture characterised by sound administrative policy, good organisational
communication, participative culture and supportive climate ensure reduction of stress.
9) Wellness Programmes: Programmes that focus on employee’s physical and mental condition
organised by the management are known as wellness programmes. As part of these programmes,
workshops, seminars and counselling sessions are conducted to help the employees understand the
dangers of smoking, alcoholism and drug abuse. They promote a positive attitude for eating better
stuff, fighting obesity, doing regular physical exercise and developing positive personality. However,
these programmes are successful only when the employee himself takes personal interest in his
physical and mental health. Organisations act as only a catalyst to promote programmes that facilitate
reduction of stress.
10) Quality of Work Life: The concept has been increasingly recognised in the recent years. This
technique involves improving the working conditions and other internal and external aspects of work
life. In addition, providing good housing facilities, living conditions, social and recreational facilities,
training and development of employees for overall development of human resources in the
organisation will develop quality of work life.