Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163

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Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jaap

Recent advancements of CFD and heat transfer studies in pyrolysis:

A review
Venkata Surya Dadi a, Sridevi Veluru b, Hemanth Kumar Tanneru c, Rajasekhar Reddy Busigari d,
Ramesh Potnuri e, Anirudh Kulkarni f, Garima Mishra a, Tanmay Basak g, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar 382426, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, AU College of Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530003, India
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530003, India
d
Department of Fuel, Mineral and Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India
e
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal 575025, India
f
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar 382426, India
g
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: There is a pressing need to process the solid waste by using pyrolysis technology due to its uniqueness to produce
Biomass various solid, liquid and gaseous products. However, further understanding of pyrolysis process is needed. Most
CFD importantly, the role of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in pyrolysis is to be thoroughly investigated. In
Heat transfer
recent times, there has been significant progress in the research works aligned with evaluating the role of CFD in
Pyrolysis, Microwave
Solar
biomass pyrolysis. Hence, the current review manuscript focusses the current state of the art in the application of
CFD tools to multi-scale biomass pyrolysis systems. Modeling of fluid and heat transport in conventional py­
rolysis reactors, microwave-assisted pyrolysis reactors, and solar-assisted pyrolysis reactors for the conversion of
biomass have been critically analyzed. The theoretical basis and the practical applicability of the CFD models to
efficiently emulate and predict the overall complexity of pyrolysis process for the multi-scale and multi-phase
nature of biomass have been discussed. However, the validity and accuracy of the CFD models needs to be
enhanced. In the future directions, the steps for expanding the applicability of these theoretical and computa­
tional models have been outlined. This review would provide detailed understanding of CFD role in pyrolysis
process conducted in various reactor systems.

1. Introduction contribute significantly with agricultural waste residues. The relentless

The substantial increase in solid waste presents a major global
concern due to its environmental, social, and health implications. Solid
waste dumped in landfills can contaminate groundwater, emit methane
gas, and release toxic gaseous chemicals. Consequently, there is an ur­
gent call for effective solid waste management (SWM). Various solutions
have been explored to handle waste sustainably and mitigate these
concerns. Current estimates indicate that global municipal solid waste
(MSW) production rates are alarming and expected to surpass 2200
million tons annually by 2025. Notably, with a population of 1.42
billion, India is projected to generate more than 56 million tons of MSW
each year, witnessing an annual increase rate of 5%. [1]. Consequently,
urban areas are producing vast amounts of MSW, while rural areas
pace of urbanization is surpassing its sustainable limits, presenting
substantial challenges for the safe disposal and management of MSW.
Recognizing these imminent challenges, the Indian government is
prioritizing the efficient execution of the Waste-to-Energy and
Waste-to-Wealth strategies.
Energy is a paramount resource in today’s world, with its demand
consistently on the rise. A significant portion of global energy re­
quirements is met by fossil fuels. However, as these fossil fuel reserves
are rapidly depleting and causing environmental pollution, the global
quest for alternative energy sources is intensifying [2,3]. Consequently,
there’s an augmented emphasis on harnessing energy from sources like
solar, tidal, wind, and biomass [4,5]. While these sources are renewable
and sustainable, challenges arise due to their energy density and the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tanmay@iitm.ac.in (T. Basak).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2023.106163
Received 31 May 2023; Received in revised form 9 August 2023; Accepted 4 September 2023
Available online 12 September 2023
0165-2370/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
V.S. Dadi et al.
economic feasibility of extracting energy, largely because of techno­
logical constraints [6,7]. Among these alternatives, biomass emerges as
a promising resource for energy, as well as the recovery of chemicals and
materials. Biomass pyrolysis, a method to produce a valuable bio-oil
product rich in various aliphatic and aromatic compounds, is conduct­
ed typically between 400 and 600 ◦ C in an inert atmosphere [8].
However, pyrolysis is endothermic, necessitating energy to break
down feedstock. Since pyrolysis is also integral to the combustion pro­
cess, a deeper understanding of it can help regulate combustion. Factors
such as feedstock composition, temperature, heating rate, residence
time, pressure, reactor type, and the nature of the heating source
significantly influence pyrolysis [9]. The requisite energy for pyrolysis
can be sourced from burning other fuels, electrical heating,
microwave-assisted heating, or solar-assisted heating [10]. Using
solar-assisted heating, incident solar energy is transformed into thermal
energy. Yet, its limitation lies in the unavailability of solar energy during
the night. Alternatively, in Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP), elec­
trical energy is converted into microwaves through a magnetron, of­
fering a volumetric heating approach. With MAP, energy requirements
and associated costs can be mitigated [11–14]. From our research, there
are five notable review articles on the application of CFD in biomass
pyrolysis. Xiong et al. (2018) assessed the prospects and challenges of
applying CFD in biomass pyrolysis. They identified that a lack of reliable
data on biomass decomposition and an absence of microscopic struc­
tures of biomass during pyrolysis were barriers to precise CFD analysis of
biomass decomposition [15]. Further studies by other researchers
[16–18] have reviewed various models and applications related to
biomass pyrolysis. However, a comprehensive understanding of the role
of the pyrolysis reactor, type of heating source, and foundational
knowledge of CFD hasn’t been thoroughly analyzed in existing litera­
ture. Thus, this review aims to elucidate the role of CFD in the pyrolysis
process, examining pyrolysis reactors, heating sources, and reactor
configurations.
2. Fundamentals of CFD
CFD simulations have been used to model biomass pyrolysis reactors
at various scales with an unprecedented level of accuracy. They also
assist in the development of an understanding of the underlying physics
of the highly complex conversion process [19,20]. Almost all biomass
pyrolysis reactor types have been studied thus far using CFD, including
risers, fixed beds, bubbling beds, auger reactors, and vortex reactors.
Consequently, it is imperative to critically review the current approach
in employing CFD for biomass pyrolysis systems in terms of the efficacy
of the numerical models, the level of complexity, and the precision and
accuracy of the numerical results compared to the experimental find­
ings. To the best of our knowledge, this perspective is the first to provide
an extensive summary of the most recent developments in heat transport
modelling and CFD for reactor-scale biomass pyrolysis.
Most of the simulations of fluid flow and heating for the reactors
employ the Finite element-based solver COMSOL Multiphysics. A few
researchers have used alternative numerical strategy codes based on
ANSYS Fluent (Finite volume-based numerical scheme) [21] and
OpenFOAM [22–25]. The strength of numerical analysis is the ease with
which it identifies the overall and local process characteristics. For
instance, CFD studies in the field have helped in identifying local
hot/cold spots within the biomass pellet as well as the flow character­
istics and nature during the biomass conversion process. To solve the
governing equations (momentum, heat, mass transfer, coupled with the
reaction rate model) and produce temperature profiles in the reactor,
several numerical techniques have been employed, including the finite
element method [26], the finite difference time domain [27], and the
finite volume method [28]. Although some of this research made use of
easily navigable, commercially available software, their methods of
resolution and approaches to issue simplification stand out in the
literature.
2
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
CFD is an advanced tool for understanding the heat, mass, and fluid
flow behaviour in the pyrolysis process. The implications of solids’
residence times and gaseous phases on primary reactions, as well as
subsequent tar cracking schemes, are taken into account in CFD. The
reactor bed hydrodynamics can all be incorporated into single-particle
models of reactors. Investigating how process variables affect reactor
hydrodynamics and product yields, different models, such as phenom­
enological and CFD models, have been incorporated into a variety of
reactor setups [17]. In the last few years, there has been a notable
improvement in the accuracy and stability of numerical techniques and
algorithms. The use of CFD as a crucial design technique in various in­
dustrial areas, and for several chemical processes, has proven that CFD
approaches can produce accurate predictions.
For reactor-scale computational modelling of biomass pyrolysis, CFD
has been used as a crucial tool to comprehend the underlying physics of
pyrolysis. Numerous research studies have been described in the liter­
ature on the straightforward kinetic schemes of biomass decomposition.
Sharma et al., (2018) investigated the pyrolysis process in a fluidized
bed reactor using a multi-phase kinetic methodology. They predicted the
effect of gas velocity and biomass particle size on product yield and
presented experimental validations for the same [29]. The auto-thermal
pyrolysis of corn stover was simulated and studied using a developed
CFD-DEM model [30]. The predicted pyro yields were within 3.0 wt% of
the experimental yields, showing good agreement between simulation
and experiment data [31]. Another crucial factor that affects the product
distribution for the biomass pyrolysis process is the heating rate. The
constraints of heat and mass transport are lessened by a rapid heating
rate, which is favourable to bond-splitting reactions and increases the
primary release of volatiles [32]. When the final pyrolysis temperature is
below 500 ◦ C, the liquid yield dramatically increases with an increasing
heating rate and rapid quenching of vapours before further tar cracking
reactions. Given the conflicting responses between tar cracking and char
development, char production is thus limited under this circumstance.
However, the rate of heating has no discernible impact on gas yield. For
instance, when the pyrolysis temperature was 500 ◦ C, the liquid yield
increased from 37.5 to 41.5 wt% when the heating rate was increased
from 50◦ to 150◦ C/min [32].
Pyrolysis kinetics are greatly influenced by the variables in the heat
and mass transport models and product yields [17]. The interaction of
kinetic and transport processes, both at the particle and reactor scales,
needs to be thoroughly described to model the production of pyro yields
[33]. Debiagi et al., (2016) investigated a comprehensive, predictive
kinetic model of biomass pyrolysis, with particular attention to the
subsequent gas phase reactions of the pyrolysis product yields [34]. The
kinetics model receives its temperature profiles from the input of the
heat transfer model, and the model of mass transit should take into ac­
count the residence time of pyrolysis gases, the internal structure, grain
orientation, and the impact of particle size and packing [16,35,36].
An effective and efficient tool for modelling biomass pyrolysis re­
actors is the multi-scale method [37]. The multi-scale and multi-phase
CFD simulations for biomass pyrolysis utilize a combination of Euler­
ian and Lagrangian approaches. The gas phase is treated as a continuum
media, while the solid phase is modelled as a dispersed phase. The
governing equations of mass, momentum, and heat transfer are solved
for both the gas and solid phases. The governing equations can be rep­
resented using equations from 1 to 6.
2.1. Gas phase
Continuity equation:
∂ϵG ρG
+ ∇.(ϵG ρG V) = MG (1)
∂t
Momentum equation:
V.S. Dadi et al.
∂ϵG ρG V ∑ construct, enhance, or scale up fluidized bed reactors for the pyrolysis
+ ∇.(ϵG ρG VV) = ∇.τG + FGn + ϵG ρG g
∂t n
Energy equation:
(
∂TG
) biomass pyrolysis systems. This table is organized into columns detailing
ϵG ρG CpG + V.∇TG = ∇.QG + HG − ΔHRG
∂t
2.2. Solid phase
Continuity equation:
∂ϵs ρs
+ ∇.(ϵs ρs V s ) = Ms
∂t
Momentum equation:
∂ϵs ρs V s ∑
n
+ ∇.(ϵs ρs V s V s ) = ∇.τs + FGn − Fln + ϵs ρs g
∂t
l=1,l∕
=n
Energy equation:
( )
∂Ts
ϵs ρs Cps + V s .∇Ts = ∇.Qs + HG − ΔHR
∂t
The density, volume fraction, velocity, gravity, phase temperature,
specific heat capacity, second order stress tensor, interphase mass
transfer are denoted by ρ, ε, V, g, T, Cp, τ , M, respectively. The subscripts
of G and S denote the conditions for gas and the solid phase respectively.
FG represents the interaction force for momentum transfer between the
gas and the solid phase. QG represents the conductive heat flux in the
solid phase. HG represents the interphase heat transfer and HR accounts
for the heat if the reaction in the solid phase[38–41].
Besides this, the species conservation equation is written for each
chemical species in the reaction, considering the accumulation, con­
vection, and rate of reaction for both the gas and the solid phase. The
mass transfer terms are directly related to the reaction kinetics of
biomass pyrolysis. Thus, the equations are coupled, and the transport
and source terms are computed at each time step. This set of equations
demonstrates the complex nature of the biomass pyrolysis process and
the multiple physics involved in the numerical modeling of the complex
reaction.
3. CFD and heat transfer in conventional pyrolysis
CFD modeling has recently demonstrated its effectiveness as a potent
tool for assessing the reaction progress, composition, and yield of py­
rolysis products under various operating conditions [42–44]. The
Eulerian and Lagrangian techniques are fundamentally combined in the
multi-phase CFD simulation of pyrolysis. To date, the CFD method has
been recognized as a valuable resource for process optimization and
design, as well as for predicting the yields of end products [45]. Over the
last two decades, researchers have developed various reactor designs for
pyrolysis methods [46]. Main reactor designs include fixed bed reactors,
fluidized bed reactors, circulating fluidized bed reactors, entrained flow
reactors, and ablative reactors [47].
Fixed-bed reactors, fluidized bed reactors, and ablative reactors are
the most popular options for the pyrolysis process. However, each
reactor type has its own performance capabilities and significance.
Fluidized bed reactors provide greater fuel adjustability compared to
fixed-bed reactors and ablative reactors. They also offer high heat and
mass transport rates, as well as even temperature distribution [39].
Moreover, the dual fluidized bed setup, comprising a bubbling fluidized
bed reactor and a rapid fluidized bed reactor which is the standard
configuration is used for the auto-thermal pyrolysis process [48]. In the
rapid fluidized bed reactor with a heating source, biochar combustion
provides the necessary heat for the pyrolysis process in the bubbling
fluidized bed reactor. Biomass is pyrolyzed to produce biochar in a
bubble-fluidized bed reactor. However, it is notably challenging to
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
(2)
process due to complicated multi-phase reactive flows and unstable
functioning [49]. Table 1 offers a comprehensive summary of various
studies on the application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to
(3) information on authors, publication year, and reactor type used,
biomass feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, CFD model type, and the
primary findings of the study. Including 22 studies conducted over the
past two decades, the table provides a comprehensive overview of the
diverse modeling approaches for biomass pyrolysis using CFD. Covered
feedstocks range from wood and straw to corn stover and municipal
solid waste, with pyrolysis temperatures ranging from 400 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C.
(4) The applied CFD models in the studies include Eulerian, Lagrangian, or a
mix of both. Primary findings from these studies delve into reactor
design effects on pyrolysis, biomass particle size impact on pyrolysis
yield, and the necessity for accurate modeling of heat and mass transfer
(5)
within reactors. The table serves as a crucial resource for those inter­
ested in CFD applications to biomass pyrolysis, highlighting model ap­
proaches and summarizing key study findings, thus revealing the
demand for further advancements in accurate and efficient CFD
(6) modeling for biomass pyrolysis.
CFD models for pyrolysis feedstock variables in reactors are pre­
sented in Fig. 1. This figure offers a schematic illustration of various
reactor types used for biomass pyrolysis, alongside the corresponding
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models that simulate the pyrolysis
process. The figure is segmented into three sections, each representing a
reactor type: fixed bed, fluidized bed, and ablative. Each segment
showcases a reactor schematic along with the corresponding CFD model
employed for simulating the pyrolysis process. This illustration em­
phasizes the varied approaches for modeling biomass pyrolysis using
CFD and visually captures the complexity of pyrolysis within each
reactor. For the fixed bed reactor, the diagram depicts a vertical reactor
filled with biomass particles. The associated CFD model simulating the
pyrolysis process in fixed bed reactors employs a Lagrangian approach,
tracking individual biomass particle motions and solving mass, mo­
mentum, and energy conservation equations for each particle. Factors
like condensation, evaporation, devolatilization, and secondary volatile
cracking are considered. In the fluidized bed reactor segment, the dia­
gram presents a horizontal reactor containing a fluidized bed of biomass
particles. The corresponding CFD model, simulating the pyrolysis pro­
cess in fluidized bed reactors, adopts an Eulerian approach separately
solving mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations for both
gas and solid phases. This model addresses factors such as particle-to-
particle and gas-to-particle interactions, along with heat transfer be­
tween the two. The ablative reactor segment illustrates an entrained
flow reactor where biomass is entrained in a high-velocity gas stream
and heated by a flame. The affiliated CFD model for pyrolysis in ablative
reactors also employs an Eulerian approach, again solving mass, mo­
mentum, and energy conservation equations for both phases, and con­
siders aspects like condensation, evaporation, devolatilization, and
secondary volatile cracking.
3.1. Application of CFD in conventional pyrolysis
Utilization of fluidized bed reactors for biomass pyrolysis has been
widely explored both numerically and experimentally. The reactor
design and subsequent scale-up challenges consume a lot of time and
resources. Hence, mathematical models based on CFD are crucial tools
for providing insights about the process and easing the optimization of
the reactor setup according to the process conditions [65,66]. Addi­
tionally, the available research data confirms the effects of various
process parameters on product yields which includes feedstock particle
size, sphericity, temperature, heating rate, and various biomass feed­
stocks [67]. In the CFD simulation of reactors with fluidized beds for the
pyrolysis process, the process parameters, which could be considered as
the initial conditions, are typically included at the reactor scale [53].
3
V.S. Dadi et al. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163

Table 1
Pyrolysis of various feedstocks in reactors using CFD simulation tools.
S. Model type Pyrolysis Model equations Key findings References
No variables

1. Hybrid model Product yields For the solid and liquid phases, There is significant discrepancy in the magnitude of the product yields in [50]
Pyrolysis momentum, and energy equations the hybrid model simulations. While the model’ product yield patterns
Temperature are developed. match the experimental data
Reaction rate
2. 2-D Transient Singular biomass For the solid phases, momentum, and Studies into the development of different operating conditions over time [51]
model pellet energy equations are developed. for biomass samples
3. Distributed model Pyrolysis Energy equations for heat transfer Studies are conducted with a variety of operational parameters, including [52]
Temperature models feedstock mixture, particle size, temperature, and holding period. and
Heating rate developed models
Vapor residence
time
Particle size
4. Multi-fluid Particle Major transport equations Biomass particles are the subject of investigations. For the performance of [53]
Model shrinkage product yields, the model is employed
Product yields
Pyrolysis
Temperature
5. Mathematical Pyrolysis Equations for continuity, Unique user-defined functions that accounted for the thermal [54]
model Temperature momentum, energy, and species decomposition process of gases, tars, bio - char, and moisture from the
Heat flux movement are used. biomass were added into the modelling programme
Reactor walls.
Particle size
6. 1-D Transient Pyrolysis Energy equations for heat transfer A model was developed by integrating various heat transfer models for [55]
model Temperatures models fluidized bed conditions that were assessed in the literature
Fluidization
velocities
7. One-component Heat flux For the solid phases, momentum, and Investigations take place at various operational settings using feedstock [56]
models Reaction kinetics energy equations are developed.
Multi- component
models

8. 1-D Transient Thermal analysis. Equations for continuity, momentum, Investigations take place at various operational settings using feedstock [57]
model energy, and species movement are
used.
9. Multi- Feedstock For the solid and liquid phases, Feedstock includes waste from bamboo and polystyrene. These feedstocks in [58]
component Product yields momentum, and energy equations are the pyrolysis process are the subject of studies
models Pyrolysis developed.
Temperature
10. Multi- Pyrolysis Equations for continuity, momentum, It operated as a fluidized bed in the reactor. Studies on the drag coefficient are [59]
component Temperature and energy are used. conducted for many parameters
models Heating rate
Drag
11. Multi- Heat flux For the solid and liquid phases, The reactor is employed as a fluidized bed reactor with bubbling. There are [60]
component Heat conduction momentum, and energy equations are models created for heat penetration
models developed.
12. 2-D numerical Pyrolysis For the solid and liquid phases, To assess the impact of the heating rate, studies are carried out on different [61]
model Temperature momentum, and energy equations are operating parameter models
Heating rate developed.
Characteristics of
Heat transfer
13. One-component Pyrolysis Energy equations for heat transfer The relationship between volatility emission, retention time, and combustion [62]
models Temperature models in the pyrolysis unit can be studied using the established model
Heating rate
Heat flux
14. Multi- Feedstock For the solid and liquid phases, Using mathematical models, a fluidized bed reactor is a new structural design [63]
component Feed rate momentum, and energy equations are for rapid pyrolysis of the biomass
models Product yields developed.
Pyrolysis
Temperature
15. One-component Feedstock Equations for continuity, momentum, The constructed model could be employed to study along the paths taken by [64]
models Feed rate energy, and species movement are pyrolyzing particles, and it was discovere``d that the solid-phase transition
Feedstock used. species are crucial for assessing how well biomass components are breaking
compositions down
Product yields

The fluidized-bed reactor can be effective because it can attain high
feedstock particle heating rates, high heat transport, and high mass
transport between the feedstock particles. It also produces a selective
product with a relatively constant rate [68]. An additional notable
characteristic of this design of the reactor is also that char doesn’t quite
accumulate within the reactor bed but is instead elutriated with the
exhaust stream and may then be cleaned out, providing the reactor
perfect for continuous mode [69].
CFD simulations help in estimating the characteristics of chemical
changes and transport processes in plant-scale systems by means of
efficient modeling of the involved physics for fluid flow, heat transfer
and mass transfer [70]. A "CFD-based" highly scalable strategy should
lead to faster process improvement at a significantly lower cost when
using pilot-scale experiments [71]. The impact of fluid dynamics on the

4
V.S. Dadi et al.
Fig. 1. CFD models for the pyrolysis of feedstock in the different reactors.
performance of chemical reactors has been extensively studied using
CFD. In order to study complex flow systems with high accuracy, CFD
models for turbulent responsive flows in single-phase flows are now
widely used and well-recognized. It is currently capable of predicting the
fluid properties of a fluidized bed relatively effectively for multi-phase
flows [72].
A variety of compact models were developed to analyze the devo­
latilization of biomass in fluidized bed conditions using a combination of
Eulerain and Lagrangian approaches for computing the transport
equations [73]. Di Felice et al., (1999) investigated the pyrolysis process
for the devolatilization of a single feedstock particle in a fluidized bed
reactor. The bulk density of the particles was found to affect whether the
feedstock particle sink and as a response, the feedstock loading position
must be chosen accordingly [74]. Di Blasi (2000) suggested a simulation
for the decomposition of wood in a fluidized bed reactor that integrated
a particle model with an additional heat transfer model equation [75].
Pecha et al., (2018) studied pine wood pyrolysis in a fluidized bed
reactor by integrated particle and reactor-scale simulations. Multi-scale
modeling investigation of biomass fast pyrolysis in a reactor that inte­
grated hydrodynamic predictions from a two-fluid model with pre­
dictions from a simulation of mass and heat transfer and reactions within
biomass particles [76].
Papadikis et al., (2009) studied the fast pyrolysis of wood in fluidized
beds while adopting two Eulerian stages and one Lagrange stage in a
three-dimensional region [77]. In a bubbling fluidized bed, they exam­
ined the impact of sphericity and grain size of feedstock on biochar
entrainment, mass, momentum, and heat transmission, as well as the
effect of the size of particles on the coefficient of heat transfer [78]. The
structural design of the fluidized bed bubbling has also been handled
using CFD, allowing for improved reactor performance and fluidization
quality by minimizing stagnant bubbles [79]. A good match was found
for product yields when theoretical predictions and experimental find­
ings were compared. CFD simulation has been used to explore the hy­
drodynamics and heat transfers of the feedstock pyrolysis process in a
two-dimensional fluidized bed reactor [80]. A Euler-Euler CFD model
5
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
has been used to examine the impact of potassium on the feedstock
pyrolysis process in the fluidized bed reactor models [81]. The hydro­
dynamics and chemical processes of the fluidized bed feedstock fast
pyrolysis were modeled using CFD simulations based on Euler-Euler
multi-phase flow scheme, turbulent flow settings (K-ε model) and
Arrhenius kinetic reaction model [82]. For quick pyrolysis of feedstock
biomass, a multi-compartment fluidized bed reactor was developed. The
CFD was used to simulate the multiple flows of gas and solids in the
reactor [83]. The heat transfer coefficients had a lesser impact on the
temperature variation and yields of the final products in CFD models for
biomass pyrolysis in fluidized-bed reactors. These results suggest that
the impacts of sub-grid structures should be used while coarse-grid CFD
is used to simulate feedstock fast pyrolysis in fluidized-bed reactors [84].
The moving grid techniques in CFD can be used efficiently to model such
systems and hence, the applications in this area should be extended for
biomass pyrolysis reactor setups.
The design, improvement, and upgrading of the processes all benefit
from having a thorough understanding of the physiochemical mecha­
nisms underlying biomass decomposition within the reactors [85]. Since
better comprehension of both the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic
performance of the system is limited, the design of the method must
depend on empirical equations and experiments carried out in lab-scale
units [86]. However, with the fast development of cutting-edge CFD
techniques, thorough mathematical models for reaction, flow, heat and
mass transport for the process should enable the design and control of
the processes while limiting the requirement for cost and
time-consuming experiments conducted [87].
In order to simulate the pyrolysis process fixed bed reactor, a three-
dimensional model was evolved. The simulation model has taken into
account a variety of pyrolysis-related factors, including condensation,
evaporation, devolatilization, the secondary cracking of volatiles, and
the change in porosity. The model considered all three modes of heat
transfer: convection, radiation, and conduction [88]. Additionally, the
feedstock pyrolysis process in fixed bed reactors has been studied using
CFD [89]. As well as the impact of the generated polymer film on the
V.S. Dadi et al.
movement of gaseous products in the coal bed is usually the focus of
research. The specified fundamental laws often used to complete the
governing equations are directly related to the accuracy of CFD simu­
lation [90]. Therefore, before performing consistent CFD simulations,
the assessment of mathematical findings is required. Important funda­
mental equations for the CFD modeling of coal pyrolysis in fixed bed
reactor include conduction of heat and radiation of heat models, and
moisture phase separation model determined the best thermal perfor­
mance models suitable for coal decomposition fixed bed system after
rigorously evaluating the primary heat conduction and radiation models
typically used for packed bed reactors [91]. Lacking internal compo­
nents, a laboratory-scale fixed bed coal pyrolyzer’s heat transfer
behavior was modeled, and this allowed for a quantitative prediction of
temperature evolution of the coal load [88].
The process of ablative pyrolysis depends on heat transfer taking
place when a feedstock particle collides with and moves across a stable
heat source [92]. Ablative pyrolysis differs from all other pyrolysis re­
actors, in which the reaction rate is controlled by the heat transfer rate
through the feedstock particle. Particles collide with high temperature
source, as a result, the rate of heat and mass transfer is increased [93].
Shearing motion increases the surface area that can make contact with
the source of heat, further accelerating heat transfer. The ablative py­
rolysis reactor works on the premise of "scraping" a steady flow of
biomass particles on a hot wall, during situations of extreme relative
movement and great pressure gradient [94]. Furthermore studied in
ablative reactors is biomass speed pyrolysis using numerical and
experimental methods.
In order to develop new catalytic hydro treatment reactors before
they are fabricated and installed in an established pilot plant for the
valorization of plastic waste, CFD analysis has been used [95]. In­
vestigations have been made into the pyrolysis process of a thermal
strong solid wood particle. A novel technique has been developed for
considering the two stages inside the particle, gases, and solids, which
do not exist in thermodynamic equilibrium. To ascertain the distinct
temperatures of the solid and gas borders, CFD models were developed.
Moreover, since the single particle model is the core element of ablative
reactor simulations, the CFD model might be enhanced for fuel bed
applications so that the efficiency of the bed can be examined in three
dimensions [96]. Lam et al., (2012) suggest and assess a CFD model for
combined feedstock pyrolysis in a reactor. It is revealed that the sug­
gested CFD approach enables more even heating in the perpendicular
direction, encourages secondary reactions to decrease undesired tar
production from the pyrolysis process, expands the solid retention
duration, and minimizes the amount of char accumulation on the reactor
shells [97]. CFD simulation of the heat transfer and hydrodynamic
processes is presented to solve the flooding problems associated with
quenching columns. The immiscible Eulerian-Eulerian method is used to
evaluate the reactions between gas and liquid [98].
4. CFD and heat transfer in MAP
When microwaves come into contact with polar ions or molecules
such as water, two fundamental mechanisms i.e., ionic conduction and
dipole rotation cause fast heating [99]. Polar molecules realign with the
rapidly alternating electric field of the microwaves, which results in
interactions known as dipole rotations [100]. Due to dielectric loss and
molecular friction, energy is lost in the form of heat during this event.
Energy is irrevocably absorbed when a microwave-absorbing substance
is exposed to microwaves, which causes rapid "volumetric" heating
[101–103]. Therefore, microwave heating is considered as energy con­
version process at the material surface unlike conventional heating
[104]. This novel inverse heating phenomena method has numerous
advantages, including improved energy transfer effectiveness and faster
heating [105–107]. The heating impact is nearly quick, in contrast to
traditional heating techniques [108]. Additionally, it makes the heating
process easier to regulate and removes the possibility of the sample
6
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
surface scorching and perhaps degrading (while the interior section has
not yet been heated), making it a beneficial technique for process ap­
plications [109–111].
Based on the microwave absorbing ability of the materials, the
classification can be done as follows (1) transparent materials such as
glass, quartz and ceramics which microwaves pass through the materials
without any losses, (2) conducting materials such as bulk metals, where
microwaves are reflected from the surface of the materials without
penetrating into the material (3) absorbing materials, such as polar
molecules like water, and carbonaceous materials such as activated
carbon, graphite etc. where the microwaves are effectively converted to
heat [104]. The microwave absorbing ability and extent of microwave
heating of any particular material is characterized by loss tangent (tan
δ), as shown in Eq. 7.
ε′
tanδ = (7)
ε′
where the material’s dielectric constant demonstrates the ability to store
electromagnetic energy (EM), is ε’, and the dielectric loss factor is ε", the
capacity of the materials to convert the stored EM to heat). Materials can
generally be categorized as having high-heating ability (tan δ > 0.5),
medium heating ability (0.1–0.5), or poor microwave absorption prop­
erties (tan δ < 0.1) [112]. Low tan δ values don’t always preclude the use
of materials in microwave heating systems as long as high-intensity EM
are given.
The MAP technique offers many advantages over conventional py­
rolysis methods [85]. Some of the advantages include rapid and ho­
mogeneous heating of bulky feedstock, production of bio-oils of high
quality and stability [113] and instantaneous response for rapid start-up
and shut down [114]. Some researchers have suggested that the MAP
conversion pathway can be considered for the treatment of bulky
biomass feedstock [115]. Comparative studies have shown that MAP
yields more bio-oil as compared to conventional/ electrical furnace
pyrolysis due to the rapid heating effect of microwave irradiation [114,
116]. The MAP approach produces cleaner bio-oils as compared to
conventional pyrolysis. [117], discovered that bio-oils from the MAP of
sewage sludge lacked dangerous substances such strong polycyclic ar­
omatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which came from the same feedstock’s
conventional pyrolysis and were discovered in bio-oils. Bio-oils from
MAP have been shown to contain less oxygenated compounds, hence
their higher calorific value in comparison to bio-oils from conventional
pyrolysis [118].
There are numerous variables that could affect the products made by
MAP, such as the physicochemical characteristics of biomass feedstock
(moisture content, ash content, particle size, biomass type), reactor
environment and conditions (reaction time, reaction temperature, mi­
crowave output power, microwave absorbent, catalysis, mixing in­
tensity, type and flow rate of carrier gas) and design and configuration of
the reactor (microwave mode and size)[106,119–121]. At temperatures
higher than optimum values the bio-oil yield is reduced, and the pro­
duction of non-condensable gases is increased. Generally, heat transfer
in the MAP process is greatly improved with a decrease in biomass
particle size. Small particles offer a large surface area which facilitates
efficient heat transfer during the pyrolysis process [122,123].
The dielectric characteristics of a substance affect its capacity to take
in, hold, and convert microwave energy into heat energy. Most biomass
feedstock are poor microwave absorbers and require the aid of micro­
wave absorbents to initiate the pyrolysis process. The absorbent and the
biomass feed stock must be mixed at optimized ratios to maximize bio-
oil yield. The yield of bio-oil typically increases as microwave power
increases because increasing microwave power causes the power density
to grow [124,125]. Bio-oil yield from the MAP process is also affected by
the type of the parent biomass feed stock. Lignocellulosic biomass with a
high cellulose and hemicellulose content has been reported to yield
more bio-oil [126]. On the other hand, biomass with high ash content
V.S. Dadi et al.
yields less bio-oil because the ash components cannot be converted into
bio-oil. Global energy consumption is rising, and concerns about climate
change increasing day by day. The renewable energies like solar, wind,
and geothermal would be more attractive. On the other side, fast py­
rolysis of biomass has the distinct advantage to produce chemicals
[127].
A number of studies elucidate on energy efficiency as a benefit of
microwave heating. Interestingly, no matter whether traditional heating
methods or microwaves are employed to heat a particular volume of
biomass, the energy input required will be the same [128]. The benefits
of microwave heating are in the volumetric and selective heating phe­
nomena than the energy efficiency. Selective heating is observed in a
heterogeneous material, containing various materials or material phases
with varying loss tangent values. In pyrolysis of biomass, thermal gra­
dients within the biomass result from components with higher loss
tangent values reaching higher temperatures than those with lower loss
tangent values. These inequalities in the properties may change the
decomposition route and subsequent product chemistry.
Additionally, biomass can be heated directly in a low-temperature
environment via selective heating without using hot non-reactive
gases or hot surfaces. Another point is that microwave heating phe­
nomenon induces volumetric heating. The volumetric heating mecha­
nism makes it possible to overcome the restrictions of conventional heat
transfer, leading to significantly greater heating rates, minimum pro­
cessing equipment, and the capacity to handle bigger particle sizes
[129]. Volumetric heating can be advantageous for the entire process
system since it can significantly simplify the flow sheet and decrease the
need for equipment with large overall sizes, and feedstock size reduc­
tion. While microwave heating facilitates the opportunities to lower the
capital cost of the processing equipment and the possibility to make
products that are not possible with conventional methods, the energy
requirements are equivalent to those of traditional processes.
4.1. Microwave cavity design using CFD Software
Most of the literature used the residential microwave ovens modified
to accommodate the quartz/borosilicate flasks to hold biomass (and
other reactants). In contrast, experiments are typically carried out in
closed and commercial reactors which can handle high-pressure build-
up and moderately low reaction temperatures. Examples of the latter are
the Discover from CEM Corporation, and the Anton Paar Monowave 300
microwave [130]. However, the relatively low-intensity electric field
and lack of reflected power measurements are two of the critical
drawbacks of such devices (as well as a drawback of residential micro­
wave ovens). As a result, energy balances stated for such equipment
must be read cautiously because it is impossible to know how much
energy the sample absorbed. In general. the power dissipated (P) in the
material during microwave heating is a function of several factors,
including the frequency and intensity of the electromagnetic waves, the
dielectric properties of the material, and the geometry of the heating
system is shown in Eq. 8.
P = 2πf ε0 ε" |E| (8)
Where P = volume energy density measured in W/m3, f = operating
frequency measured in Hertz ε0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.85 × 10− 12 F/m, ε” = dielectric loss factor, and |E| is the magni­
tude of the applied electric field. In the biomass pyrolysis, mixture of the
microwave absorbent (susceptors) and transparent materials (biomass)
is generally subjected to microwave heating. Therefore, selective heat­
ing is more predominant in the above system. However, conventional
heat transmission also happens at the same time. Low or non-existent
temperature gradients inside the biomass might result from traditional
heat transfer, comparable to conventional heating if the power density is
low. Volumetric heating outperforms traditional heat transfer at high
power densities, resulting in significant thermal gradients and giving
7
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
microwave heating the capacity to heat the feedstock at higher heating
rates. Microwaves can be easily absorbed by biomass because it typically
contains moisture (water). However, as temperatures rise and the water
is removed, the transparency of the biomass to microwaves increases
[131]. Since ordinary microwave ovens cannot achieve high tempera­
tures with this equipment, researchers have used microwave susceptors.
Because susceptors heat biomass through conventional heat transfers
rather than high-intensity electric fields, there are no thermal gradients
inside the biomass when susceptors are used. In this scenario, it is crucial
to use a vigorous electric field intensity to promote additional biomass
decomposition following the initial water loss.
4.2. CFD simulation in MAP of biomass
To characterize the heat and mass transport during the microwave
processing of biomass pellets, a CFD model can be developed based on
the finite volume method and ANSYS CFX software can be used to
evaluate the heating behaviour of biomass materials under the micro­
wave pyrolysis process. The current review outlines a modelling strategy
for including the foundations of MAP into the general transport equa­
tions for nitrogen and volatiles in the gas phase and wood and biochar in
the solid phase. These source terms include mass, momentum, heat, and
species. The model considers the intricate interactions between several
crucial process components, such as gas phase movement, phase shift,
microwave heating, and pyrolysis kinetics. The developed CFD model
can be utilized in both the torrefaction process and the gasification
process with very little modification. Torrefaction, pyrolysis, gasifica­
tions are the key steps in combustion process. Understanding the
fundamental kinetics of these steps are very vital to control the com­
bustion system. The basic step in gasification is pyrolysis, and the ki­
netics of gasification is slightly different from that of pyrolysis.
Torrefaction occurs at lower temperatures using the same mechanism.
This demonstrates the model’s generalizability. The heat and mass
transfer phenomena occurring in MAP is shown in Fig. 2. Microwaves
falls on the susceptor particles, the plasma is created over the surface
which causes high temperature rise. The surrounding biomass particles
received the heat from conduction and radiation mode from the sus­
ceptor particles. Heat generation happens in the susceptor particles, and
heat transfer would happen simultaneously to the surrounding biomass
particles. Biomass has low thermal conductivity and hence it is difficult
to maintain uniform temperature within the biomass particle. Biomass
initially loses its internal moisture and subsequently volatile matter
liberation would occur. Most importantly, the char formation would
happen within the biomass particles. The released volatiles would be
collected as condensable liquid and non-condensable gases. The
remaining char fraction would act as susceptor and further enhances the
heat generation. The carbon content increases with the increase of char
yield and the char becomes more porous due to the removal of volatiles.
The uniform temperature distribution can be achieved with the char
particles due to volumetric heating mechanism.
A CFD simulation model considers biomass as a porous material for
the thermo-fluid phenomena that occur during microwave processing.
The model combines fluid flow, multicomponent analysis, microwave
heating, and material mixing properties. The energy from the micro­
wave source is absorbed in this study’s biomass pyrolysis process, and
thermal heat is transferred by conduction and convection [28]. Experi­
mental tests in specially made microwave pyrolysis equipment serve to
validate the produced CFD model. Throughout the process, the model
predicts the maximum temperature, temperature rates, and temperature
profiles. The results from simulations and experiments are found to be in
excellent agreement. It was reported that the microwave absorbed
power, which is a function of the characteristics of the biomass mixture
and the released volatile throughout the process, affect the biomass
temperature [132,133]. The findings also showed that increase of the
microwave power raises the reaction temperature attained within the
feed mixture.
V.S. Dadi et al.
Fig. 2. Heat and mass transfer phenomena in MAP.
In the available literature, not many modelling studies are reported
on microwave heated pyrolysis reactors. For instance, the Euler-Euler
method for bed hydrodynamics was used in CFD simulations of micro­
wave heating of lignite in a fluidized bed [134]. Instead of figuring out
the solutions to Maxwell’s or Helmholtz’s equations, a straightforward
expression for the microwave power absorbed was utilized. The
expression used to calculate the microwave power absorbed by the
biomass samples is shown in Eq. 9.
ωε0 ε′ |E|2
Pab = (9)
2 When temperature raises within the sample, then the microwave
Pab is the absorbed power, is the absorbed power, ω is the angular
frequency, ε0 is the permittivity of free space, ε’’ is the imaginary part of
the permittivity of the sample, and E is the electric field strength. This
expression was included in the CFD simulation as a source term in the
energy equation. The energy equation was solved using the finite
element method (FEM) in the COMSOL Multiphysics software. The
absorbed power was calculated at each time step using the correct
expression and then added to the energy equation as a volumetric heat
source term. This allowed the absorbed microwave power to be
accounted for in the energy balance of the system and the temperature
distribution of the biomass samples to be calculated.
A microwave oven’s cavity was simulated to explore the heating of
wood, sugar cane bagasse, orange peel, and palm oil. The samples were
spheres with three different volumes and cylinders with three different
heights. By selecting an appropriate input power, it was possible to
analyze the scenarios to obtain high temperatures with uniform distri­
bution and little energy use. The critical power at which heat generated
in the penetration depth can no longer be transported to the low-
temperature areas within the sample has been identified. In reality, if
the input power is decreased and the sample heating time is prolonged,
the heat produced in the penetration depth is transferred by conduction
to the areas with lower temperatures, causing temperature homogeneity
in the biomass. On the other hand, if the phase transition temperature is
reached to a threshold temperature, hot spots develop, the temperature
rises more quickly than is necessary to promote heat conduction to the
8
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
sample’s interior appropriately, and the heat produced essentially re­
mains within the penetration depth. Palm oil, orange peel, and sugar
cane bagasse all showed critical points at 10 s for 80 W of power [135].
CFD and heat transfer related to MAP is compiled in Table 2. It com­
prises of 9 research works to understand the heat generation, transfer,
and distribution. ANSYS, COMSOL, MATLAB and finite element ap­
proaches were used to understand the system. Heating source position
and purge gas flow rates did not influence on the heat distribution and
temperature profiles. High microwave power leads to faster raise in
temperature and maximum temperature can be achieved in less time.
absorbing capacity is reduced significantly. Carbon based materials
found to be better suscepting materials to convert the incident micro­
wave energy into thermal energy. Mostly importantly the amorphous
carbon materials have high microwave energy conversion efficiency
than the crystalline materials.
5. CFD and heat transfer in solar-assisted pyrolysis (SAP)
Carbon-based feedstocks with concentrated solar energy are com­
bined in two solar thermochemical processes that convert sunlight into
chemical fuels [143]. Solar gasification is the first process in making
syngas, this has undergone examination during the past 20 years [144].
Solar-assisted pyrolysis (SAP) is the second method, which is used to
produce bio-oil, charcoal, and gas, which entered the research field in
the last 40 years and has recently attracted fresh interest [145]. Fast/­
flash pyrolysis occurs because of direct absorption of concentrated solar
heat by the biomass in a solar reactor with direct heating. Using SAP
(high temperatures and fast heating rates), more gas products are
frequently produced by solar pyrolysis. Pyrolysis has the substantial
benefit of creating greater heating value gas products when compared to
the gasification process [146]. These gas products, which mostly consist
of CH4,C2H6, H2,CO2 and CO [147] can then be used as fuel gas for
creating electricity, heating, and transportable fuels. However, pyrolysis
is a globally endothermic process that needs heat, which is often
delivered by the combustion of any fossil fuel in traditional procedures
V.S. Dadi et al. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

CFD simulation in the MAP of biomass. Aim of the Work Modeling/ Outcomes Ref.
Aim of the Work Modeling/ Outcomes Ref. Simulation tool
Simulation tool
an increase with time
To predict the ANSYS CFX Heating source [136] and the exit of the
temperature (13.0) orientation and N2 flow products from the top
distribution of the rate did not affect the and lateral surfaces.
empty fruit bunch (EFB) EFB temperature To model and simulate the Mathematical For variable input [142]
in MAP profiles. WHereas, effects of the input model solved in power (250–1500 W),
microwave power power and tar cracking MATLAB primary decomposition
intensity has a linear on the MAP of wood paths influenced the
relationship with the blocks product spectrum. The
EFB temperature increase in the reaction
To illustrate the mass and ANSYS CFX Increase in microwave [28] temperature causes a
transfer in the MAP (14.0) power increases the reduction in char yields
maximum pyrolysis during pyrolsyis.
temperature. The
amount of absorbed
power by the material [145]. Utilizing focused solar radiation as the process energy source will
decreases significantly help overcome this limitation, it improves energy conversion effective­
at high temperatures.
ness while lowering pollution output [148]. Pellet-scale modelling of
To model the selective ANSYS CFX Embedding of carbon [137]
MAP of biomass (13.0) materials helped to thermochemical reactions (local scale) can be a very helpful tool for
provide a more efficient gaining a thorough grasp of how chemical and physical events interact
heat transfer within the when solids are consumed, and of the effect of variables such as biomass
biomass compared to composition, heating rate, temperature, and particle size [149]. Accu­
non-embedded
samples. Char doping
rate pyrolysis modelling represents an extremely complicated and
resulted in a better heat challenging task [150], not only because there are still some questions
transfer than graphite concerning transcendental aspects of pyrolysis, but also because the
doping. chemical and physical phenomena as well as the parameters have a
To understand the effects COMSOL The double-fed [26]
significant impact on the pyrolysis process [151].
of the waveguide Multiphysics microwave gave
position (bottom-fed vs maximum temperature
side-fed) on the for the same time, 5.1. Background of SAP
electromagnetic field followed by the single
and heat distribution bottom-fed reactor.
profile within the Having more than two SAP is a process in which the pyrolysis of the materials is done by
biomass sample during waveguides neither using the power obtained from the solar energy instead of the power that
MAP improve the electric is generated from non-renewable energy resources. SAP reactors are
field distribution nor powered by solar energy to achieve pyrolysis conditions. SAP systems
increase the maximum
temperature
correspond to higher overall net energy efficiency, produce less emis­
To study the temperature COMSOL A non-uniform [138] sion, and require wider operating temperature ranges compared to the
distribution during the multiphysics 4.4. temperature traditional pyrolysis. It also has an advantage of short start and shut
microwave heating of distribution was down times [152]. However, the SAP can only be employed at specific
biomass samples obtained by microwave
locations at with the intensity of sunshine is suited. SAP systems cannot
heating. The extent of
non-uniformity be operated all the time and their usage is restricted to the periods where
depends on the heat the sunlight of desired intensity is available [153].
conductivity and Solar concentrator is one of the major components of a SAP setup.
capacity Solar concentrators are useful to concentrate the solar irradiation and
Modelling and simulation Numerical finite Microwave power [139]
of heating rate and element method density and optimal
make it available for the pyrolysis of biomass. The major types of solar
temperature loading radius was concentrators are parabolic dishes and troughs, linear Fresnel lenses and
homogeneity of during calculated. The optimal reflectors, box type Fresnel lens, flat plates and compound parabolic
MAP of biomass bulk density was 370 concentrators [154]. A review on each if these concentrators, achievable
± 5 kg/m3 for suitable
ranges of temperatures, advantages and disadvantages are reviewed
heating rate and
thermal uniformity for elsewhere [155]. SAP reactors are classified as direct and indirect sys­
H2 production from tems depending on the solar energy interactions with the biomass [154].
biomass was evaluated. In the direct heated reactors, the biomass in a transparent container is
To understand the COMSOL A temperature of [140] irradiated with the concentrated solar radiation. Hence it is essential to
coupling effect of Multiphysics 475 ◦ C was found to be
electromagnetic heating optimum temperature
keep the container walls clean for the efficient utilization of the irradi­
on heat and mass for the maximum ation. In the indirect reactors, the heat from the concentrator is to
transfer in MAP biochar yield. Rate of absorbed by the reactor and finally, that is transferred to the biomass via
reactuib varies with the conduction [156].
temperature for
SAP is powered by concentrated solar energy; however, it runs under
different power
densities. inert conditions like any other conventional pyrolysis process to prevent
MAP of Kraft lignin with COMSOL The input of the [141] oxidation [157]. Biomass pyrolysis is an endothermic technique for
lumped kinetic model Multiphysics biomass sample decomposing biomass in an inert atmosphere where the necessary heat
significanalty alters the is produced by concentrated solar radiation [158]. The advantage of
electric field profile and
its maximum value.
using solar radiation directly to induce pyrolysis over more conventional
Liquid yield illustrates techniques is that there is no need to use electrical energy to heat the
system to the pyrolytic temperature [159]. Yet another classification of
solar pyrolysis reactor was also proposed depending on the source of

9
V.S. Dadi et al. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163

light used for the pyrolysis. The systems that use natural solar irradiation
and the systems which artificial light to produce the heat required for
pyrolysis [160]. The solar simulators are systems that utilize an artificial
source of light. Early reviews on the biomass pyrolysis have predicted
that the operating cost of the pyrolysis reactors to decrease with the
integration of solar energy [161]. A review on the production of biofuels
from the solar pyrolysis of the biomass was conducted [162]. Potential
feedstocks, the possible products and the desirable characteristics of the
products were discussed.
5.2. Recent studies on SAP
In a recent review, a potential feedstock for solar pyrolysis with a
focus on the production of biochar was provided. A brief on the potential
benefits of biochar as a soil supplement was provided. A comparison
between traditional and SAP systems, their advantages and disadvan­
tages were discussed. Different solar concentrators, materials used for
the concentrators, achievable operating temperatures and their suit­
ability for the fast/slow pyrolysis were explained. The ways to reduce
the heat losses by appropriate insulation material, need for tracking of
the weather conditions for the optimal operation, scaling up of the solar
pyrolysis setups, need for advanced models for the SAP setups were

Table 3
Solar-assisted pyrolysis of different feedstocks and operating conditions.
S. Feed stock Type of solar Operating conditions Focus product Focus/outcome Reference
No. Concentrator/ reactor

1. Corn stalk Parabolic dish solar 5500C, 10 min NR Torrefication lead to the decrease in oil [212]
pyrolysis reactor production and increase in gaseous and
char production
2. Water hyacinth Parabolic dish solar 4400C NR Bio-oils obtained after torrefication are [213]
pyrolysis reactor less corrosive
3. Waste straw, Fixed bed reactor with 8000C, 5 ◦ C/min heating rate Char Production of biochar as an adsorbent for [214]
sewage sludge xenon lamp- Simulated zinc using solar pyrolysis
(Artificial light)
4. Waste tire Simulated (Artificial light) 8000C, heating rates: 100C Gas To reduce the sulphur content in the [215]
solar pyrolysis setup /min and 400C/ min pyrolysis gases from waste tires by
addition of CaO in the feedstock
5. Wood chips Parabolic trough collector Optimal conditions: Particle Bio-oil Optimize and maximise the biofuel [216]
diameter 8 mm and the solar production
irradiance of 918 W/m2
6. Willow wood Solar simulator with Heat flux density: Gas To propose a mechanism for the release of [217]
Xenon lamp 0.5–1.1 MW/m2 volatile matter in solar pyrolysis and the
proposal of new dimensionless number
7. LDPE Solar simulator Heat flux density: Jet fuel and hydrogen Photothermal catalysts to produce jet fuel [218]
0.2–1.5 MW/m2 and hydrogen
8 Algae Direct sunlight, parabolic Irradiation: 750 W/m2. Bio-oil Catalyst reuse in solar pyrolysis [180]
solar collector Reaction temperature 500 ◦ C
9 Waste wood, Solar simulator 1.6 kW Heating rates at 100% power, Char Chars have potential to be used as [184]
waste straw, and radiation heating rates range: ~ 5 ◦ C/ renewable solid fuels and the char from the
sewage sludge min waste wood has highest surface area
10 Algae Dish, quartz reactor 750–800 W/m2, Temperature: Bio-oil, hydrogen Integration of hydropyrolsysis and [179]
500 ◦ C hydrotalcites oxides as catalysts
11 Chicken litter, rice Flat heliostat, parabolic Max power: 1.5 KW, Highest bio-oil yield was Solar pyrolysis of chicken litter and rice [219]
husk mirror Irradiation: 12000 MW/m2 obtained for chicken husk
Particle size: 10 mm litter at 12000C (53 wt
Heating rate: %)
10–50 ◦ C/s
12 MSW Fresnel reflector, slow 200–500 ◦ C NA Solar pyrolysis of MSW in Victoria state of [220]
pyrolysis Australia
13 Miro algae Parabolic mirror Irradiation: 70–800 W/m2, Bio-oil Effect of algae composition and operating [221]
concentrator and quartz Temperature: 500 ◦ C parameters
reactor
14 Peanut shell, Soya For drying and Temperature: 500 ◦ C Biooil Less acidic contents in Bio-oil with pre- [169]
Straw, Pine wood torrefication: Parabolic treatment steps
trough
For Pyrolysis: Parabolic
dish
15 Plastic waste NR Temperature: 500 ◦ C NR Feasibility of grid integrated solar [192]
pyrolysis
16 Cotton stalk NR NR Gas Molten salt mixture with feed stock [222]
enhanced gas production
17 Lignite NR NR Gas Molten salt mixture with feed stock [223]
enhanced gas production
18 Bagasse Heliostat reflector, Temperature: 500–900 ◦ C Char Char production is unaffected but [224]
Parabolic solar structure and surface area varied with
concentrator increase in temperature
19 Pinewood Solar simulator, Quartz Maximum capacity: 5 kW Biooil NR [157]
reactor
20 Rubber tires NR Solar irradiation: Gas TiO2 as photocatalyst to enhance the gas [225]
950–1050 W/m2 production
Temperature: 550—570 ◦ C
21 Algae, wheat Solar simulator Max. Flux. 7 kW Gas NR [226]
straw, sewage
sludge

10
V.S. Dadi et al.
reported as the major technological challenges that are needed to be
addressed. It was reported that the pilot scale techno-economic analysis
of a solar pyrolysis systems was yet to be performed. Finally, a list of
potential feedstocks for the production of biochar from the solar py­
rolysis for the soil supplements applications was provided with their
characteristics. The potential feedstocks identified were segregated as
livestock wastes and Municipal wastes. Cattle, sheep, goat, poultry and
pig manures were highlighted in the feedstock based on the livestock
wastes. Food, paper, plastic, textile, wood and tire wastes were identi­
fied as potential municipal waste-based feedstocks. Several ways to in­
crease the efficiencies of SAP systems were highlighted such as
adjustment of flowrate of feedstock based on the quantum of solar
irradiation, incorporating real-time monitoring of the solar radiation,
development of mathematical models for the identification of optimal
operating parameters, need of the establishment of pilot plant solar
pyrolysis systems to gain better understanding of processes were re­
ported as potential future works in solar pyrolysis [154]. Table 3 consists
of compiled studies on SAP.
In another review on the pyrolysis of plastic wastes, it was reported
that installing a solar pyrolysis setup will increase the total capital in­
vestment by 20% and decrease the return on investment by 11%
compared to the traditional pyrolysis reactors [163]. A techno-economic
analysis on the solar assisted bio refineries was conducted by the pro­
duction of dimethyl ether (DME) by using concentrated solar power
(CSP) systems. Six studies were conducted with and without integration
of solar power with the normal pyrolysis reactors. It was identified that
the conversions of the biomass in the SAP systems were high, however,
have lower efficiency compared to those without solar power assistance
[164]. Socio-economic impacts of the biochar production facilities from
the solar pyrolysis considering the availability of solar irradiation,
feedstock (corn stover) was reported. A framework to assess the social,
economic and environmental burdens of char production using solar
pyrolysis was developed [165].
Corn stalks were torrefied by solar energy, followed by catalytic solar
pyrolysis using HZSM catalyst. The torrefaction temperatures varied
from 200 to 300 ◦ C and the pyrolysis was carried out at 500 ◦ C. A
parabolic dish solar pyrolysis reactor was used to perform the pyrolysis.
The torrefaction pre-treatment has increased the production of gases and
char while decreasing the biofuel production as opposed to raw corn
stalks and non-catalytic pyrolysis. Torrefaction pre-treatment has
removed all the volatiles that are major components for biofuel pro­
duction, leading to low-oil production [166]. A similar study was re­
ported using solar energy for torrefaction followed by the solar pyrolysis
with water hyacinth as feed stock. Torrefaction temperature was varied
in between 200 and 300 ◦ C in multiples of 50. The pyrolysis temperature
was maintained to be 440 ◦ C. A result similar to the previous study was
observed. Char production was increased, and the torrefaction has
resulted in decrease of bio oil-production. However, the bio-oils ob­
tained after torrefaction pre-treatment are less corrosive than the
bio-oils that were obtained from raw feedstock which is not torrefied
[167].
The use of solar pyrolysis reactors for the development of aviation
fuels were investigated in the recent review. Jatropha [168], peanut
shell, soybean straw and pinewood etc. were reported in the literature
[169]. The major components of the bio-oil produced via solar pyrolysis
are diesel/ mixtures of gasoline and diesel [170]. Pyrolysis of waste
straw and sewage sludge using the fixed bed pyrolysis reactor equipped
with a Xenon lamp. Light intensity of the source is set in such a way that
the average heating rate is 5 ◦ C/min, with the pyrolysis temperatures
above 800 ◦ C. The focus of the work was to compare and investigate the
properties of char from the solar and conventional pyrolysis for the
removal of Zn2+ ions from aqueous solutions. It was identified that solar
pyrolysis has an effect in making the char production kinetics simple as
opposed to traditional pyrolysis [171].
Waste tires were solar pyrolyzed in a solar pyrolysis simulator with
an objective to limit the sulphur content in the pyrolysis gases by adding
11
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
CaO to the feedstock mixture. Heating rates of 10 and 40 ◦ C per minute
were used and the pyrolysis was carried out at 800 ◦ C. It was observed
that the addition of CaO has resulted in reduction of CO2 emissions in
gas and the sulphur fixation has happened in the char of the pyrolysis
[172]. Optimization studies to enhance the biooil production via solar
pyrolysis of the wood chips was conducted in a parabolic trough col­
lector. The effect of biomass volumetric flowrate, particle size of
biomass and the solar irradiation were experimented using the response
surface methodology. The biomass flowrate of (0.0053 m3/h), solar
irradiance (918 W/m2) and particle size of feedstock (8 mm) were re­
ported to be optimal conditions that maximized the bio-oil production
[173]. The same group studied other biomasses such as plastics using
Hybrid wind and solar pyrolysis [174] and solar pyrolysis [175].
A mechanism to explain evolution of volatile matter during solar
pyrolysis of willow wood was proposed. Willow seed of large thickness
hindered bio-oil production with an increase in gas yield at different
heat fluxes. A new dimensionless number to understand the solar py­
rolysis behaviour of the wood pellets [176]. Low density polyethylene
was solar pyrolyzed in a fixed bed solar pyrolysis reacted heated by a
solar simulator at 500 ◦ C. The focus was to study the effect of various
catalysts on the production of hydrogen and jet fuel. The catalysts
employed are photo catalysts that helps in the conversion of the biooil
from the pyrolysis to high value chemicals. LDPE used a powder of 50
mesh and the solar simulator that can provide up to 4 kW power was
employed. Solar flux density is varied in the range of 0.2–1.5 MW/m2
[177].
The feasibility studies of utilizing the steam as a potential heat source
to pyrolyze the sewage sludge was explored. The steam generation was
achieved through the solar parabolic trough concentrator. The focus was
to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions resulting from the use of fossil
fuels for wastewater treatment by using the solar assisted pyrolysis of
sewage sludge with steam as a pyrolysis medium [178]. Pyrolysis and
hydro pyrolysis of Chalamydomonas reinhardtii was performed using
solar pyrolysis with hydrotalcite precursor mixed with oxides as cata­
lysts. A parabolic solar concentrator was used with a quartz reactor the
focal point of concentrator. Ex-situ catalytic pyrolysis setup was used to
upgrade the bio-oil. Solar radiation range used in the study are
750–800 W/m2, with a reaction temperature of 500 ◦ C. The optimal
operating conditions yielded highest oil production in solar catalytic
pyrolysis. Biooil from the hydro pyrolysis experiment has shown less
oxygen content as expected. Hydrotalcite and hydrogen injection aided
in minimizing the undesirable properties of bio-oil [179].
Optimization studies to efficiently reuse the catalyst for the pro­
duction of bio-oils from the micro-algae using solar pyrolysis were re­
ported. A parabolic solar dish collector was used and the studies were
conducted at irradiation of 750 W/m2. The reaction temperature was
500 ◦ C. Central composite design method was used to find the optimal
conditions of loafing of biomass, feedstock to catalyst ratio and reaction
time for the high yields of bio-oil [180]. Another study was conducted by
the same group which was aimed at comparing the bio-oil yields from
the two micro algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtti and Spirulina plantensis
using the solar pyrolysis. The bio-oil yields at optimal operating condi­
tions were 21.3 wt% and 42.5 wt% for Spirulina plantesis and Chalamy­
domonus reinhardtii respectively [181]. The same group have
investigated the production of useful products from Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii by using solar pyrolysis [182].
Algal weeds were solar pyrolyzed and the effects of operating con­
ditions on the product distribution were explored. Temperature
(250–600 ◦ C, heating rate (20–100 ◦ C/min), feed particle size (<
0.5–2.5 mm), and sweeping gas flowrates (3–15 LPM) are the parame­
ters varied to understand their effect on the products of solar pyrolysis.
The optimal bio-oil yield (38.1 wt%) was obtained at a heating rate of
20 ◦ C/min, 400 ◦ C temperature, < 0.52 mm particle size and the
sweeping gas flowrate of 9 LPM [183]. Solar pyrolysis reactors were
utilized to explore the slow pyrolysis of wood waste (WW), Wheat straw
(WS) and sewage sludge (SS). A xenon lamp of 1.6 kW power was used
V.S. Dadi et al.
to obtain the desired temperature for pyrolysis. The heating time is in
the range of 160–190 min was used and the feedstock temperatures
were maintained not to exceed 800 ◦ C. The chars produced were re­
ported to have high heating values (HHV) and can be used as solid fuels.
It was also reported that the higher final solar pyrolysis temperatures
favour the higher gas production rates[184]. Kinetic modeling studies
were also conducted for the system developed in their previous study
[160]. Kinetic modeling for the pyrolysis of wood in solar pyrolysis
reactor was performed in another study [185]. The reaction parameters
of 10 independent reactions of the solar pyrolysis model were estimated
using the experimental data by posing a least squares optimization
problem for the sewage sludge [186].
A directly irradiated auto-thermal fluidized bed reactor for solar
thermal applications was proposed. The proposed fluidized bed reactor
can be a good reactor system for the pyrolysis applications. The
uniqueness was its operability is close to an auto-thermal reactor and the
thermal efficiency of 70% was reported [187]. Solar driven pyrolysis
technologies for the conversion of waste to fuel in the perspective of the
Victoria state of Australia was reviewed. This review also analyzed and
provided information on different types of solar concentrators, feeding
mechanisms, reactors that are useful for the solar pyrolysis of biomass
[188].
Three different biomasses-Soyabean straw (SS), peanut shell (PS),
and pine wood (PW) were pretreated with aqueous phase bio-oil, dried
and torrified using the solar energy before they were solar pyrolyzed. A
parabolic trough solar collector was used for the drying and torrefication
whereas parabolic dish solar receiver was used for pyrolysis. Quartz tube
was used as a reactor. Pyrolysis temperatures of 550 ◦ C were main­
tained. It was observed that the bio-oil obtained has a lower relative
content of acids compared to raw biomasses [169]. Solar assisted py­
rolysis of chicken litter and rice husk was performed to generate useful
products from the animal waste and agricultural residues. Two particle
sizes (280 and 500 µm) of each feed stock were solar pyrolyzed to pro­
duce high calorific value gases. Heating rates are varied in the range of
10–50 ◦ C/s and temperatures in the range of 800–1600 ◦ C were used.
With the increase in temperature, the gas yield was increased, and the
bio-oil and char yields were decreased [189]. In a similar study, the
same group has reported the solar pyrolysis of chicken litter to produce
bio-oil. The obtained bio-oil was treated with CaO and char to deoxy­
genate the bio-oil. The changes in the deoxygenation levels of the
bio-oils were examined by varying the CaO loading. With increase in the
CaO loading, the CO2 composition in the gaseous products decreased.
The maximum CO2 decomposition was obtained at 800 ◦ C. The use of
char did not deoxygenate the biooil [190].
Economic analysis was conducted for a solar pyrolysis system and
compared with the traditional electrically heated pyrolysis system. The
SAP system was reported to have the best economic viability of the two.
The carbon emissions from a solar pyrolysis plant were only 38%
compared to the traditional pyrolysis setup. [191]. The feasibility of
production of bio-oil from a grid tied solar assisted pyrolysis of Plastic
waste was investigated. Plastic particles of 3–4 mm diameter were used.
A small-scale laboratory reactor operating at 500 ◦ C was used. It was
reported that the grid tied solar pyrolysis setup was economically
feasible and generates low greenhouse gases [192].
Cotton stalk in molten salt was pyrolyzed for biochar production
using solar energy. Molten salt was used as a mixture in the feedstock at
different ratios and its effect on the product distribution of solar pyrol­
ysis was studied. With the increase in molten salt to feedstock ratio in the
feedstock, the gas component has increased with a decrease in both oil
and char components in the product. The aromatics contents in the bio-
oil were increased while there was a significant decrease in the acids and
phenols energy [193]. The same group has also investigated the effect of
molten salts and the temperature on the solar pyrolysis of lignite. Like
the results of the previous study, the increase in the ratio of molten salt
to feedstock has increased the gas component yield in the products of
solar pyrolysis [194]. Bagasse feedstock was used to produce biochar
12
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
from solar pyrolysis. The pyrolysis was conducted in a spherical solar
pyrolysis reactor. A heliostat reflector and the parabolic concentrator as
used to concentrate solar power. Low heating rates were employed and
pyrolysis temperatures in the range of 500–900 ◦ C were used. Results
indicate that the fraction of char is unaffected by the heating rates and
temperatures. However, their properties such structure, surface areas
and electrochemical response were affected. The char that is produced
was reported to have properties such that they can be used as catalyst
support materials for the fuel cells and electrolyzers [195]. The same
group has investigated the production of biofuel from solar pyrolysis of
biomass. A quartz glass was used as a reactor. A peak solar intensity of
700 suns in a 10 mm diameter area was achieved using a 5 kW solar
simulator. A temperature up to 900 ◦ C have been reported to be ach­
ieved. Pinewood was used as feedstock [157].
Rubber tires solar pyrolysis studies were performed. Solar irradiation
in the range of 950–1050 W/m2 and temperatures int the range of
550–570 ◦ C were used. The use of TiO2 catalyst has enhanced the gas
production compared to non-catalytic case. The use of noble metal ox­
ides to dope the TiO2 has enhanced the catalytic activity of the TiO2
[196]. Similar studies on the solar thermal pyrolysis of waste tires were
conducted by the same group. Liner Fresnel reactors were used to
concentrate solar irradiation. A heating liquid is heated to the temper­
atures that are needed to supply the heat required to operate the reactor
at 550 ◦ C. It was reported that the usage of solar energy for pyrolysis
resulted in energy savings in summer increases by 60.8% whereas the
same has increased during winter by 26.6% on an average [197]. Wheat
straw and Scenedesmus algae and the sewage sludge were pyrolyzed
using solar pyrolysis. A solar simulator with a capacity of 7 kW was used
for pyrolysis. The study has reported the production of high quality syn
gas from the three feed stocks [198].
5.3. Modeling of SAP
Modeling of pyrolysis process needs the models that capture heat,
mass transfer effects, and kinetic models for the reactions occurring
during are needed. Since the heat transfer in the pyrolysis reactors are
complex, generally simplifications were made to build useful models. A
nice introduction to the models for accounting the solar irradiation was
pyrolysis of biomass was provided in the recent review [154]. A brief
review on the approaches for mathematical modeling of biomass py­
rolysis systems, their types, the phenomenon modelled by them, and the
reactors used was available in the literature [41]. Kinetic models
consider only the reactions during the process, whereas system wide
models consider transport phenomena (mass, heat and flow patterns).
System wide models are closer to real-life scenario and are difficult to
formulate and solve manually while the kinetic models are easy to
formulate and solve comparatively. The role of modelling and simula­
tion in understanding the phenomenon happening in the pyrolysis
process were recently reviewed [199]. The governing equations that are
useful to explain the heat and mass transfer phenomenon, and the types
of kinetic models that are currently in the literature were presented. The
directions for the end-to-end design of the pyrolysis processes for the
selected product and the ways to optimally choose the best feedstock
and catalysts to achieve them were reported [200].
A CFD model combined with discrete elements method (DEM) are
proposed to explain the motion of fluid and solid particle movement in
the bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) reactor for pyrolysis of solar panel
waste particles of non-spherical shape. Particles of different aspect ratios
were simulated using CFD-DEM method to understand the influence of
the particle size and shape on their flow patterns in BFB. The study has
also indicated the need for incorporation of heat and mass transfer ef­
fects into their modelling framework [201]. The feasibility studies of
utilizing the steam as a potential heat source to pyrolyze the sewage
sludge was explored. The steam generation was achieved through the
solar parabolic trough concentrator. The focus was to reduce the carbon
dioxide emissions resulting from the use of fossil fuels for wastewater
V.S. Dadi et al.
treatment by using the solar assisted pyrolysis of sewage sludge with
steam as a pyrolysis medium. A 1-dimensional model was proposed to
understand the heat and mass transfer phenomenon in the reactor [24].
The model developed was based on the analytical model to describe the
heat transfer in the parabolic trough collector by Bellows and Tzivanidis
(2018) [202] and kinetic model proposed by Font et. al., (2005) [203].
A CFD based model to understand the heat and mass transfer in the
pyrolysis reactors for the production of char was studied. User defined
C++ functions were used along with the 3-dimensional CFD simulations
to incorporate the phenomena that were not inherently included in the
CFD software. In the modelling of pyrolysis, generally the pyrolysis will
be divided into 2 zones, the zone where the biomass was packed and the
other zone that is above the bed, which is considered as the gas phase
respectively [87]. System advisory model developed by NREL, ASPEN
PLUS and MATLAB were used to simulate the solar assisted pyrolysis of
coal in the parabolic trough collector (PTC) and solar tower. Along with
the type of solar concentrator, studies were conducted using different
pyrolysis temperatures and heat transfer fluids. The solar tower was
reported to be economically infeasible whereas PTC was found to be
feasible for drying of coal [204].
CFD model to predict biooil production via conventional and other
pyrolysis was developed. The study was not explicitly focused on solar
pyrolysis; however, it can provide an insight into the development of
rigorous CFD based models for solar pyrolysis setups [205]. A model to
evaluate the annual performance of solar pyrolysis system with Linear
Fresnel Reflector (LFR) was developed. The developed model was used
to obtain the optimal reactor temperature, time and the dimensions of
the reactor for a selected biomass feed rate. The proposed model was
developed for the char prediction, and it was validated with the existing
literature [206]. CFD modeling of the solar pyrolysis of beech wood
pellet was reported. A single particle, unsteady 2-D CFD model was
developed in the Ansys. The model was developed for the beechwood
pellets of 5 mm height and 10 mm diameter. The model is validated with
the experiments performed them in their previous studies [32,143,
207–209] with the temperatures in the range of 600–2000 ◦ C and
heating rates in the range of 10–50 ◦ C/s [145,210]. Radiative pyrolysis
modeling of the biomass was reported. A 2-D unsteady state model was
developed to model the biomass degradation with Briodo-Shafizadeh
reaction scheme. The model built was validated with the pyrolysis
behaviour of beech wood pellets of different diameters, different heat
fluxes and the different initial moisture content of the wood [211].
6. Future directions
The article presents a critical review of the application of CFD to
model biomass pyrolysis systems. Some critical research directions for
the future are outlined below.
1. The biomass conversion process involves conversion at various
scales. The precise modeling is incomplete without a fundamental
understanding of the process at the micro-scale. However, the
detailed CFD models involve huge computational effort and re­
sources. On the other hand, the simpler lumped parameter models
save computational time but lack accuracy. Hence, the balance be­
tween the computational effort and the precision and accuracy of the
detailed CFD simulation of complex biomass conversion systems is
always a challenge.
2. Detailed models for heat and mass transfer incorporating the change
in physicochemical characteristics and thermal properties of the
biomass sample during the conversion process as a function of tem­
perature are very few [227]. Incorporating the physical and chemical
heterogeneity in the biomass sample during the conversion process
needs to be appropriately addressed.
3. The majority of the work in this field is directed towards cellulose
pyrolysis. However, much less work comparatively is focused on
analyzing individual systems for hemicellulose and lignin pyrolysis.
13
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 175 (2023) 106163
The interactions between the three basic components of biomass
during the pyrolysis process have been largely ignored.
4. Development of elementary reaction mechanisms for obtaining
valuable kinetic insights into the biomass conversion process has
been a puzzle for two decades with limited research [228,229]. The
actual reaction mechanism is very complex, and its fundamental
understanding is still far from reach. Hence, accurate CFD modeling
of the biomass conversion process/reactors/systems without the in­
formation on the kinetics of the process is very difficult.
5. Integrating the various reaction, heat transport and mass transport
models (existing particle models) to predict the kinetic parameters,
transport properties and hence the de-volatilization rate for biomass
samples is crucial in extending the capability of CFD application to
such systems. The experiment validity of the results from the CFD
analysis to predict the yield of the products (volatile gases, bio-oil,
and char) is primitive. The coupling of the different models is also
crucial and needs significant reforming to get closer to experimental
response.
6. The widespread source of the available biomass (agricultural
biomass, forest biomass, algal biomass, municipal solid waste) pre­
sents a huge challenge as the composition and hence the conversion
mechanism differs for each type of biomass depending on its source.
Thus, the CFD model developed from one type of biomass should be
able to adapt to the change of composition of the feedstock. This will
ensure larger applicability of the CFD model. Such generalized
models are essential to the progress of the research in this field.
7. The influence of inorganic catalysts in influencing the progress of the
reaction has not been fairly understood. The catalytic effects on the
pyrolysis reaction rate and product yields should be included with
the reaction, heat and mass transport models in the future CFD
simulations.
8. The practicability and reach of the single particle models and the
pellet scale modeling is limited [230,231], and the predictions are far
from the realistic experimental findings. The underlying physics of
the process is highly simplified by ignoring the interlinked chemical
reactions and the influence of structural changes. Hence, significant
improvement needs to be made in improving these models or
developing more competent models to predict the actual physics of
the pyrolysis process.
9. The particle shrinkage during the conversion process adds an addi­
tional level of complexity in the mathematical modeling of biomass
conversion process. The particle shrinkage changes the physical
structure, porous media characteristics and also the transport length
scales (heat and mass transport) involved in the mathematical
model. Hence, predicting the particle shrinkage, estimating its effect
and reforming the mathematical modeling approach based on the
gauged information is crucial.
7. Conclusions
This paper presents a rigorous review of the application of CFD in
modeling several biomass reactor systems. The different heat transfer,
mass transfer models, the reactors involved and their modeling strate­
gies for implementing a CFD study have been reviewed in detail. The
paper presents a comparative assessment of the modelling strategies and
outlines the inherent simplifications involved that deter the applicability
of these models to a large scale. A comprehensive discussion demon­
strates that there is huge scope for research to improve the mathematical
modeling of complex biomass pyrolysis systems. As the advanced tech­
nologies of microwave assisted pyrolysis and solar pyrolysis enhance the
heating characteristics thereby improving the quality of bio-oil, the
efficient mathematical modeling of such systems using CFD can help
gain crucial insights about the conversion process. The drawbacks of the
current modeling strategies have been presented. The various directions
for future research have also been outlined.
V.S. Dadi et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Dr. Tanmay Basak: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology,
Investigation, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision. Dr. Dadi
Venkata Surya: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology,
Investigation, Writing – original draft, Validation. Dr. Veluru Sridevi:
Writing – original draft. Dr. Tanneru Hemanth Kumar: Writing –
original draft. Dr. Busigari Rajasekhar Reddy: Writing – original draft.
Mr. Potnuri Ramesh: Writing – original draft. Dr. Anirudh Kulkarni:
Writing – original draft. Dr. Garima Mishra: Writing – original draft.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Editor and Reviewers’ for
spending their valuable time to provide valuable inputs for improving
the quality of the review manuscript.
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