CHEMISTRY NOTES

INTRO TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Carbon is a really useful element for making large compounds because each atom of carbon can
form four strong bonds with the most common atoms to be bonded to being either other
carbon atoms or hydrogen atoms. The structure of hydrocarbons, such as methane, ethane,
propane, and butane, demonstrates the pattern of growth by one carbon and two hydrogen
each time. The general formula for alkanes is cn h2n plus 2, making it easier to determine the
number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a compound. The general formula for alkanes can be
used to work out the molecular formula of larger hydrocarbons. Alkanes are saturated
compounds with every carbon atom having four single covalent bonds.

Understanding the properties of alkanes and how to write equations for their combustion is
crucial in chemistry.

Crude oil

Crude oil is formed naturally from the remains of dead plants and animal mostly planktons ,
highlighting the impact of human activity on the environment. The extraction of crude oil from
the ground raises environmental and sustainability issues. Fractional distillation is used to
separate the various hydrocarbons in crude oil based on their different properties. The process
of heating crude oil until it turns into a gas is the first step in fractional distillation. The
fractionating column is hot at the bottom but gets cooler towards the top, creating a
temperature gradient for the gases to condense. The shorter chain hydrocarbons have much
lower boiling points, giving us fuels like diesel, petrol, and kerosene used in cars, road vehicles,
and jet engines. Short chain alkanes like propane and butane are the most flammable, making
them the best fuels. Petrochemicals from crude oil can be used as raw materials for the
petrochemical industry, making solvents, lubricants, polymers, and detergents.

Alkane have a group trend in which the temperature increase as the bonds between hydrogen
and carbon increase which makes more viscous as the bonds increase They get more viscous as
the bonds increase they go from being gas to being liquid and finally solid The alkanes that are
gas at room temperature are volatile, which means they evaporate more easily.
The alkanes that have less bond are more flammable than those with more bonds One of the main use
of alkane is used as fuel Alkane react with oxygen to produce a exothermic reaction known as
combustion In combustion, the hydrogen and carbon are oxidized as they react with oxygen e

Equation of combustion is:

A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with similar chemical properties and the same
functional group Functional groups is an atom or a group of atoms that gives a molecule its
characteristics Alkane has ( C- C ) bonds that why they are called saturated hydro-carbon and they are:

Insoluble in water

Soluble in organic compound

Isomers are compounds with the same chemicals properties but a different structure Combustion only
happens in Alkanes, and its produce CO2 and H2O Substitution reaction only occurs in Alkene, and it
uses U.V. light as its catalyst

Alkene reactions:

Additional reaction:

Temp: 200°C

Catalyst: Nickel

The reaction is done with hydrogen to make alkane from alkene

With Steam (H2O)

Product: Alcohol

Catalyst: H3PO4 (Phosphoric Acid)

Temp: 300°C

Alcohols:

Example:

Ethanol: C2H5 OH

Pentanol: C5H12 OH

Reaction of Alcohol with:

Oxygen (Oxidization):

Product: Carboxylic Acid

Catalyst: Acidified Magnesium Chromite (VI)

Carboxylic acid:

COOH

Reactions:

Alkali:

Carboxylic Acid+ Alkali

Product: Slat + H2O

Carboxylic acid with metal carbonate:

Product: Salt+C3+H2O

Ester:

Carboxylic acid + Alcohol is esters

COO

An ester is a colorless liquid that is insoluble in water

Uses:

1. Solvent in cosmetics

2. Preparation in food coloring making

3. Fragrances
 Fermentation: an enzyme catalyzed, metabolic process whereby organisms convert starch or sugar to
alcohol or an acid anaerobically releasing energy. The science of fermentation is called “zymology”.
Polymers is a long chain of monomers (a single small molecule that join together with other monomers
to form polymers) To draw polymers can be drawn by with the monomers with an arrow with the stated
catalyst and pressure and at the end of the arrow you show the polymer but sometime polymers are in
hundreds so if that the case it can't be done.

Instead what can be done is you mention the monomer in a bracket with the same arrow with the
pressure and catalyst with the result with a single repeating unit of a polymer in the bracket (repeating
unit is a unit of monomer that is repeated in the polymer)

repeating unit
The whole slide

the equation

Btw remember that polymer don't have double bonds

 To write an equation of addition polymerization we need to
simplify the hydro carbon

Make sure the bond is C-C like in C-C2H5 After simplifying the equation, it is the bracket and breaks the
double bond as polymers have no double bond

In condensation polymers two monomers are combined to make a polymer If one monomer is
carboxylic acid and the other is Alcohol then the polymer created is called polyester It's mostly created
with diocarboxylic acid monomer (two monomers of carboxylic acid) and Diol monomer (two monomers
of Alcohol) When a polyester is formed, an OH of either side (Diol or Dixarboxylic acid) makes a water
molecule
This leads to a single oxygen molecule and a empty place for a bond Because of this, the oxygen bonds
with carbon and makes a ester link.

mnh

the bonding

the product(diimer)
Dimer means only two combined monomers But to make it a condensed polymer, we need to remove
the H and OH to make another water molecule point the double bond O in a straight line and the single
bond O as a straight lone as well then we the bracket to show its a repeating unit

To show the formation of the condensed polymer (polyester) it would like this

with the Ns it will be like this

there is 2n H2O because we formed 2 water

molecule. the rate of reaction is the speed in
which the reactant get turned into the product
 eaction can vary between really slow ones like the rusting of
iron to really fast ones like fireworks which only takes a fraction
of a secondThere are two ways of finding the rate of reaction

1. How fast the reactant is being used.

2. How fast is the product formed.

So the formula of the rate of reaction can be

For example, if the equation is given that

Mg+2CHL ---‐-------》MgCl2+H2

It's stated that 180 cm3 hydrogen is produced in 2 min

Then, to solve this, we use the product formed ÷ time formula

For which we will make the 2 min into 120 sec as time is
measured into sec

And through dividing, we get 180÷120=1.5

Then, the rate of reaction is 1.5 cm3/sec

On the alternative

If said that, we used 3 grams of magnesium, and It took 4 min

to be completely get used then we used the reactant used ÷
time formula

For which we will convert 4 min sec which is 240sec

The calculation is

3÷ 240 = 0.0125

So, the rate of reaction is 0.0125g/sec

But all this the averagebor mean rate of reaction Because at

start, the reaction is very fast as there are lots of reactants to
react with, and with time, the reaction slows down This can be
shown by graphs Although the unit can change via examiner
demands
He can give you moles (a measuring unit like
Catalyst lowers the required activation energy by providing alternative
cm, m) per min
activation pathway which intern provides a higher proportion of
collusion between particles

The first graph shows the x axis with a mass of

reactant as there is a lot of reactant to react
with, and as the reaction continues, the
reaction slows down as there less reactant to
be reacted with The second graph shows the
volume of the product present, since in the Different molecules have different energy The important thing is how
start of the reaction there no product but as much energy does the total reactant a have compared to the to the
the reaction continues the product is formed product In the energy profile, the x axis is the progress of reaction, and
as the graph increase and as the reaction ends the y axis is the energy In this profile, the reactant is on the left sticking
the graph becomes steady and stops with the y axis, and the product is a little above the x axis in
increasing The theory behind the rate of exothermic
reaction is known as the collision theory This
theory states that for a reaction to take place,
particles must bump into each other with
enough energy, also known as activation
energy, without that no reaction will take
place So, the rate of reaction is faster if the
particle has more energy and the collision is
frequent If the temperature is high, then the
reaction will be fast as more heat energy is in
the particle, whichever increase the speed of
In this reaction energy is lost as the product is lower than the reactant
reactions As the speed of collision increases,
and the energy that is lost is released in the form of heat energy
the frequency of collision increases, which
increases the speed of the reaction If the Exothermic reaction releases energy to the surrounding Usually, in
pressure is increased, the rate of reaction will the form of heat Most common exothermic reaction is combustion
increase Because when the pressure is And oxidization The opposite of that is called endothermic Which take
increased, there are more particles in a in energy from the surrounding for reactions Like providing heat to
particular volume, which increases the chance break down complex compound is an endothermic reaction In this
of collision between the particle increases the one the product will be higher than the reactant The distance
frequency of the collision increasing the speed between the product and the reactant is the energy absorbed, not
of the reaction A higher surface reaction also released as in exothermic
increases the rate of reaction if the surface
area is increased, the area where collision can
take place will increase, increase the
frequency of collision, and finally increase the
rate of reaction Catalyst are substances that
speed up a reaction without being used up in
the reaction should not be included in a
reaction equation but above the arrow
between the reactant and the product
Activation energy is the minimum energy needed for the particles to collide
with each other

If the activation energy is less than lower-cost, the curves, if it's high, then
heighten the curve

Bonding energy is the required energy to break one mole of a covalent bond
breaking bond is an endothermic reaction as it requires energy from the
surrounding Bond formation is exothermic As the amount of energy
required to break the bond that is formed is released

To find if overall a reaction is endothermic or exothermic, we have subtract

the total amount of energy needed to break the bonds in reaction with the
amount of energy released when the product was formed

2 with 431 multiple because of the two bonds in HCL, H=2 and CL=431 If the
answer is in negative Then the energy is lost so its exothermic If the energy
is positive, then it is gained, and it is endothermic
Fuel is an electro chemical cell as it converts chemical energy into electric energy It concerts the fuel and reacts with oxygen to
produce electric energy There is a type of fuel cell called hydrogen - oxygen fuel cell And their product is water At the same
time, the generating a lot of electricity The center of the cell there is electrolyte (a solution through which ions can move
through). The most common electrolyte is called potassium hydroxide (KOH) On the side of the electrolyte, we have the
electrode with a negative anode on the left and positive cathode on the right and they are connected by a wire on the top
which allows electrons to travel from the anode to the cathode

Both electrode in the fuel cell are made of porous carbon Which
have lots of tiny holes and catalyst to speed up the reaction On
each side of the electrode, there is a compartment for the anode
and cathode On the left, there is the anode compartment, and on
the right, there is the cathode compartment Both have inlet on the
top of the compartment From the anode compartment, hydrogen
enters, and in the cathode compartment, oxygen will enter, and
water will be let out of the let out at the bottom of the cathode
compartment Hydrogen enters from the left in anode
compartment and is oxidized by the anode, which means each
hydrogen loses an electron to become a hydrogen ion the
equation of this loss of electron is H2------》2H+ 2e(positive2H and
negative e [plus on the 2H and minus on e]) The electron passes
through the wire to the cathode while the hydrogen ions move
through the electrolyte to the cathode, which means that the
electron and the hydrogen ions can react with the oxygen that
comes from the rights, and they all react to make water But one
oxygen atom is left. So the same thing happens with two more
hydrogen, and they react with oxygen to make water the equation
is:
O2+4H+4e----》2H2O (the H in4H has a plus sign on it, and e has a
minus)
Then, the water leaves the fuel cell via the out let and the process
is complete

The 2 equations are known as half equation as they show the loss
or gain of electron in the reaction, and to get the overall equation,
we combine these two equation the electric energy comes from
the movement of the electron through the wire at the top