TEK2005 - All Slides - 4 Per Page

Tore Markeset
• Professor in Mechanical engineering - operations and maintenance

• Head, Department of Safety, Economics, and Planning, UiS
TEK2005 - OPERATION, MAINTENANCE • Adjunct professor in 20% position at UiT since 2007
AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT • I have been teaching Maintenance management and Condition
Introduction to the course monitoring since 2003 in Stavanger. In Tromsø I started teaching
Maintenance management in 2007 and Condition monitoring in 2014
Tore Markeset, University of Stavanger / UIT - The Arctic University of Norway
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Key topics of the course: The course teaching schedule

See CANVAS PDF document: “TEK2005 - Curriculum, Literature, Videos, Schedule” See PDF document: “TEK2005 - Curriculum, Literature, Schedule” in Canvas
The course is 10 sp and divided in three section:
• Section 1: Introduction to maintenance management • The lecture schedule is given in Timeplan
• Introduction to operation and maintenance (Trends in maintenance management, Definitions, Function, performance and
failure; Types of maintenance, NORSOK standards, and regulations; Risk and cost) • Since there is a project to be done in groups I suggest that you start study
• Tools and techniques (Functional and technical hierarchy; Failure mode effects and criticality analysis, Fault tree analysis;
Event tree analysis; Design for maintenance; Reliability, availability, maintainability, supportability; Life cycle cost analysis; groups early in the course and sit together to study - Try to use the same
Spare parts and CMMS information systems)
groups that you use in other activities.
• Maintenance management and maintenance programs - Reliability centered maintenance (RCM); Risk based maintenance
•
(RBM); Risk based inspections (RBI); Maintenance management process
Section 2: Predictive maintenance and condition monitoring
• In your studies use the suggested discussion topics and questions found
• Introduction to predictive maintenance and condition monitoring in the file: ”TEK2005 - Discussion topics and questions”, in Canvas
• Vibration monitoring - Introduction to machine vibration; Measurement and analysis, Instruments, Typical vibration problems
• Oil analysis - Tribology, Friction, wear; Oil analysis - debris analysis, oil quality analysis
• Before each lecture you should read the literature, study the lecture
• Section 3: Operations and maintenance in Arctic environments slides, and discuss with co-students in your study group
• The biggest section is Section 1, then Section 2 and Section 3 is the shortest section
• There will be one part compendium for each of the sections. • Also think about and prepare questions to ask and topics to discuss
• I´ll be the only teacher during the meetings
• The course will be taught in English
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Assessment
A group project report counts 40% of the grading and a 3 hours digital school exam counts 60%
Project
• The project will be question on a practical case and only focus on Section 1, but there may be information in
section 2 and 3 that also may be useful.
• The project will be done in groups of 2-4 persons. All group members will be given the same grade Operation, maintenance and business
Exam
• The exam will be a 3 hour digital school exam in Wiseflow
management
• The exam is closed book exam with no aids Section 1: Introduction to maintenance management
• The curriculum in compendium section 2 and 3 is tested on the exam
• There will be multiple choice type of problems and long answers problems. The multiple choice part is
focusing on Compendium section 2 (Predictive maintenance and condition monitoring) and the long answers
focus on both Compendium section 2 and 3 (Operations and maintenance in Arctic environments). Some of
the long answer section also require knowledge from Section 1.
• There are many problems and you will not have much time for each problem presented, but try to answer
most of the multiple choice problems and the all the long answer problems. Professor Tore Markeset, Dr. Ing, University of Stavanger/ The Arctic University of Norway (UiT)
• This description of the exam is preliminary and may change during the spring
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Module 2: Main concepts, tools and

Module 1: Introduction techniques
• Trends in maintenance management • Engineering analysis: Function hierarchy, Failure mode effects and criticality
• Standard definitions and terminology analysis, Fault tree analysis, Event tree analysis, etc.
• Types of maintenance • Design for maintenance for industrial systems and products. Reliability,
• Maintenance as a business function availability, maintainability, supportability
• Function, Performance, Failure • Life cycle cost and profit analysis in design
• NORSOK standards, governmental regulations • Inventory and logistics
• Data and Information technology, CMMS
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Module 3: Development of maintenance programs Module 1: Introduction
• Reliability centered maintenance

• Risk based maintenance
• Risk based inspections (RBI) methodology
• Basic O&M management model
• Maintenance objectives, strategies and organizations
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Paradigm shift in maintenance What do we mean when talk about “maintenance”?
“it costs what it ”it can be planned ”It creates To understand this, we need to think about the answers to some of the following
costs” and controlled” additional value” questions:
•Necessary evil Important support An integral part of the • Why do we need maintenance?
•Accidental function business process • What is maintenance and what processes, technology, knowledge
and resources does it involve ?
• When should you do maintenance?
• How should you do maintenance?
PAST 1900 1950-80 PRESENT 2020+ • Who should do the maintenance?
• Where should maintenance be performed?
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Evolution of business of maintenance Maintenance: a function or process
Functional view Functional view:
Root cause
elimination Business • Focus on activities and tasks
Input Output • Seeks to fragment work into ever
+ MAINTENANCE PROCESS Process
smaller and smaller tasks
REENGINEERING
Maintenance
Customer
function
Functional - + Process
approach oriented Process view Process view:
approach Sub- • A group of interrelated activities that
process 3 Sub-
together create value for the customer /
- Sub-process
1
process 2
company
Repair/ Sub- • Common goals
process X • Seeks to integrate
Rectification Sub-
process 2
Customer • Focus on value, business results, customer
1930's // 1990's Core business
(Main process)
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Maintenance process Meaning of downtime

Undesirable Input
• Strike
• Bad Weather
One of the most difficult tasks in many companies is to
Input Output
Resources
understand, specify and agree among all parties what is
Results
• Material Maintenance • Reduced Risk
the meaning of downtime within the organization
• Organization process • Higher Reliability
• Documentation
• Higher Availability
• Information
Undesireable Output
• Accidents
• Losses
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System/Equipment
Effects of downtime Uptime and
Time
Downtime Uptime Downtime
Standby / System Active Logistics delay Administrative
• Loss of a production opportunity

ready time operating time maintenance time time delay time
• Increased scrap Corrective

maintenance
Preventive
maintenance
• Increased costs
• Increased labor costs Preparation
Preventive maintenance cycle
Inspection Servicing Checkout
• Higher overhead costs

Fault
time time time time
detected
• Increased costs of assets Corrective maintenance cycle
• Decreased life Repair of

item in place
• Decreased purchasing power

Preparation Localization Adjustment, Condition
Disassembly Reassembly
for and fault OR alignment, or verification
(gain access) Removal of (buildup)
maintenance isolation calibration (checkout)
faulty item
• Reduced morale/enthusiasm and replace it

with spare
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Maintenance needs Failure development process and remaining useful life
Performance
• Maintenance NEEDS of equipment/ machines/ systems are Degradation starts
Expected
more or less decided during the design and manufacturing Performance
phase
Acceptable P1 P2 P3
• Therefore, it is important to consider issues such as reliability, Limit

x1
maintainability, and supportability of equipment and software x2

x3
to achieve an optimum product for the customer/ owner
Time
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Stress and strength analysis Failures – unacceptable performance
•The probability that an item will not break or fail is equal to the
probability that the applied stress is less than the item’s strength How do we define Failure?
• R = Pr [ S >s] • What is unacceptable performance?
• R = Reliability, S= Strength, s= stress
• Safety margin = [ E(S) - E(s)] / [Var (S) + Var (s)]1/2
Critical parts classification:
Average
Failure criterion with respect to: • failure would cause a safety
Pr stress
Pr •safety hazard
• failure would impact availability
Average
strength Stress>Strength
•environment • failure would degrade operation
•capacity • failure would not affect operation
Force/ Force/
Stress Strength area Stress Strength area
Safety
margin
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Where do failures come from? System failures can be attributed to the following:
• Design
• Tolerances to loose (specifications)
• Improperly understood environment
• Inadequately testing, design not confirmed
• Component reliability not understood
60-70% Design & construction
• Manufacturing
• Material substitutions
• Improper processes (mfg. & Assembly)
• Contamination
25-30% Operating procedures
• Machine operatives not properly trained
10-15% Maintenance
• Improper material treatment
• Operation
• Loads exceeds predicted environment
• New environment (also storage)
• Poor ergonomics (human engineering)
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Maintenance management Maintenance technology
“Maintenance technology comprises TEORETICAL / TECHNICAL
“Maintenance management knowledge plus PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES and their application
deals with business What is a corporate policy and how does it related to corporate in identifying and implementing the best possible
objectives?
management skills used for Examples of common workplace policies: MAINTENANCE, SERVICING or REPAIR techniques in line with
• Health and safety policy
integrating man, machine, • Environmental protection and pollution policy
• Code of conduct
organizational policies.”
• Non-smoking policy
technologies, etc., in line • Drug and alcohol policy
• Anti-discrimination and harassment policy
with corporate policies and
objectives”
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Cost, Risk and Benefit are connected Maintenance purpose
The MAIN PURPOSE of maintenance is to

Reduce Business Risks
We cannot changed one
without affecting the COST •How do can we argue that by performing maintenance we do reduce the
others!!!! business risk?
•What du we mean by business risk?
e.g. Increase Benefits •What is risk: Probability and Consequence of an Unwanted event
•Reduce Cost •Chance of not reaching the goals?
•Increase Risk •Chance of accidents?
RISK BENEFITS •Chance of pollution?
•Risk of delivering bad quality output (products, service)
•Risk of ………
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Why do we need maintenance? The Role of Maintenance and Service
Unreliability Loss of Quality

• Health and Safety related consequences
(Remove the health and safety risk to man and machinery)
• Environment related consequences Maintenance and
• Economic consequences Service program
(Cost, Capital destruction, uninterrupted production, etc.)
The role of maintenance and service is to compensate
for unreliability and loss of quality. It is a
compensating process
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Factors influencing Maintenance

Role of maintenance
Human Error
•To Facilitate
Unreliability
• Assurance of System Performance (ROI, HSE)

Maintenance
Loss of Quality Accidents
& Service • Creation of Additional Value to the Business Process
Statuatory Requirements
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Reliability Reliability assessment
To properly assess reliability we need to evaluate:
The reliability of an equipment is the probability that it will
perform its required function without failure under given condition • External factors
for an intended period of use/ operation. • Inherent factors
• Failure modes
Keywords:
• Perform the function
• Environment
• Period of operation
• Under given condition
• Mission
• Probability
• Commonly reliability is expressed in terms of MTTF/ MTBF or failure rate.
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Maintainability Maintainability versus Maintenance

Maintainability: Maintenance:
Design parameter Act of repairing
Maintainability is a measure that reflects how easy, intended to minimize
or servicing
repair time
accurate, effective, efficient, and safe the maintenance equipment
actions related to the product can be performed.
Maintainability refers to the measures taken during the
• High maintainability reflects the probability for that all maintenance tasks safely can be development, design, and installation of a manufactured
carried out by
• the minimum number of people, product that reduce required maintenance, man-hours,
• in the shortest time, and tools, logistics cost, skill level, and facilities, and ensures
• at the lowest cost
• with the simplest tools. that the product meets the requirements for its intended
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Maintainability Maintainability design objectives
Characteristics QUALITATIVE/ QUANTITATIVE
Objectives: JUDGEMENT
• Interchangeability
• Reducing project maintenance time and cost • Accessibility Design adequacy
• Determining labor hours and other related resource • Serviceability
• Using maintainability data to estimate item availability • Maintenance frequency State of the art
• Repairability
Results: • Simplicity Availability
• Visibility
• Reduced downtime • Testability
• Efficient restoration of the product’s operating condition • Modular Design
• Flexibility to change
• Upgrading
• System complexity
• Warranties
• Access for
condition
• Maximization of operational readiness • Who to do maintenance • Diagnosability
monitoring
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Definitions Availability Inherent availability

• According to IEV 191-02-05, 2005 availability is the ability of •Inherent availability is the probability that a system or
an item to be in a state to perform a required function under equipment, when used under stated conditions, is an ideal
given condition at a given instant of time or over a given support environment (i.e., readily available tools, spares,
time interval, assuming that the required external resources maintenance personnel, etc.), which will operate
are provided. satisfactorily at any point in time as required.
•It excludes preventive or scheduled maintenance action,
Uptime MTBF
A= A= logistic delay time, and administrative delay time.
Uptime + Downtime MTBF + MeanDownTime
MTBF MTTF =Mean time to failure
MTTF =Mean time to Failure Ai = MTTR= Mean time to Repair
MTTR= Mean time to Repair MTBF + MTTR
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Operational availability Achieved availability
• Operational availability is the probability that a system or equipment, •Achieved availability is the probability that a system or
when used under stated conditions in an actual operational equipment, when used under stated conditions is an ideal
environment, will operate satisfactorily when called upon. support environment (i.e., readily available tools, spares,
MTBF
AO = personnel, etc.), which will operate satisfactorily at any
MTBF + MDT
point in time.
where MDT is the mean maintenance down time and includes maintenance time, logistics delay time,
and administrative delay time. MTBF
Aa =
MTBF + M
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Reliability and availability Maintenance definition

Model X Model Y PrEN 13306: “Maintenance is defined as a
MTBF 100 hours 10 hours combination of all technical, administrative and
managerial actions, including supervision actions,
MTTR 10 Hours 1 hours
during life cycle of an item intended to retain it

Availability 100/(100+10) 10/ (10+1) A = MTBF / (MTBF + MTTR)
in, or restore it to, a state in which it can
10/11 10/11
perform the required function” See def. NORSOK
Would you choose model X or Y Z - 008
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Maintenance: analysis of definition Different aspects of Maintenance
All Activities Retaining... In
• Safety enhancing aspects of maintenance
•Engineering
•Managerial
•Preventive Maintenance • Performance enhancing aspects
•Administrative
Restoring.... To
• Economical aspects
•Corrective Maintenance • Quality enhancing aspects
Operating State • Environmental aspects
•Expected Function
• Life span increasing aspects
During a Life cycle
•Time
• Aesthetic aspects
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Cost of maintenance Maintenance
5- 50% of the operating costs depending on

”… ALL activities for
branch and level of mechanization
RETAINING the ”NO MENTION OF
systems in an VALUE CREATION
IN THE ROLE OF
operating state or
Direct costs Indirect costs MAINTENANCE”
Labor costs
Material costs
Loss of production RESTORING them to
Contractors costs
Loss of quality
Loss of customers,
etc.
an operating state.”
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Maintenance strategy Maintenance strategy
Maintenance organization
Proactive Planned
or or
Reactive Unplanned
Internal organization External organization
Failure based
Need Based or
or Time based Full Partial Full service
or outsourcing Outsourcing contract
Opportunity Based
Condition based
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Maintenance types/ classification Importance of maintenance strategy

Maintenance
types
“The primary determinant of maintenance cost/ expense is
Planned Unplanned the ”MAINTENANCE STRATEGY” rather than any particular
attribute of the craftsmen.”
Preventive Corrective Corrective
(Maintain before failure) (For non-critical items) (Not wanted)
Period based Condition based

(Periodic maintenance)
Calendar based Use based Subjective Objective

(Time intervall between) (Number of hours used) (own senses) (Use of sensors)
Continuous Non-continuous
(Periodic measurements)
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Factors influencing on maintenance strategy Interaction / Relationships
Maintenance Mission/
Technical objective
Internal
characteristics EQUIPMENT PEOPLE
resources
Maintenance RISK
Designed
strategy External
product resources
support
Geographical
(Note: Maintenance
including services like
Statutory PROCESS
requirements location
lubrication, filter
change, etc)
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Maintenance: a cross-functional discipline Elements of maintenance discipline
ENGINEERING
STATISTICS &
OPERATIONS
Engineering Maintenance Business management
RESEARCH Maintenance
Business Support, Operational Research, Statistics
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
HUMAN FACTORS
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To plan and develop maintenance strategies, plans and activities in an organized
Elements of maintenance process way one needs input from many different disciplines and subject areas
Engineering Business management

MAINTENANCE •Mechanical engineering •Management theory
BUSINESS •Reliability theory •Risk theory
ENGINEERING
MANAGEMENT •Machine dynamics •Economics
•Materials technology •Organizational theory
•Tribology •Decision theory
•Chemistry •Social sciences
• Economics •Etc. •Human Sciences
• Organization •Ergonomics
•Cognitive Psychology
• Behavioral sciences Business Support •Human learning and
• Cultural/ Social background •Operational research perception
•Resource allocations
STATISTICS & •Planning and controlling
•Systems theory
•Etc.
OPERATIONS RESEARCH •Scheduling
•Logistics and inventory
•Etc.
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Design and development of maintenance concept

Maintenance strategy during design phase
•The critical issues : • Design out failure (Design out maintenance)

• Reliability engineering consideration
• Maintainability consideration • Design for maintenance
• Ergonomics consideration
• Implementation of information technology
• Logistics and administration
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Cost
Design for maintenance & product support

Design out Maintenance Customer / Market
Customer
Cost
•Needs / Wants /
Preferences
• Need, Want & Reliability •Values Reliability
Preference •Warranty
• Value
• Warranty Design for Maintenance and Product Support
• Quantity LCC Analysis Designed Availability Optimize
• Alt. available
• Etc.
• Reliability Reliability
Design-Out • Cost
Maintainability Product support
Time Easy accessibility Installation and commissioning
or Trade Off
• State of Art
Cost Easy serviceability Training
Elimination of Other Considerations Available state of the Easy interchangeability Documentation
• Design alternatives
art technology
Maintenance • Capacity Modularization Spare parts & Warranty
LCC • Customer willingness to pay
• Payback of development cost
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Integration of RAMS in design Performance management & measurement
Subjective
RAMS: Reliability BENEFITS
Availability Less investment cost & less lead time because:
CUSTOMERS
Maintainability NEED
Supportability •Less design iteration in detail design

UNDERSTAND
•Better conceptual design because: TRANSLATE Feedback
Cost •Degrading mechanisms studied

•Environmental issues studied Technical
Specification
•Better training of teams considering RAMS
Extra QTC HSE
Extra •Market need identified
Lead •State of art of technology identified
Engineering Time Production parameters
Construction Exploitation Savings

Commissioning Exploitation Longer Life Operational parameters
MTBF, MTTR, Capacity, etc
Acquisition Utilization phase Time Objective
phase HSE : Health, Safety, Environment

QTC: Quantity, Tonnage, Cost
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Vision,
Regulations, authorities, NORSOK
Goals &
Strategy
Link / Effect
ROI:
HSE:
ROI HSE
Link / Effect
Integrity of Plant, Integrity:
Systems & Processes
Link / Effect
Processes:
Processes
Competencies:
Competencies Relationships
Relationships:
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PSA: Objectives and duties NPD: Objectives and duties
• The Petroleum Safety Authority Norway (PSA) shall stipulate premises and follow up to ensure that the • The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) shall contribute to creating the greatest
players in the petroleum activities maintain high standards of health, environment, safety and possible values for society from the oil and gas activities by means of prudent resource
emergency preparedness, and thereby also contribute to creating the greatest possible values for
society management based on safety, emergency preparedness and safeguarding of external
• The new Petroleum Safety Authority Norway was established 1 January 2004 as a consequence of the environment.
Storting process surrounding the Storting White Paper No.17 (2002-2003) on State supervision bodies. • The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) was established in 1972, and it currently has a
• The PSA has the regulatory responsibility for safety, emergency preparedness and the working staff of around 210.
environment in the petroleum activities. This responsibility was transferred from the Norwegian
Petroleum Directorate (NPD) 1 January 2004. • The Directorate handles issues relating to resource management and administration on
behalf of the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, while it handles CO2 tax issues on behalf of
• the Ministry of Finance.
• http://www.npd.no/English/Om+OD/ODs+organisasjon/Maal+og+oppgaver/
Mål+og+oppgaver.htm
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NPD’s Ambitions Maintenance: Relevant standards
OLF DNV CEN prEN
13306
Guideline RP G-101
Maint terms
070 RBI
Norsok
IEC Z-008
61508/61511 Regulations Classification
Norsok
Z-002
Norsok Coding System
Z-016
Regulalarity
IEC ISO 14224

60300-3-11 Norsok
Data
RCM
Z-013
Risk Analyses
IEC 60300
Dependability Norsok
Management Discipline
standards
IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission -
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CEN: European Committee for Standardization - 70
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NORSOK – standards NORSOK Standard
Z-008 – Risk based maintenance and consequence

classification
Z-016 – Regularity management & reliability technology
Z-013 – risk and emergency preparedness analysis

Professor Tore Markeset -
University of Stavanger
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4 Methodology for risk based maintenance
management
4.1 General
Risk assessment shall be used as the guiding principle for maintenance decisions. This NORSOK standard describes how
to apply this in an efficient manner. The key elements of this methodology are as follows:
a) consequence classification of functional failure;

Operations and Maintenance
b) use of GMCs in combination with classical RCM methods. The GMCs are developed by RCM analysis
including plant experience.
Tools and Methods
Tore Markeset
c) in case no GMCs are applicable or the purpose of the study requires more in-depth evaluations, an FMECA/RCM/
RBI analysis should be carried out.
Center for Industrial Asset Management
d) the application of the consequence classification and additional risk factors for decision making related to
corrective maintenance and handling of spare parts.
As important as the risk assessment, is having well defined work processes and company/management
commitment.
This NORSOK standard describes the main work flow and sets minimum requirements to each of the steps in this
process.
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What is a technical system? The technical system and its interfaces (Fig. 3.1 – Rausand & Høyland)
We define a technical system as: Boundary Conditions External threats
• a composite, at any level of complexity, of personnel,

procedures, materials, tools, equipment, facilities, and System
software. Wanted Inputs
Sub- Sub-
Wanted Outputs
System 1 System ….
• The elements of the composite entity are used together in the
intended operational or support environment to perform a task Unwanted Inputs
Sub-
Unwanted Outputs
System 2 Sub-
or achieve a specific purpose, support or mission requirement System N
(MIL-STD 882D).
• (Chapter 3.2 Rausand & Høyland)
Support
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What is a function Functional analysis objectives
• A function is an intended effect of a functional block • Identify all functions of the system
• A function should be defined such that each function has a definite purpose • Identify the functions required in the various operational modes of the
• Names that have a declarative structure system
• “What” is to be done rather than “how”
• Verb + a noun
• Provide the hierarchical decomposition of the system
• “Close flow” • Describe how each function is realized
• “Contain fluid” • Identify the interrelationships between the functions
• “Pump fluid”
• Identify interfaces with other functions and with the environment
• “Transmit signal”
• A “functional requirement” is a specification of the performance criteria related to a function
• A function is an intended effect of a functional block and should be
• E.g. “Pump water” at 100 – 110 liters per minute defined such that each function has a single definite purpose
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Functional block Diagram of a diesel engine (Fig. 3.2)
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Failure cause classification (Fig. 3.12)
Failures affect reliability. To improve reliability we have to study how a

system (equipment/ machine/ item working together) may fail
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Illustration of the difference between failure, fault, and error (Fig. 3.9)
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Failure classification (Fig. 3.10) Failures must be analyzed in the design phase
• Design Engineering has the overall responsibility for engineering, analysis, and
most detailed design
• Most important failure analysis contributor
• Has detailed product knowledge to analyze the design
• Can make design changes indicated by the analysis
• Responsible for
• Addressing result of previous “lessons learned”
• Product failure modes
• Causes of failures
• Failures effects
• Designing product to remove or compensate for unacceptable failure modes
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Methods for in the design phase to analyze: Main Steps in a risk analysis
Causal Unwanted Consequence

• How a technical system may fail analysis
event analysis
• Failure causes
• Failure consequences
Methods
• Failure criticality •Fault tree analysis •Checklists •Event tree analysis
•Reliability block diagram •Preliminary Hazard analysis •Consequence models
•Influence diagram •FMECA •Reliability assessment
•FMECA •HAZOP •Evacuation models
•Reliability data sources •Event data sources •Simulation
Figure 1.3 - Rausand & Høyland

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failure mode effects and
Steps in Risk Analysis criticality analysis

(FMECA)
Reliability study objective
failure mode effects
Identification of undesirable event and criticality analysis
(FMECA) • The main objective of a reliability study should always be to
provide a basis for decisions.
Identification of causes and likelihood fault tree analysis (FTA)
• Before starting a study the decision maker should clarify the:
of the event • Decision problem
• Objectives
• Boundary conditions
Consequence analysis for • Limitations
identifying the consequences of the event tree analysis (ETA) • Make sure the the relevant information is at hand in the right format, and on time
events and quantifying risk
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Cause and effect diagram Extended Cause and Effect diagram
Also called Fishbone diagram or Ishikawa Diagram
Find causes (green), and sub-causes (red) that producing the effekt Start by defining the effect
Causes and sub-causes Effect Causes
Example: Materials Methods Manpower

Burned out
No
Bulb failure Switch failure
contact
No contact
Effect
Flash light
failure
Milieu Machines
No contact (environment)
Battery failure
Dead
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Failure Mode Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Uses of FMEA
• Enhance system safety
• Uncovering failure modes that result in hazardous conditions
• Assess mission related effects of critical or undetectable failures
• Influences the system design
• Change design to mitigate impact of failures on final product
• Helps in selecting design with high productivity of operational success
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Uses of FMEA
• Assure fault detection and isolation capabilities will meet end-
item specifications
• Provides data for planning system maintenance and support
activities
• Provides assurance for maintenance activities that a
replacement item will perform as well as the original item
being replaced
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The role of FMEA in Design The role of FMEA in Design

Provides communication between Helps identify tests needed to certify whether a design is
- Product designers suitable
- Manufacturing engineers Basis for evaluating adequacy of changes in
- Test engineers
- Reliability and maintainability engineers the product design
- Logistics support manufacturing process
- Users materials
- Other groups involved with product design
Identify single-point failures
Keeps critical items visible throughout design process
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FMEA FMECA objectives

1. Assist in selecting design alternatives with high reliability and high safety potential during the early
design phase
• A formal and systematic approach to identifying potential 2. Ensure that all conceivable failure modes and their effects on operational success of the system have
been considered
system failure modes, their causes, and the effects of the 3. List of potential failures and identify the magnitude of their effects
4. Develop early criteria for test planning and the design of the test and checkout system
failure mode occurrence on the system operation
5. Provide the basis for quantitative reliability and availability analysis
• Provide a basis for identifying potential system failures and 6. Provide historical documentation for future reference to aid in analysis of field failures and
consideration of design changes
unacceptable failure effects
7. Provide input data for tradeoff studies
8. Provide basis for establishing corrective action priorities
9. Assist in in objective evaluation of design requirements related to redundancy, failure detection
system, fail-safe characteristics, and automatic and manual override
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FMEA Methodology
• Identify hierarchical level at which analysis is to be done FMEA Methodology
• Establishes level at which failures modes are described
Identify all items modes
• Define each item (subsystem, module, component) to be analyzed Examine item failure modes one at time
• Define the ground rules and assumptions Determine effect of each failure in each failure mode on subsystem of which the item
is a part (local effect)
• Operational phases Propagate failure effects to higher level system functions
• Types of failures modes considered (often only hard failures, not Classify failures by their affects on the system (severity) and by their
partial or intermittent failures) probability of occurrence
Identify any detection methods
• Boundaries of analysis (things not included) Identify any compensating provisions or design changes to mitigate the
• Libraries describing failure modes, effects, and causes are useful failure effects
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105 106
FMEA – In a Nutshell FMECA procedure - Basic questions

1. How can each part possible fail?
• Examine each item 2. What mechanism might produce these modes of failure?
• Consider all the ways that item can fail 3. What could the effects be if the failures did occur?
• Determine how a failure in each failure mode will affect 4. Is the failure in safe or unsafe direction?
system operation if that is the only failure 5. How is the failure detected?
• Use results to improve design by managing how system 6. What are the inherent provisions in the design to
responds to component failures compensate for the failure?
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107 108
Example of an FMECA worksheet (Fig. 3.13)
109 110
109 110
111 112
111 112
113 114
113 114
115 116
115 116
Example of a fault tree (Fig. 3.20)
117 118
117 118
System overview of a fire detection system (Fig. 3.17) Schematic layout of the fire detection system (Fig. 3.18)
119 120
119 120
Fault tree for the fire detection system (Fig. 3.19) Fault tree for the fire detection system (Fig. 3.19) A
121 122
121 122
A simple event tree for a dust explosion (Fig. 3.23) Sketch of first-stage gas separator (Fig. 3.25)
123 124
123 124
Fault tree for the first-stage separator (Fig. 3.26) Activation pressures for the three protection layers of the process safety system (Fig.
3.27)
125 126
125 126
An event tree for the initiating event “blockage of the gas outlet line” (Fig
3.28)
Design for reliability, availability,

maintainability and supportability
(RAMS)
Tore Markeset
127 128
127 128
System failures can be attributed to the following: Poor cost management
Poor cost management is like Acquisition cost
System design and
navigating around icebergs development, production and/
or construction
System operating cost Maintenance cost

Operating personnel, facilities, Customer service, field service, depot/supplier
maintenance (corrective/ preventive
60-70%
utilities, energy, taxes, etc
Design & construction maintenance)
Test and support cost

Computer resources cost
Equipment cost
Operating and maintenance
Test equipment, monitoring
computers, auxiliaries, software, Distribution costs
equipment, special handling,
and data bases/documentation Materials handling, packaging, shipping,
equipment
transportation, distribution
25-30%
Training cost
Operating procedures Operator and maintenance training,

training facilities, equipment, aides,
Supply support cost
Spares, repair parts, and
data/documentation Technical data cost
related inventories
Maintenance provisioning/inventory Operating and maintenance
10-15% maintenance) manuals, procedures,

instructions, field failure
Retirement and disposal / reports
recycling Costs
130
129
129 130
Cost – Risk – Benefit Product Need

One of these can not be
changed without affecting
Market driven development,
the others!!!!
market pull
COST Increase Benefits
• Reduce Cost • Customer (end user)
• Increase Risk • Market for services or products
Reduce Risk • Operator (user)
• Decrease Benefits • Market for technical system
• Increase Cost • Engineering and manufacturer contractor
Reduce Cost
• Increase Risk
RISK BENEFITS • Increase Benefits Technology driven,
technological push
131 132
131 132
Technology trends Life cycle phases
100%
Commitment to LCC, Technology,
Performance, Configuration, etc
• New technology and technology under development promise System Specific
new and improved machines which may be more Knowledge
50% Ease of Change

• Cost effective
• Productive Cost Incurred
• Safe
• Environmental friendly
0%
Specification Conceptual Detail Design and Construction, Production& System Use Phase-out, Decommissioning
of needs Design Development Installation & Commissioning and Disposal
Acquisition Phase Utilization Phase
133 134
133 134
Design out maintenance Design for maintenance Customer / Market

• Need, Want & Preference
• Value
Customer Reliability •
•
Warranty
Quantity
Cost • Alternatives available
• Need, Want &
Preference
• Time Design for Maintenance
• etc
• Value
• Warranty • Cost Optimize
• Quantity
• Alt. available
Reliability
• State of Art
• Etc.
• Reliability
Availability,
• Time Reliability human factors, Maintainability
Design-Out
• Cost
or Trade Off Time etc Easy Accessibility
• State of Art Cost Easy Serviceability
Elimination
• Other Considerations State of Art Easy Interchangeability
of • Design alternatives
Maintenance • Capacity Etc.
• Customer willingness to pay LCC
• Payback of development cost
LCC
135 136
135 136
Guiding principles for design Design specification
• Simplicity and elegance • Quantified R&M objectives
• Minimum number of parts • Environmental conditions
• Modular construction
• Accessibility • Particular maintainability requirements
• Sensible sized components • modular constructions
• Ease of adjustment • workforce maintenance skill level restrictions
• Minimum number of moving parts • multi-skilled workforce
• Use of known technology • acceptance criteria and demonstration of R&M
• Human error considerations
• Specific criteria may be used that refer to particular project requirements
137 138
137 138
Design for Maintenance:

R&M influence An LCC analysis perspective
Less investment cost & less lead time
because:
• Improved conceptual design because:
Benefits of • Degrading mechanisms studied
• Opportunities to influence R&M in a design project • Environmental issues studied
• definition of requirements in a specification

including • Training of team in R&M issues
• Market need identified
• conceptual design R&M: • State of art identified
• detail design • Etc.
Cost • Fewer design iterations in the detail

design phase
Cost
Extra Extra
Investment Lead
Time
Engineering
Exploitation Savings Reliability
Construction
Exploitation Longer Life
Commissioning
Time
Acquisition phase Utilization phase
139 140
139 140
Engineering training Successful R&M in design
• RAMS tools and methods • Focus on R&M and customers needs

• The importance of training in using RAMS tools and methods • Create R&M awareness in organization
• Train employees in using tools & methods
• Use of intranet/ internet for fast and cost effective training
(Web based learning)
• Make tools and methods available and accessible for users at
their working desks
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141 142
Why integrate RAMS Information in product design?
Integration of RAMS Information in It provides basis for:

Design Processes • Design Improvements
• Maintenance Recommendations
• Upgrading and Modifications
• Replacement / Recycling / Reuse
• Life Cycle Cost
143 144
143 144
Organization’s Collective Knowledge and Intelligence Integrated IMS (Information Management System)
Design
IMS
Intelligence
Knowledge Production/
Financial Integrated manufacturing/
IMS IMS Installation
Information IMS
Data Product &

Customer
Support
Information Systems IMS
145 146
145 146
Factors influencing Information systems strategy FRACAS

Failure Reporting, Analysis and Corrective Action System
Data &
Data &
Where to find the information type,
information Product or Report
information format, detail
purpose and use work Record Failure Data and failure to
level
process Information failure review
failure system
Standard or
Identify users, Strategy for
in-house
use frequency, Data & Information
developed Corrective actions to
use type Systems
Software recover product or process Analyze
Followup
functional performance & failure
Operation & customer satisfaction
User location, User skills &
maintenance of
distribution capabilities,
the information
infrastructure user training
systems
147 148
147 148
Example of Information Circulation System Sources for data and information for RAMS
Root Cause Analysis Engineering Market requirement
for returned Spare Simulations & specifications, Design
Parts & Warranty parts Calculations specifications
Other Databases: Poduct Defect R&D Test laboratory
R&D
• There exist many sources for data and information

Resolution, Customer complaint Resolution, Prototype
project
Zero Defect, Field Service Reports, Help Verification,
reviews
Desk, etc Product Testing Suppliers
Register for
Spare Part
Sales
PDM (Product Data
• The information needs to be routed to the users
• The information need to be linked to the RAMS applications
Management), Product
Article Structure
Register for
Warranty
• Recent development in information and communication

MTBF/MTTR
Parts information
Product Support Register for Total FMECA
systems facilitates new possibilities for RAMS integration

and After Sales Quality Control
Service Statistics
MTBF/MTTR
estimates
Training
of Users
Recommended
Preventive
Environmental
Analysis
• The RAMS integration efforts need to be facilitated and
Maintenance
coordinated in a systematic manner
Assembly Guidelines for
& warranty, Product spare Product LCC analysis
Productio maintenance, and part lists Documentation (simplified)
n product upgrading
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149 150
Design for maintenance & product support Failure definition

Customer / Market
•Needs / Wants / Preferences
•Values
• What is unacceptable performance Failure criterion with respect to:
•Warranty • safety
•Quantity • environment
Design for Maintenance and Product Support • capacity
LCC Analysis Designed Availability Optimize
• Critical parts classification:
Reliability Maintainability Product support
•Time •Installation and commissioning
• failure would cause a safety hazard
•Easy accessibility
•Cost •Easy serviceability •Training • failure would impact availability
•Available state of the•Easy interchangeability•Documentation • failure would degrade operation
art technology •Modularization •Spare parts & Warranty schemes
•Online and Help-line support • failure would not affect operation
Cost •Remote monitoring & surveillance
•Upgrading and modifications
Reliability
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151 152
Reliability and Maintainability and System Effectiveness Reliability in design
• “The degree to which these attributes [reliability and • “Equipment should be designed with sufficient reliability so
maintainability] are incorporated in a product determine the that it will be operable for an anticipated life cycle at
system effectiveness.” optimum availability.”
• “Thus, reliability is a function of design; once the design has
• System effectiveness? been completed and released for manufacturing, the
reliability of the product or system has been determined – IT
CAN NOT BE ALTERED WITHOUT REDESIGN.”
153 154
153 154
Responsibility of failure in electronic equipment Reliability

• “Reliability can be considered as a characteristic of design which results in
• Design 43% durability of the product while performing its intended use over a
• Electrical considerations 33%
• Circuit and component deficiencies 11% predetermined interval"
• Inadequate component 10%
• Circuit misapplication
• Mechanical consideration 10%
12% • High reliability is achieved by proper selection of sound engineering
• Design weaknesses, unsuitable materials 5% principles, materials, sizing, manufacturing processes, inspection, testing,
• Unsatisfactory parts 5%
• Operation and maintenance 30% and total quality control.
• Abnormal or accidental condition 12%
• Manhandling
• Faulty maintenance
10%
8%
• Thus, we can define reliability as being the probability that a product or
• Manufacturing 20% system will operate successfully under a specified environment for a
• Faulty workmanship, inadequate inspect. and
process control 18% certain time duration.
• Defective raw materials 2%
• Other
• Worn out, old age
7%
4%
• “It should be apparent the reliability characteristics of a product change
• Cause not determined 3% with time.”
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155 156
Reliability definition 2 The reliability function for the exponential distribution
• The reliability function provides the probability of success or surviving till a time
• Probability that the equipment can perform continuously of interest.
• without failure for a specific period of time • The exponential distribution has only one parameter, lambda or it’s inverse, MTBF
(we use theta commonly).
• when operated under stated condition • R(t)= e−λt
• Let’s say we want to know if a new product will survive 850 hours.
• We have data on 1,650 units that have operated for an average of 400 hours.
1 •
•
Overall there have been 145 failures.
We are assuming an exponential distribution – thus we do not need to know the time to failure for each
Function Reliability Time
•
failure, just the total time and number of failures.
Assuming an exponential distribution and interested in the reliability over a specific time, we use the
R(t) e-λt •
•
reliability function for the exponential distribution
λ= number of failures per unit per total time = 145 failures/1650units/400 hours
=0,0002197 failures per hour
• R(850)= e−λ x t = e−0,0002197x850
Environmental/ • =0,83 (=>83% chance of success, or we can say that there is a 89% chance that the new product will
Operating Conditions 0 •
survive 850 hours
Based on some testing we find a failure rate and can calculate the probability of success (reliability) over
a time period of interest.
t • The basic assumption is the failures have an equal chance to occur each hour of operation
• Ref:
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157 158
Reliability of systems
Reliability Examples:
Parallel system with 4 components:
If the time period is equal 1
All the components must fail for
• R(t) = e-λt to one and there is one 1 2 3 4
2
the system to fail.
• R(t)= the reliability at any time t failure during the
Series system with 4 components,
operating period: What is Or:
• λ = the total number of failures per operating period R1= reliability of component 1, etc. 3
the reliability and what The system works as long as one
• t = planned operating period does it mean? If one of the components fails, then the 4 of the four components works
system fails
R(t) R(1)=e-1x1
The reliability of a series system is always less that The reliability of a parallell system is always more that
1 e-λt =0,3679
there reliability of its weakest component there reliability of its best component
=> This mean that there is a
36,79% probability that the
Rs =1 - (1 – R1) x (1 – R2) x (1 – R3) x (1 – R4)
system is still working at the end If: R1=0,9; R2= 0,8; R3=0,7; R4=0,6; then
0 Time of the period
System reliability Rs = R1 x R2 x R3 x R4
If: R1=0,9; R2= 0,8; R3=0,7; R4=0,6; then
Rs = 1 - (1 – 0,9) x (1 – 0,8) x (1 – 0,7) x (1 – 0,6)
=0,9976
Rs= 0,9 x 0,8 x 0,7 x 0,6
= 0,3024
See also example at: https://accendoreliability.com/exponential-reliability/

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159 160
Example Reliability over time
•λ is constant -> exponential distribution, no history
•λ = 1 / MTTF
• The majority of installed equipment is contained in the constant portion of the mortality
curve •Rs = e-λ1t x e-λ2t x e-λ3t x e-λ4t
• Random failure period and constant failure rate •Rs = e-(λ1+λ2+λ3+λ4)t
• Failure rate λ = total number of failures (258) / total operating hours •Rs = survival probability
• E.g. System failure rate= 258 failures/ million operating hours •Mean failure rate is 20x10-6 h-1
• MTBF=1 000 000 / 258 = 3876 hr •R=e-20x10^ x t
-6
• Operates 2 shifts per day (16 hrs) 5 days a week = 4160 hrs pr year (16x5x52) •Rt=1 year (8760) hrs of operations = 0,836
• System will fail once in every 0.93 year on average (3876 / 4160)
•Rt=2 years of operations = 0,704
• MFOT = Sum component outage time / to number of failures
•Rt=5 years hrs of operations = 0,416
•Rt= 10 years hrs of operations = 0,170
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161 162
Unavailability – availability Maintainability
• Q (= unreliability) • “Maintainability implies a built-in characteristic of the

• Q=1-e-λt =1-e-258 (4160-48) =0,654 (48hr=3*16hr shutdown) equipment design and installation which imparts to the cell
• Indicates that there is 65,4% chance of failure the next year an inherent ability to be maintained, so as to keep the
• A = MTBF/ (MTBF+MFOT) equipment productively operating by employing a minimum
• A = 3876/ (3876-8,36) = 0,9979 number for maintenance man-hours, skill levels, and
maintenance costs.”
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163 164
100% R&M? Designing for maintainability objective
• No product can be assumed to have 100% reliability at any point in its life • “The objective of designing for maintainability is to provide
cycle – even in the first minutes of use. However, successful designs should
have 100% maintainability. equipment and facilities that can be serviced efficiently and
effectively and repaired effectively if they should fail.”
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165 166
Some examples for good maintainability are:

• Interchangeability
• Easy accessibility
• Easy serviceability
• Modular design
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167 168
169 170
169 170
Optimization model
Identify maintenance strategies

and actions which are optimal for
company
Life cycle costing Cost Benefit
How to evaluate?
Professor Tore Markeset How to make a decision?
• Basis for decision

• Prediction about the future performance
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171 172
LCC Life Cycle Cost
• The abbreviation LCC is used for
• Life Cycle Cost &
• Life Cycle Costing • Life Cycle Cost refer to the total costs associated with the
• Life Cycle Costing is an analysis tool for product or system over a defined life cycle
• Economic Analysis
• Engineering Analysis • i.e. all costs related to acquisition and utilization of a product
• Selecting equipment and production systems over a defined period of the product life cycle
• Optimizing cost and benefit for selection alternative production schemes
• Modifications of existing systems/machines/equipment •Life Cycle Costs = Acquisition costs
• Investments in new and improved technology + Operational costs
• Selecting machines/equipment from different suppliers + Maintenance costs
+ Disposal Costs
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173 174
Life Cycle Costing Life Cycle Cost/Costing
• Refers to: • Life Cycle Cost evaluates the cumulative cost of a product throughout its
whole life cycle
• Evaluation of alternative products,
• Alternative system design configurations, • Might be very complex
• Alternative operational and maintenance solutions • Might require large quantities of data
•Definition: • Life Cycle Costing is a tool for decision making when several alternatives are
under consideration
• ”A systematic analytical process of evaluating various alternative • Analyze the difference between two or more alternatives => select the best
courses of action with the objective of choosing the best way to investment alternative
employ scarce resources” • Also called ”Cost Benefit Analysis”
• Tries to identify major cost drivers
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175 176
Time Value of Money
Mapping of Cost Drivers
Procurement
costs
Operations cost Maintenance cost Disposal costs • The assets have to be compared at an equal basis
• Operating personnel • Maintenance personnel and
• Operator training support • Future LCC cost and income has to be discounted to today’s value
• Operational facilities • Spare/ repair parts • Value of money today = Future Value / (1+Discount Rate)Time
• Support and handling • Test and support equipment
equipment maintenance
• Energy/ utilities/ fuel • Transition and handling •Discounting methods:
• Maintenance training
• Maintenance facilities
• Payback method
• Technical Data • Net present value
• System/ product modification • Internal rate of return
177 178
177 178
Uncertainty and Risk in LCC analysis R&M Tools and Methods

Tools: FMEA, FMECA, FTA, ETA, HAZOP
Lack of data can be
• An LCC that does not include risk analysis is incomplete at Data Sources: helped by using:
best and can be incorrect and misleading at worst • Engineering design data • Experts,
• Reliability and maintainability data • Experience
• LCC analysis combined with risk analysis provides different • Logistic support data • Comparing with
decision scenarios where the consequences of the decision • Production and construction data similar systems,
• Consumer utilization data • Parametric
made are considered in depth • Value analysis and related data evaluation,
• Accounting data • etc
• Management and planning data
• Market analysis data
179 180
179 180
Life cycle costing Example
• LCC analysis is a powerful tool for cost effective asset
management and asset selection • A Cheap H4 Bus Bulb costs SEK15
• LCC analysis often requires that the buyer and seller • An Expensive H4 Bus Bulb costs SEK50
cooperates both in the specification and design phase of the • Cost of replacing the bulb at workshop is SEK500
• The cheap bulb is replaced at a rate of 0.22 per month (the bulb fails every
asset 4.54 months (1/0.22)
• LCC is not only an economic tool, but also an effective • The expensive bulbs have a 50% longer life length (failure every 6.82
months, 0.15)
engineering tool for improving asset performance and system • Number of buses: 1830
effectiveness
181 182
181 182
Solution Sensitivity analysis – Criticality of input data
Yearly costs: A) Improvement of the expensive bulbs is only 25% (instead of

• Cheap Bulbs: 0,22 x12x (15+500)=SEK1360 pr bus per year 50 %)
• Exp. Bulbs: (0,22 / 1,5) x12x (50+500)=SEK968 pr bus per year B) The cost of taking the bus into the workshop is only SEK250
C) The expensive bulb costs SEK100 instead of SEK50
The yearly costs for the cheap bulbs are 40% higher than for
the expensive bulbs
• Total costs for cheap bulbs: MSEK 2,49
• Total costs for expensive bulbs: MSEK 1,77
183 184
183 184
Sensitivity analysis results Conclusions from example
Alternative Cheap bulb (MSEK) Expensive bulb (MSEK)

• In spite of large changes in the input data, basis for decision does not change
until all of the three changes occur simultaneously.
Base Case 2,49 1,77 • This stability in the analysis results is normal and important because of
a) Only +25% 2,49 2,13 uncertainty always exists in the input data
b) Only 250 1,28 0,97
c) Expensive +50 2,49 1,93 The example shows that:
• Exact input data for the LCC analysis normally is not important
a) + b) 1,28 1,16 • In those cases the alternatives are close in result, and where accuracy of the
a) + c) 2,49 2,32 input data can be important, the effect of a wrong choice not critical
b) + c) 1,28 1,13
a) + b) +c) 1,28 1,35
• Normally, only a few input data are critical
185 186
185 186
Contents
• Product support
• Spare part planning
Spare parts and inventory logistics • Inventory control
Tore Markeset
187 188
187 188
The main aspects of product Spare parts logistics
application type Logistics of spare parts differ from other
materials in several ways:
Working Working Physical • Service requirements are higher, as the
environment environment environment
effects of stock-outs may be financially
remarkable
Working time & User • The demand for parts may be extremely
Operation period Application type characteristics
of the product sporadic and difficult to forecast.
• The prices of individual parts may be very
high.
Level of Operating place or
application location
189 190
189 190
Spare parts classification Required spare parts estimation

Spare parts classification factors should be chosen according to importance of effect on availability
of spare part when it is required, such as geographical location of system, criticality of part, spare Real MTTF with respect Number of required spare
to covariates parts (unit/year/loader)
parts lead-time, etc.
1100 hour 48
Cr
Le iti
ad ca
lit Mod- λ(t,z)= 5e-4 exp(-1.344
× ×1 – 0.658× (-1) – 1.312
× (-1) )= 9.35e-4
tim y High
e Low erate
Short SSL* SSM* SSH*

Number of required spare
Moderate SML** SMM** SMH*** Base-line MTTF
parts (unit/year/loader)
Long SLL** SLM*** SLH***

2000 hour 28
191 192
191 192
Spare parts logistics optimization Conclusions: spare part planning
The Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is the lot size that
minimizes the total inventory cost with respect to
• A reliable spare parts prediction can be done based on product
reliability characteristics and operating environment.
elimination of shortages.
• To calculate the reliability of the system in operation
accurately the operating environment factors should be taken
Annual cost
st
into account
l co
• Spare parts logistics should be optimized on the basis of the
a
Tot t
cos
ing
H old
Lowest cost cost of the spare part, ordering cost, holding cost, and the cost
of unavailability of the part
Ordering cost
Best Q Lot size (Q)
193 194
193 194
Maintenance materials: inventory control Objectives of effective inventory control are:
With the help of inventory control we can be able to know what the • To relate stock and stores quantities to demand
right amount and right type of spare parts should be and we can
• To avoid losses due to spoilage, pilferage and obsolescence
make efforts to make the spare parts available at the right time.
• To obtain the best turnover rate on all items by considering
both the cost of acquisition and possession
195 196
195 196
The Pareto Principle, or the 80/20 rule, for spare parts
The Pareto Principle states that for many phenomena 80% of the result comes from 20% of the effort. The principle
has been named after Vilfredo Pareto — an Italian economist — who, back in 1895, noticed that about 80% of Italy’s
Factors influencing inventory
land belonged to 20% of the country’s population.
10% Class C: These items represent maybe 60 to 70% of To achieve maximum value from the inventory, maintenance management need to
C the items and about 10% of the investment costs
consider different activities which have affects directly or indirectly on the
20%
B Class B: These items represent perhaps 20 to 30% of the items
but about 25% of the total investment costs.
process
•Record procedure
•Centralized or decentralized storerooms
% of costs
•Storage methods
70% •Two-bin inventory control
A Class A: These stocks and stores would represent only between 10 and 15% of the
total items yet their monetary value would be between 70 and 85% of the total •Safety stock and lead times
investment costs in inventory
•Economic order quantity
•Bar coding
10% 20% 70%

% of items 197 198
197 198
Record procedure Centralized or decentralized storerooms

•To achieve the goal of maintenance and to achieve the
maximum value from maintenance
Whether computer-controlled or manual procedures are • Materials should be available on the right time, and in good condition
employed, there must be informative inventory records to • Consider centralized or decentralized inventory
• Decentralized:
assure that parts and materials are available for routine • Which parts are needed at plant or close to plant at a decentralized storage
maintenance, repairs, and overhauls • Centralized:
• Which parts can be stored at centralized storages (or at manufacturer or distributor)
199 200
199 200
Economic order quantity Bar coding in inventory maintenance management
Economic order quantity includes two types of costs:
• Acquisition (ordering) costs • An important method for managing inventories.
• This cost is independent of the size of the order. It includes the various setup of the costs.
• For instance, if • The black bars and white spaces represent ten digits that
• Cost of ordering is Co, Order quantity is a, and Periodic usage is U, identify both the item and the manufacturer. Important
• Then the Cost of ordering per usage time (1 yr, or the other increment of time) is: Cu= (Co x U ) / a
• Possessing (carrying) costs because the following reasons:
• The cost of possession is made up of two costs. • Accuracy
• The cost of monetary value of the inventory. This includes current rate plus any allowance for
inflation or decrease in value of the hard currency ($, £ ) • Performance
• The cost of physical storage. It includes the cost of building, depreciation, heat, lighting, wages of • Acceptance
stock clerk, insurance and so on.
• Low cost
• Portability
• Often the cost of the possession are handled as a percentage of the
purchase costs
201 202
201 202
Bar coding advantages Overstocking

1. Accuracy • Often a tendency to Overstock spare parts and maintenance
• Less than 1 error in 3.4 million characters is representative performance. This compares favorably with
the 2 to 5 % error that is characteristic of keyboard data entry
materials to maintain high plant and facility availability and to
2. Performance
• A bar code scanner enters data three to four times faster than typical keyboard entry
• A costly luxury that the company cannot afford
3. Acceptance • Inventory size should be based on careful analysis
• Most employees enjoy using the scanning wand. Inevitably, they prefer using a wand to keyboard entry
4. Low cost • The alternative of repair as opposed to replacement should
• The cost of adding this identification to inventory items is extremely low
5. Portability
always be considered, not only
• An operator can carry a bar code scanner into any area of a plant to determine inventories, status of a • to reduce spare part inventory, but also
maintenance order, and other information
• to provide greater plant and facility availability
Inventory size should be based on careful analysis of the real needs and
requirements of the maintenance as well as the availability of the equipments.
203 204
203 204
Conclusions Computerized maintenance inventory control
Once usage lead times, availability, costs, interests rates, storage Advantageous when:
costs, inflation, and chance of spoilage have been taken into • Inventory exceed 5000 parts
consideration economic order of quantities should be determined • Number of transactions is substantial
and inventory control procedures should be incorporated
•To make inventory control effective a survey need to be done

figuring out which type of soft/ hardware package fit a
company and business
205 206
205 206
Software modules Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS)
1.Stockroom and storeroom

• The stockroom and storeroom personnel should at all times be able to service the supply needs of the trades
people by rapidly assessing the spare parts and materials inventories and furnishing the needed supplies in an
effective manner
2.Craft and/or trades person

• A feature of this module is the ability to assess inventory stock and stores by part number, description,
equipment number, work order number and so on
3. Inventory control
• Inventory levels should be maintained that keep the inventory levels financially reasonable while
avoiding stock outs. Computer generated reports will keep management abreast of the total system
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207 208
Maintenance complexity and volume Why IT-based maintenance systems?
•Example:
• Airport facility in the far east
• 7000 equipment systems • Maintenance is an important cost factor
• 20 000 SKU (Stock keeping units) in maintenance stores • Complex production processes
• 100 000 work orders per year is generated
• The number of data transactions may exceed 1 million per year • Large amounts of information to be handled
• Large losses related to shutdowns and downtime
• One needs a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS system) that keeps
track of • Consequences for productivity and quality
• who is doing what tasks, • Systematization of failure history and cost drivers
• on what equipment,
• with what parts, • Delivery in time
• and at what costs • Goodwill and image
209 210
209 210
Contribution of a CMMS system Key CMMS modules

Financials
Production planning and control
Engineering CAE/CAD
• Fast access to vital information Human resource system
• Fast handling and storage of large amount of data and
information
• Equipment identification
• A tool for maintenance planning and control • Preventive maintenance
• A tool for decision-making processes and improved cost control • Equipment history
• Costs and budgets
•
Maintenance
Improved resource planning Database • Labor
• Structured and clear reporting • Inventory control
• More rational logistics processes • Planning and scheduling
• Work order management
211 212
211 212
IFS ERP (Enterprise Resource
Linked maintenance and material process Planning) system
Maintenance process Materials process DEMAND
PLANNING
Smedvig Offshore AS CONSTRAINT
Inspection Equipment Specify

BASED
SCHEDULING
Predictive control ENTERPRISE

STOREFRONT IFS Applications 2001 COSTING
CBM VEHICLE
Preventive Identify Source WEB STORE

FINANCIAL
LEDGER
SHOP FLOOR
REPORTING
PAYROLL
ADMINISTRATION
INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT
Corrective Equipment ePROCURMENT

REPORT SUPPLIER
CRP / MRP
EXPENSE
SCHEDULING
PROCESS
GENERATOR SCHEDULING REPORTING DESIGN
Lubrication configuration
Plan Order CONSOLIDATED FIELD SERVICE & CUSTOMER SHOP TIME & PREVENTIVE INSTRUMENTATION
eMARKETS
ACCOUNTS OPERATIONS SCHEDULING ORDER ATTENDANCE MAINTENANCE DESIGN
CONTACT FIXED PROPOSAL CUSTOMER MAKE TO PROJECT WORK ELECTRICAL
Net capacity Schedule Bill of Store

CENTER ASSETS GENERATION ORDERS ORDER REPORTING ORDER DESIGN
materials COLLABORATION ACCOUNTS SALES

INVOICING
ASSEMBLE TO
RECRUITMENT EQUIPMENT
PLANT LAYOUT &
PORTALS RECEIVABLE CONFIGURATOR ORDER PIPING DESIGN
Assign Control EMPLOYEE

PORTALS
ACCOUNTS
PAYABLE
SALES &
MARKETING
PURCHASING
REPETITIVE
PRODUCTION
EMPLOYEE
DEVELOPMENT
EQUIPMENT
PERFORMANCE
PROJECT
DELIVERY
WIRELESS GENERAL MARKETING MASTER SKILLS & EQUIPMENT PDM

INVENTORY
SERVICES LEDGER ENCYCLOPEDIA SCHEDULING QUALIFICATIONS MONITORING CONFIGURATION
Execute Repairables Use IFS

IFS IFS IFS IFS IFS IFS IFS
HUMAN
eBUSINESS FINANCIALS FRONT OFFICE DISTRIBUTION MANUFACTURING MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING
RESOURCES
Analyze Analyze PERSONAL PORTAL

MANAGEMENT
PROJECT
QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
RULES
DOCUMENT
MANAGEMENT
BUSINESS
PERFORMANCE
Reporting IFS Foundation1
Smedvig
213 214
213 214
Equipment identification and bill of materials

Equipment identification and bill of Work order Equipment history analysis
materials • Work order number, • History of overhauls, repairs, costs, labor, downtime, utilization
• System description • Estimating costs • Track failure causes and development, special events
• Technical specifications • Tracking status • Time usage for maintenance and costs
• Purchasing and supplier data • Priority • Spare parts
• Location of parts • Applicant, specification, date • Performed maintenance activities
• Spare parts • Who to do the job, cause failure, is the part Analysis
• System description
• Technical system hierarchy functional, estimated maintenance time, • Calculations of availability, establishment of goals and indicators
downtime for measurements, material flow analysis, cost analysis,
discrepancy analysis
Preventive maintenance
• Identification number and name
Inventory control
• Article number and name
• Equipment which fails most often (Top ten, MTTR/MTBF)
• Equipment which require most maintenance work (Top ten) • Technical specifications
• Purchasing and supplier data
• Maintenance history • Parts available (Backup inventory) • Maintenance time per year, average time for repair, work load,
• Activity description • Spare part cost Corrective/preventive maintenance relationship
• Intervals • Ordering time
• Tools needed
• Spare parts needed
• Status of spare part inventory
• Spare part cost
Labor
• Inventory of individuals, their skills, vacation schedules, training
• Location of parts
• Responsible person • Location
• Supplier and alternative supplier
• Number of parts in ordering
history, availability
• Personnel utilization to enable accurate work order and project
scheduling and backlog control
• Spare parts
Planning and scheduling
• Task times
Cost and budget • Technical system hierarchy
• Projected and actual costs
• Resources needed to do the job
• Labor
• Schedules for all types of maintenance
work
• Material
• Services
• Allocated overheads
215 216
215 216
Work order Preventive maintenance
• Work order number, • Identification number and name

• Estimating costs • Maintenance history
• Tracking status • Activity description
• Priority • Intervals
• Applicant, specification, date • Tools needed
• Who to do the job, cause failure, is the part functional, • Spare parts needed
estimated maintenance time, downtime • Responsible person
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217 218
Planning and scheduling Inventory control
• Task times • Article number and name

• Resources needed to do the job • Parts available (Backup inventory)
• Spare part cost
• Schedules for all types of maintenance work
• Ordering time
• Status of spare part inventory
• Spare part cost
• Location
• Supplier and alternative supplier
• Number of parts in ordering
219 220
219 220
Equipment history analysis Labor
•
•
History of overhauls, repairs, costs, labor, downtime, utilization
Track failure causes and development, special events
• Inventory of individuals, their skills, vacation schedules,
• Time usage for maintenance and costs training history, availability
• Spare parts
• Performed maintenance activities • Personnel utilization to enable accurate work order and
project scheduling and backlog control
Analysis
• Calculations of availability, establishment of goals and indicators for measurements, material flow analysis, cost
analysis, discrepancy analysis
• Equipment which fails most often (Top ten, MTTR/MTBF)
• Equipment which require most maintenance work (Top ten)
• Maintenance time per year, average time for repair, work load, Corrective/preventive maintenance relationship
221 222
221 222
Cost and budgets Criteria for selecting a CMMS system

When selecting a CMMS system we need to:
• Link the goals to business objectives and systems objectives
• Perform a requirement analysis
• Projected and actual costs • Define and design the system needed, thereafter build it
• Test the solution and
• Labor • Transition
• Material Criteria
• Services • The system should be customized for the organization and it should be flexible
• Assess the needs of the user
• Allocated overheads • Technical criteria
• Economical criteria
• Criteria for choice of supplier of the system
• Suggestions for content in the specification
• Comparison of offers, choice of supplier and implementation
• Recommended use of information in the system
223 224
223 224
IFS ERP (Enterprise Resource EAM (Enterprise Asset Management)
Planning) system System
DEMAND
Smedvig Offshore AS
PLANNING
Smedvig Offshore AS CONSTRAINT

BASED
SCHEDULING
ENTERPRISE
STOREFRONT IFS Applications 2001 COSTING
VEHICLE
FINANCIAL SHOP FLOOR PAYROLL
WEB STORE INFORMATION
LEDGER REPORTING ADMINISTRATION
MANAGEMENT
REPORT SUPPLIER EXPENSE PROCESS SCHEDULING

ePROCURMENT CRP / MRP SCHEDULING
GENERATOR SCHEDULING REPORTING DESIGN
PREVENTIVE
CONSOLIDATED FIELD SERVICE & CUSTOMER SHOP TIME & PREVENTIVE INSTRUMENTATION MAINTENANCE
eMARKETS WEB STORE
ACCOUNTS OPERATIONS SCHEDULING ORDER ATTENDANCE MAINTENANCE DESIGN
WORK
CONTACT FIXED PROPOSAL CUSTOMER MAKE TO PROJECT WORK ELECTRICAL ORDER
CENTER ASSETS GENERATION ORDERS ORDER REPORTING ORDER DESIGN
COLLABORATION ACCOUNTS SALES ASSEMBLE TO PLANT LAYOUT & CUSTOMER EQUIPMENT

INVOICING RECRUITMENT EQUIPMENT
PORTALS RECEIVABLE CONFIGURATOR ORDER PIPING DESIGN ORDERS
EQUIPMENT
EMPLOYEE ACCOUNTS SALES & REPETITIVE EMPLOYEE EQUIPMENT PROJECT PERFORMANCE
PURCHASING
PORTALS PAYABLE MARKETING PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT PERFORMANCE DELIVERY
EQUIPMENT
WIRELESS GENERAL MARKETING MASTER SKILLS & EQUIPMENT PDM COLLABORATION MONITORING
INVENTORY PURCHASING
SERVICES LEDGER ENCYCLOPEDIA SCHEDULING QUALIFICATIONS MONITORING CONFIGURATION PORTALS
EMPLOYEE IFS
IFS INVENTORY
IFS IFS IFS IFS IFS IFS IFS PORTALS MAINTENANCE
HUMAN
eBUSINESS FINANCIALS FRONT OFFICE DISTRIBUTION MANUFACTURING MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING
RESOURCES
PERSONAL PORTAL QUALITY ACCOUNTING DOCUMENT BUSINESS

PROJECT
MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT RULES MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE
IFS Foundation1
IFS Foundation1
Smedvig Smedvig
225 226
225 226
Logistics: When to order new parts?

Justifying your CMMS
CMMS software is costly
Number of parts • Advantages includes:
• Maintenance productivity increases: (=output/ input)
Ordering point • Output is measured in availability, operating speed, precision, reliability, etc.
• Input is money and resources spent on labor, materials, services, overhead, etc.
Ordering
• Performance standards (e.g. failure rate and duration) depends on that the maintenance program is
properly developed, scheduled and executed. This relies on:
point • Equipment failure history
• Records of repairs and overhauls completed
Safety • Lists of the correct materials and resources used.
inventory • Minimizing downtime for inspections, repairs, and overhauls requires scheduling and
coordination of labor and parts
Time • Other benefits: Better overview of purchasing requests, Simple and faster to handle purchasing requests,
Better overview of equipment and parts, Better overview of maintenance of equipment, Easier find spare
parts, More effective administration of bulk jobs, Easier to register equipment failures (failure reporting),
Easier billing-procedures
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227 228
Contents
• Maintenance
Reliability Centered Maintenance • RCM History
• RCM Methods and Process
• Implementation of RCM Results
• Continuous improvement of maintenance strategy by RCM approach
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229 230
Maintenance Changing World of Maintenance
• Maintenance are Efforts to ensure that physical assets 1950 1975 2000 2020
continue to perform their required functions Equipment Simple, over-designed Increased mechanization Complex Automated
• The maintenance goals is to make sure that our operation is Failure losses Minor Can be significant Can be tremendous Can be tremendous
In conformance with authority requirements, that we Request for availability Low High Higher Higher
Request for environment None Low High Higher
maintain reliability and availability goals and that the Maintenance strategy Breakdown maintenance Fix-interval overhauls RCM+Risk analysis
RCM+Risk
analysis+Predictive+AI
maintenance is cost effective
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231 232
History of RCM Maintenance Function
• US Airlines found that the using fixed interval overhauls did too much maintenance Maintenance objective:
and often on items that did not require maintenance.
• Target assigned by the management to maintenance functions
• They therefore considered to look into if reliability of items could be used as a basis
Maintenance strategy:
for doing maintenance, and therefore established the Maintenance Steering Group
(MSG) composed by representatives from the aircraft manufactures, airline
• Management methods used in order to achieve the maintenance objectives
companies and the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) Maintenance activity:
• They deliver their report in 1968 outlining the use reliability centered maintenance. • Actions for maintaining or restoring physical assets in serviceable condition
The report was updated in 1970 and 1980 where they improved the methodology.
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
• 1983: US nuclear power plants started to use RCM and also the Norwegian offshore Objectives Strategy Activities
oil and gas industry started in the 80ies:
• 1981: Guidelines for safety evaluation of platform conceptual design Transfer maintenance objectives to maintenance
• 1991: “Regulations concerning implementation and use of risk analysis in the petroleum activities” activities through maintenance strategy
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233 234
Maintenance Process Maintenance Related Costs

RCM goal: Minimum maintenance costs
Maintenance
objective CBS - Cost of basic services (lubrication, cleaning, etc.) (Note:
these are also preventive maintenance)
Maintenance CRISKEX CPM - Cost of predictive and preventive maintenance (e.g.

strategy CTOT Inspection, condition monitoring, functional test, Overhauls)
Maintenance
planning / scheduling CCM - Cost of corrective maintenance
CMIN
Analysis CPM CRISKEX - Costs / losses due to unplanned events (HSE,
Cost $
CCM Production / services, Materials damage, Damage to reputation
Maintenance
execution Total maintenance costs:
CTOT = CBS + CPM + CCM + CRISKEX
Result reporting
and recording CBS RCM goal - minimum maintenance cost:
0
% Level of Preventive Maintenance 100 CMIN - Minimal CTOT
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235 236
RCM Logic Steps of RCM Analysis
1. Equipment registration
• Required functions 2. Clarification of functions where one identifies required functions
• Functional failures 3. Identification of functional failures
• Failure modes (reasons) 4. Perform Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) to analyse failure
• Failure effects (characteristics/ symptoms) modes (characteristics of failures) and failure effects (consequences of
the failures)
• Failure risks
5. Failure potential costs - Risk analysis to identify the criticality of failures
• Selection of cost effective preventive tasks 6. Criticality and acceptance criteria
7. Selection of cost effective preventive tasks - Cost-benefit analysis
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237 238
Step 1 - Equipment Registration Asset Registration - Technical hierarchy

PUMP
•Physical hierarchy PACKAGE
•Plant
•Systems PUMP A PUMP B PUMP N
•Sub-systems / Main equipment Safety valve -A

Shut-off valve -A
PSV -B
EV - B
PSV -N
EV - N
•Equipment Control valve - A

Alarm high high- A
PCV - B
PSHH - B
PCV - N
PSHH - N
•System selection and boundary definition

Alarm high- A PSH - B PSH - N
Press. indicator -A PI - B PI - N
239 240
239 240
Step 2 - Function Definition Functional Hierarchy
SYSTEMS System 1
• Definition of functional hierarchy (NORSOK Standard Z- System 2
CR-008) System N TECHNICAL HIERARCHY

MAIN
• System FUNCTIONS Main Function 1 PUMP
Main Function 2 PACKAGE
• Main functions
Main Function N
• Functions
• Equipment Main Task
PUMP A PUMP B PUMP N
• Required functions for system / main equipment /

Depressurisation
Shutdown, process Safety valve -A PSV -B PSV -N
Shut-off valve -A EV - B EV - N
FUNCTIONS Shutdown, equipment
equipment (top-down procedure)

Control valve - A PCV - B PCV - N
Control
Alarm high high - A PSHH - B PSHH - N
Monitoring Alarm high - A PSH - B PSH - N
•
Local indication
Functional block diagram Manual shut-off
Press. indicator -A
Manual valves etc..
PI - B PI - N
Other functions Panel junction box,

lub. oil
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241 242
Step 3 - Failure Identification Step 4 - Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
• How each identify function of an asset may fail? • Failure mode - What may cause each failure?
• Most used techniques: • Mechanical effects: wear, fatigue, vibration, overload, misbalance
• Fault tree method • Chemical/electrical effects: corrosion,
• Event tree method • Physical effects: foreign object intrusion
• Experience data
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243 244
Examples of Failure Modes Failure Effects
• System 21: Crude Handling and Metering • Failure effect - What happens when a failure occurs?
• Main equipment 21P1001: Oily Water Pumping Station •Is the failure Hidden or is it evident that the failure has happened
•Are there HSE Hazards: fire, explosion, chemical leakage, noise, etc
•Are there consequences on the planned Production / services
Function Failure Failure mode
•Are there secondary damages on other equipment or systems?
1. Pump bearing failed due to overheat, or
Pumping stopped 2. Pump impeller jammed by foreign object, or •What can we do to mitigate the failure to avoid the consequences
To transfer oily water at
not less than 1 m3/min
3. Motor burns due to lack of cooling or what Corrective actions do we need to do to repair the faulty
Transfer less oily water
than required 1. Pump impeller worn item after a failure?
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245 246
Hidden failure Examples of Failure Effects

• Hidden - it is not clear that the item has failed (for example • Case 1:
a battery for the start motor in a life boat is flat, or the • A gear is not working because the gear teeth are destroyed ( this is an evident failure):
• Motor does not stop but the machine stops. The consequence is 3 hours downtime to
smoke detector has a flat battery replace gearbox with spare gearbox. The broken gearbox is fix by replacing the broken
gear with a new in the workshop.
• Hidden failures will not become evident to the operating
crew under normal circumstances if it occurs on its own • Case 2:
• Pump A failed due to bearing failure, and pump B can not be started (Hidden failure).
•Standby units: pumps, motors, …
• case 3:
•Protective devices: fire / gas alarm and fire fighting units, • Motor of a pump for filling a tank stops and the alarm sounds in the control room. The
tank low level alarm sounds after 15 minutes, and tank runs dry after 25 minutes.
safety valves, Downtime required to replace the bearings 4 hours.
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247 248
Step 5 - Risk Analysis Example of Risk Matrix
• Risk is a combination of Consequence and Probability Catastropic IV III II IV IV IV
•The failure can have consequences on the
•Safety, health and environment Critical IV III III II IV IV
Severity
•Production / service Marginal IV IV III III II IV
•Materials damage
• Probability of the failure relates to how often will this happen (time, use Neglible IV IV IV III III II
hours)
Incredible Remote
Improbable Occasional Probable Frequent
seldom possibility
• The risk analysis can be quantitative if one has numbers available or, if not, Probability
Qualitative where one uses experts and experience, as well as manufacturers
recommendations, comparing with similar installations, etc.
249
250
249 250
Criticality - Acceptance Criteria Step 6 - Maintenance Tasks for MSI

Class Risk Maintenance Example of Criticality distribution
• Failure types:
I Intolerable Redesign 1% • Age-related
• Not Age-related
II Undesirable PM, MSI 20 % • Failure development process
• On-condition tasks
III Tolerable PM, MSI 38 %
• Selection of task intervals
IV Neglible Planned CM 41 % • Selection of task combination
MSI: Maintenance significant items
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251 252
Age-Related Failures
• For evident failures we have to predictive tasks: • Characteristics Minimum required
• Visual inspection by human senses
Performance
• Performance reduces gradually with time performance
• Failure rate increases dramatically after

• Inspection by using special instruments certain time point
• Condition monitoring • Typical failure modes: Age
• Product quality monitoring • Fatigue - high frequency cyclic loads

• Corrosion - chemical impacts
• Process parameter trending • Oxidation - oxygen effects
• For hidden failures we have to do a functional test • Wear out - Mechanical eat-out process
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253 254
Not Age-Related Failures Failures Development Process

• Not age-related failures has a random characteristics Performance
• Failure rate is constant over time
• The reasons for such failures could for example be variable
stress, mishandling, overload, etc. It could also be due to
Failure
complexity of design where many parts interact and one has acceptance
level
not become aware of the possibility of failure
Time
Ts Td Tf
Failure rate is constant over time
Failure Failure Failed
Failure rate
starts detectable
Age
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The detect to failure time interval (Td-Tf Interval) Step 7 - Decide preventive maintenance tasks
• Selection of taks is dependent on:
• The interval in time from a failure is detectable to its failure (Td - Tf), is the • MTBF or failure rate
Warning time and is dependent on the • Inherent success probability
• The nature of the failure • Costs of failure consequences
• Cost for on-condition task
• The operating condition
• Task interval
• The detection technique • Cost
• With human senses we can detect a failure days or weeks before the • Benefit
failure happen
• Practical
• Using vibration monitoring and analysis the detection can be done much • Task combination
earlier - the warning time would be weeks or months rather than days • Balance of contributions from each task
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RCM is a continuous improvement process Evaluation of Present Strategy

• When we establishment the maintenance strategy we may use:
• RCM process • Cost of maintenance efforts
• Generic reliability data • Benefits of maintenance tasks
• Experience
• Qualitative approach • Outcomes:
• When we evaluate an existing maintenance strategy we may use: • Effectiveness of present maintenance strategy: Benefit-cost ratio
• RCM process • Remaining potential risk in a money term
• True equipment history • Risk ranking under present strategy
• Best maintenance practice • Where modification of present strategy will reduce maintenance costs
• Quantitative approach
• When we optimize a maintenance strategy optimization we should
• Balance the contributions from each task
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259 260
Maintenance Strategy Optimization Risk based maintenance
• Selection of cost-effective maintenance methods
• Benefits of maintenance tasks
• Optimize activity interval based on cost and benefit
• Optimize activity combination on items
• Outcomes:
• Improvement of cost-effective of maintenance strategy
• Reduction of maintenance costs
• Remaining potential risk in a money term
• Risk ranking based on recommended strategy
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Risk based maintenance Why use risk based maintenance approach
• In any business we would like to focus on the most important • Engineers contribution to risk of failures can be in perception,
areas and to prioritize the factors that are critical to success. engineering, site selection, design, construction / manufacturing, use
• To make maintenance cost effective we would like to find out of the system, or operation of the system,
which equipment is critical for our operations. This is the
equipment we would like to spend scarce resources on • but most of the trouble is due to the lack insight into maintenance
need under varying operating condition
• Risk based maintenance used together with the RCM
methodology helps to set up a maintenance strategy which • Risk based approach provides an insight into maintenance need right
create value for our business from the stage of “perception” to the disposal
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263 264
Risk Definition of RISK
• Risk is a combination of Consequence and Probability
• The failure can have consequences on HSE, Production / service and may cause materials
damage. A failure have consequences on the economy and may also have consequences
• Risk can be formally defined as a potential of loss or injury
on the environment and the quality of the product used. resulting from exposure to an hazard or failure and can be
• The probability of failure relates to frequency of failures or how often it will happen assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively.
(use time/hours of operations).
• The likelihood of failure is influenced by the failure mode, material degradation, and
the operating environment
• The risk analysis can be quantitative if one has numbers available or, if not, Qualitative
• Risk is often expressed as a triplet of
where one uses experts and experience, as well as manufacturers recommendations, • Event (E)
comparing with similar installations, etc. personnel
• Likelihood (P)
• What is acceptable degradation?
• Consequences (C)
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265 266
Risk analysis Risk analysis

• Risk analysis establish a basis for making decisions relating to
choice of arrangements and measures, including Risk analysis in general consists of answers to the following
maintenance actions and strategies questions:
• Risk expresses the danger an unwanted event represents for
• What can go wrong that could lead to system failure?
man, environment and economical values
• Risk analysis is especially suitable for identifying equipment
• How likely is this to happen?
and activities that significantly affects risk and for analyzing
the effect of risk reducing activities
• If it happens, what consequences are expected?
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failure mode effects and
Steps in Risk Analysis criticality analysis

(FMECA)
RISK ASSESSMENT
failure mode effects We need to assess
Identification of undesirable event and criticality analysis
(FMECA) • The hazard present (Hazard assessment)
• If we are exposed to the hazards (Exposure assessment)
• Assess the consequences (Consequence assessment)
Identification of causes and likelihood fault tree analysis (FTA) • Characterize the risk (Risk Characterization)
of the event
Furthermore we need to identify the risk, assess strength and stress,
analyze the uncertainty in data, model and assumptions, analyze the
Consequence analysis for
event tree analysis (ETA)
uncertainty and quantify the risk
identifying the consequences of the
events and quantifying risk
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269 270
Risk assessment Risk

• Risk determination (Identify and estimate)
• Identification of existing and new risks, changes in risks with changing scenario and the
magnitude of consequence of risk
• Risk evaluation (risk aversion or consequence analysis and risk acceptance or attitude Risk is a combination of Probability of occurrence and the
analysis)
consequences of an event
• Determine degrees of possible risk reduction and avoidance,
• establish risk aversion and acceptance and
• Evaluate impact of risks
• Assessment The Risk (Magnitude of consequence / Unit time) is a combination
• Quantify of frequency (Event/unit time) and consequence (Magnitude/event)
• Prioritize
• Control
• Mitigate We often use a Risk Priority Number = Probability x Consequences x
• Plan for emergencies
• Measure and Control Probability of Detection
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271 272
RISK Risk reduction
Effect of preventive measures / maintenance
Severity Severity Effects of damage

control measures
Probability Probability
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273 274
Important steps in risk assessment: Risk based inspection
• Identify items and processes that are critical

• Identify possible failure modes associated with each
individual critical processes or operation
• Investigate possible causes for failure
• Quantify of likelihood of initiating event
• Evaluate consequence of failure
• Develop damage control processes
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275 276
RBI: Risk Based Inspection Maintenance Planning
• We use the risk based inspection (RBI) to decide on what equipment we would like to Maintenance Planning
inspect in order to know if the equipment is in good operational condition and where
to focus our inspection maintenance activities.
Preventive Corrective
• RBI is mostly used for plan inspection on static equipment maintenance maintenance
• Static equipment is equipment without moving parts. Typical examples are
tanks, separators, valves and pipes in a process plant.
Predetermined Condition Planned Unplanned
• Dynamic equipment are equipment with moving parts. For this we often use maintenance monitoring corrective corrective
condition monitoring techniques such as vibration monitoring or oil analysis
• For example: on an offshore production plan or a chemical process plant we have Calendar Op.time Continuous Periodic Predictive
kilometers of pipes and many tanks, separators and valves based based monitoring Inspection maintenance
• Since inspection is costly we cannot inspect everything
• RBI helps us to choose what to inspect RBI
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RBI: Risk Based Inspection RBM: Risk maintenance decision process

Equipment database Screening Experience
Risk based inspection a rational and cost efficient decision framework to determine:
Y
• Where to inspect: Risk
High Risk
Contain- RBI
Level ment
• Which system, where on system
• What to inspect: N
• criticality with respect to HSE, cost RBM

Low Risk Y
Protective
• How to inspect: Function
SIL-
assessment
• inspection method
• When to inspect: Scheduling Run to Failure N
evaluation
• Availability, impact on operations, logistics, legislation RCM
• What actions to take on results

SIL: Safety Integrity Level
• (No detection, Detection: no action, monitoring, repair, replacement)
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279 280
RBI RBI – static equipment
RBI
SIL RBM
• Material, process and inspection knowledge is a prerequisite of safe use of RCM
RBI
• Teamwork •Different approaches
• Practical models can be implemented further down in the organization • Analytical approach – theoretical models implemented by experts or consultants
(inspection and maintenance personnel), but need to be monitored and g = Sf(1-Δt/t0)-pD/2t0
(quantitative, semi-quantitative)
controlled by experts
• Practical approach – theoretical models with practical approach. Implemented by experts/
• Large organizations can have expert competence within their own
end users
organization DNV-RP-G101
• Smaller companies should rent or buy the necessary competence externally (semi-quantitative, qualitative)
• Experience based – theoretical models with practical approach implemented by the end
users and controlled by experts (semi-quantitative, qualitative)
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281 282
Organization Risk Assessment methods
• Risk based methods for inspection and maintenance planning are knowledge based. This set
demands to the organization/procedures/ data collection….
1. Probability of failure assessment
• damage mechanisms
• Demands to personnel and organization/procedures for example in: • lifetime estimation
• ODs basis study
• RIMAP 2. Consequence of failure assessment
• DNV-RP-G101
• … 3. Inspection/monitoring efficiency
• NB: Organization which utilizes risk based methods need to be of adequate size to 4. Human aspects
administrate and operate such systems.
5. Risk aggregation
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283 284
Accept criteria Risk matrix
• Accept criteria must be chosen with respect to the goals of the company
•A plant/company which focus on safety needs to define stringent
safety accept criteria
•A plant/company which want to profile them self as environmental
friendly need to define stringent acceptance criteria with respect to
release to environment
•A plant/company which want to avoid events which have huge
economical consequences should define stringent criteria to
economical events
• This make sure the maintenance activities supports the goals of the
company
• Accept criteria are difficult to define!
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285 286
Risk Acceptance Calculation of PoF (Probability of Failure )

Degradation Damage Loads vs.
• Personnel Mechanism Strength
Failure Mode
• Environment •Geometry •Pinhole leak

•Corrosion •Pitting
• Economy •Fatigue •Cracks •Material type •Brittle fracture
•Erosion •Wall loss •Stress intensity •Burst
• HSE, Cost, Profit •Remaining wall •…..
Inspection PoF Consequences
Knowledge of Materials Tells Us What Failure Mode to Expect
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Selection of inspection scheduling programme – Example
As-welded Butt-weld: Fatigue life = 20 years As-welded Butt-weld: Fatigue life = 40 years
Optimal Inspection plan for different target levels Optimal Inspection plan for different target levels
1.0E-02 1.0E-02
Targe t = 1.e -2 Targe t = 1.e -2
Targe t = 1.e -3
1.0E-03 1.0E-03 Targe t = 1.e -5
Annual Failure Probability

1.0E-04 1.0E-04
1.0E-05 1.0E-05
1.0E-06 1.0E-06
1.0E-07
20 Cost terms:
1.0E-07
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Service time (years) Service time (years)
As-welded Butt-weld: Fatigue life = 60 years Expected Failure cost 1.44 ⋅ 106 NOK
Optimal Inspection plan for different target levels
1.0E-02
Targe t = 1.e -2
Targe t = 1.e -3 Expected Inspection cost 1000 NOK
Targe t = 1.e -4
1.0E-03 Targe t = 1.e -5
Expected Repair Cost 10000 NOK
1.0E-04 Discount rate: 6%

1.0E-05
1.0E-06
1.0E-07
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Service time (years)
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Selection of inspection scheduling programme – Example
Expected RISK Cost ; Fatigue life=20 yr Expected RISK Cost ; Fatigue life=40 yr
4.E+04 1.E+04
Optimum Pf Target = 0.0001 Optimum Pf Target = 0.0001
Inspection Cost
Inspection Cost
8.E+03 Failure Cost
3.E+04 Failure Cost
Repair Cost
Expected Cost
Repair Cost
Expected Cost
6.E+03 Total Risk Cost
Total Risk Cost
2.E+04
4.E+03
1.E+04
2.E+03
0.E+00 0.E+00
1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02
Target Annual Failure Probability Target Annual Failure Probability
Expected RISK Cost ; Fatigue life=60 yr

5.E+03
Optimum Pf Target = 0.001
Inspection Cost Number of inspection as function of target
4.E+03 Failure Cost
failure probability and fatigue life
Repair Cost
Expected Cost
Total Risk Cost Fatigue life (years)

3.E+03 Target Pf
20 40 60
1.0E-05 9 5 3
2.E+03
1.0E-04 5 3 2
1.0E-03 2 1 0
1.E+03
1.0E-02 0 0 0
0.E+00
1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02
Optimal Target = 10-4
Target Annual Failure Probability
=> Scheduling program SC_BW_AW_4
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RIMAP Innovation
• The integration of maintenance (RCM) and inspection (RBI)

into a uniform decision process
• The use of probabilistic decision analysis for process systems
• Combining the theoretical modelling of plant failure ("hard"
knowledge) with plant experience ("soft" knowledge)
• Technology transfer between industry sectors, i.e..
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Operation and maintenance management Basic maintenance model
Un-desirable inputs
Maintenance
Inputs management Outputs
process
Un-desirable outputs
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Maintenance management Maintenance management loop

Disturbances
Constraints
Capital
Resources Maintenance management Results
Competence
Maintenance
Resources management Plant health Goals & Maintenance
Planning Execution
Information process Requirements program
Risk level
Organization
Etc.
Resource Supervision Technical
Plant anomalies Materials condition
requirements
Un-wanted incidents
Supporting
documents Regularity
Supportability Reliability Risk Improvement
Analysis Reporting
measures
Maintainability Availability Value created
Quality
Uncertainties
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Resources Maintenance management Results
Maintenance management process:

Goals & Maintenance
Planning Execution
Input: resources
Requirements program
Resources Maintenance management Results Risk level
goals and requirements, program, planning, execution

Organization
Resource Supervision Technical

Materials condition
Goals & Maintenance requirements
Planning Execution
Requirements program Supporting
Regularity
documents
Risk level Improvement
Analysis Reporting
measures
Organization
Organization Supervision Technical Maintenance program
Materials
Resource
condition Goals and Requirements
• Decide demands and practices with Materials requirements
• We set up goals and requirements on how to achieve business • Develop, update, and improve preventive maintenance programs, inspection
respect to; • Study and decide issues related materials Supporting
Regularity programs, condition monitoring and testing
and spare parts, including issues related to: documents Improvement and regulatory needs and demands through Goals and
• Design of work organization measures
Analysis Reporting
Objectives for Plant maintenance • Strategies and methods (RCM, RBI, etc.)
• Purchase, reception, storage,
• Manning • Safety objectives and management indicators • Technical quality classification demands
• Preservation/maintenance,
• Competence • Issuance, and control of spare • Remaining maintenance • Risk analysis for maintenance
• Training parts and materials,
• Technical and operational demands based on risk • Proactive maintenance steps
• Use of third parties • Availability and maintenance of • Follow-ups based on risk calculations • Condition assessment
• Pre-qualifications work tools
• Events and incidents • Program updates, and change management
• Etc. • Calibration and testing
• Etc.
Planning of maintenance activities
Supporting documents
• Planning both in long-term (e.g. 12+, 2-year, 5-year) and Execution
• Include drawings, procedures, and data systems short term (e.g. Weekly, monthly). Also on work tasks such as • Prepare, implement, control, and complete preventive and corrective
• We have to assurance that we meet the: daily coordination, and work orders. maintenance
• Demands for documents • Risk management • Register data/equipment history after work execution on systems and/or
• Status mapping, control, verification, evaluation • Long-term resource planning equipment
(quality)d availability)
• Work order management (risk, priorities, deadlines) • Job information
• Availability and validity • Deviation handling • Safe-job-analysis
• Updating of various types of technical and • Frame-conditions for planning • Work authorization
administrative documents e.g. equipment
• Job preparation
register with maintenance histories, drawings
• Follow-up and work-shifts
(P&IDs), maintenance procedures, etc.
• Task data (registration, verification)
301 • Usability of the documents should be considered 302
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Output Resources Maintenance management Results

Reporting Resources Maintenance management Results
Goals & Maintenance

Planning Execution
Goals & Maintenance Requirements program
Planning Execution Risk level
Requirements program
Risk level Organization
Organization Resource Supervision Technical
Materials condition
Technical requirements
Resource Supervision
Materials condition Supporting
requirements Regularity
documents Improvement
Supporting Analysis Reporting
measures
documents Regularity
Improvement
Analysis Reporting
measures
Improved technical condition Improvement

Analysis
• Analysis of maintenance related incidents
Reporting
• Initiating, implementation, and • Collection and qualification of related data,
and experience data (e.g. Unwanted
Lower risk follow-up of improvement measures
incidents that has taken place during
preparation and distribution of reports to the
on the basis of performed analysis, maintenance groups and the leaders.
• Mainly impact on the HSE targets experience transfer, best practice,
maintenance work, and analysis of trends
and weaknesses, analysis of causes for
etc. • What to be reported (content and formats)
increasing backlog, etc.)
Improved regularity / Production assurance • Areas for continuous improvement • Trend analysis
• Demands for analysis
• Experience transfer • Qualification of reported data
• Cause analysis
• Impact on the production capacity and the • Methods and being systematic
• Events and incidents
• Distribution of reports
• Responsibilities and resources • Resources and improvement processes
production targets • Responsibilities and resources
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Supervision / Control Underlying management principles
• Planning, and implementation of supervision/control of own organization, • Management system should contribute to continuous improvement of organizational
business partners, contractors, suppliers, etc. (e.g. revisions, audits, activities, products, and services
verifications, inspections, etc.) • The management system needs to ensure that problems are continuously identified,
solved, and good solutions are standardized.
We need to define: • The problem resolutions need to be directed towards improvement of work processes,
• What are the demands for supervision integrated into organizational disciplines, and it should be proactive
• What criteria for choosing which objects and problems that need to be • Different parts of the maintenance management process should accommodate specific
supervised parts of work processes
• Plan the supervision • Work processes need to be designed as a comprehensive quality loop and need to
• Define resources use and responsibilities for follow-up and improvements contain all the important phases of the problem solving process
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Introduction to predictive maintenance
Condition monitoring and

management
Professor Tore Markeset
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Condition monitoring Effect of condition monitoring
Failure
Condition monitoring is a generalized method for establishing a

machine’s health using measured parameters which reflect Operate to
failure
Waiting
Planning
Repair time Uptim
changes in the machine’s mechanical state Uptime

Downtime
Failure process start
Condition based Planning

Maintenance time
Uptime
maintenance
Uptime Downtime
Downtime is reduced
Failure process start
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Predictive maintenance Potential benefits of condition monitoring
• Maintenance cost savings

The main objective of the predictive maintenance program is • Reduced repair time and costs
to:
• Better utilization / less downtime
• Predict the failures in advance so that • No miss-use of machines
• Maintenance actions can be planned to take place at a time • Reduced personnel risks
convenient to management (man and machine) and to
• Minimize unplanned interruption of the production system • Improved plant design / profitability
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Some essential requirements of a successful CM program Why does a component or system fail?
• Understanding of the deterioration mechanism
• WEAR
• Identification of the means to detect the initiation of such
deterioration or failure process • CORROSION
• Developing methodology for failure prediction in real time • FATIGUE / STRESS
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Speed of failure process Failures Development Process

Instantaneous failure
Corrective maintenance?
Design out if the component is critical? Performance
Performance Periodical maintenance based on statistics?
Fast degradation process

Component/ system is
Continuous condition monitoring if Failure starts
functioning
the component is critical
Failure detectable
X
X
Slow degradation process
Continuous or Periodic condition monitoring
(if the component is critical) X Failed
Ts Td Tf
Time
Time
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Failure ??? Design and development of a monitoring system
Failure = Fracture
The most critical aspect of the design and development of a
condition monitoring system is to:
Failure = Loss of Function
• Determine which parameter to monitor
Failure is not fully definable • How to monitor it
If we (engineer/manager) don’t remember
that, some lawyer will remind us.
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Basic steps for condition monitoring Condition monitoring methodology

Failure mechanism and causes FMECA
• Identifying critical systems
Failure frequency Failure consequences
• Selecting condition monitoring technique
Risk assessment -> Significant component
• Setting baselines / alerts Component state
• Data collection FMECA: failure modes

effects and criticality
Selection of a set of monitoring
parameters and their alarm levels
analysis
• Data assessment FBM: Failure based
maintenance
Evaluation of maintenance approach
TBM: Time based maintenance
• Fault diagnosis and repair CBM: Condition based
maintenance
Risk evaluation
• System review Selection of Condition Monitoring technique
Decision rules REVIEW

for FBM/TBM/
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Condition monitoring observations Condition monitoring observations
• Subjective Condition
Monitoring
• Objective
• Continuous Subjective Objective
Feel, Smell, Measures
Look Listen 30-40%
With special With

instruments Simple Aids
10% 20%
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Condition monitoring methods Predictive maintenance

Some condition monitoring methods:
The main objective of the predictive maintenance program is to Predict the failures in advance
so that Maintenance actions can be planned to take place at a time convenient to management
• Vibration monitoring (man and machine) and Unplanned interruption of the production system is minimized.
• Process parameter monitoring

Steps:
• Thermodynamic • Selection of critical parameters
• Selection of methodology for monitoring the condition
• NDT: non-destructive testing • Location of measuring sensors and equipment
• Diagnosis of the raw data
• Thermography
• Oil analysis: Tribology (wear and lubrication)
• Visual inspection
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Condition based maintenance Cost effective condition monitoring tools
Condition based maintenance is preventive maintenance • Reduced costs of instrumentation

initiated as a result of knowledge of the condition of an item • Increased capability of instrumentation, such as data
from routine or continuous monitoring presentation and storage
CONDITION MONITORING is the the continuous or periodic • Improved data storage, using low cost computer systems
measurement and interpretation of data and information to
indicate the condition of an item or a system to determine the • Faster and more effective data analysis, using specialist software
need for maintenance
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Condition monitoring system requirements Some essential features of an effective condition monitoring system
• A clear relationship must exist between the measurements

The requirements for a successful condition monitoring system being taken and the condition of the system
are: • The monitoring system must respond quickly enough to
provide warning of a deterioration in machine condition
• To define a measurable parameter which will change as fault • The assessment of equipment condition must be made by
develops, preferably such changes should be progressive in comparing reading against a predefined or absolute standard
nature or against existing measurements
• To establish and adequate system of control • A system for measuring and recording data must exist to
• To ensure that the data is collected, stored and analyzed in the correct manner enable the condition of the equipment to be predicted
• That alarms are acted upon and results are reported back • The system implemented should be cost effective
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Key features of an effective condition monitoring system Important stages in CBM
• Links between cause and effect • Measurement
• Parameter
• Systems with sufficient response • Frequency
• Mechanism for objective data assessment • Diagnosis
• Manual or automatic
• Benefits outweighing costs
• Information
• Data storage and review facilities • Type
• Level
• Amount/detail
• Format
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Measuring and sensors Diagnosing

• A physical sensor is needed to detect key parameters, reflecting equipment performance
• Physically, measuring refers to the sensors receiving energy from the measured medium and
• In diagnostics we relate distinctive symptoms and
produces an output signal depending on the measured quantity characteristics through measurements to failures
• Sensor is often a weak link in a measurement system
• We use an instrument with microprocessors, control
Requirement to a sensor
electronics, algorithms, transmitting facility, display, etc.
• Simple design and high reliability
• Withstand harsh environment
• Be easily replaceable
• Have a self test facility to identify machine problem from sensor failures
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Informing CM purpose: vibration example
How to inform
• Measurement of vibration level
• Display unit to present information and data to operator (clear messages) • Sense the decided parameter by using a sensor and translate the mechanical
characteristics (such as vibration) into an electrical signal
• Data for maintenance analysis
• Condition
• To properly analyze it and reduce the possibility of error
What to inform
• Related to ‘who to inform’ • Recording
• For analysis
• Information should be presented in the right format to the right person
• Machine check data
• Behavior monitoring data • Analysis
• Production data • For diagnostics
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Ideal CM techniques Setting up a CM program

• Analyze mechanical characteristics
• Simplicity in use • Need familiarity with physical properties, basic function, dynamics of machine
• No range control
• Automatic calibration • Map malfunction mechanisms and their corresponding symptoms
• Insensitivity to sensor location • Compare with historical events
• Insensitivity to local conditions • Identification of key parameters
• Robust in characteristics • Monitoring of key parameters
• Safe to use • Classification / transformation of data into information
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Major components in a condition monitoring system Hardware
• Sensor • Diagnosing: microprocessor and control electronics to
monitor the process, and record, store, and manipulate the
• Amplification input data from the processor
• Cables • Conversion
• Microprocessor and control electronics • Parameter correlation
• Software • Analysis of raw data
• Storage • Transmitting facility to transmit data to user
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Condition monitoring Results from an investigation to assess potential of CM

Advantages • 20-80% reduction in repair costs
• Improved availability of equipment
• Reduced breakdown costs • 30% reduction inventories
• Improved reliability and safety • 30% increase in revenue
• Improved planning
• 50-80% reduction in maintenance costs
Disadvantages • Overall increase in utilization (20-60%)
• Only marginal benefits
• Sometimes difficult to organize
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CM Work process Reporting with respect to maintenance
CM
Periodic/ continuous •Based on the diagnosis one of the following alternatives are
History
chosen:
Diagnosis
Observed condition
Prediction
Executed maintenance • Continue to run the machine and (if needed) follow-up the
Maintenance need
development in the condition with more frequent
Activity: measurements
Priority/ deadline:
Planning and reporting Work order Execution/ reporting

• Plan and execute maintenance actions a next plan stoppage or
Maintenance Management system
evaluate when next overhaul should be conducted
• Execute the maintenance within a given deadline
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Reporting with respect to operation Follow-up of executed maintenance

• The diagnosis may cause consequences for operation of the Dependent on the criticality of the equipment the CM responsible
equipment person should follow up the executed maintenance activities and
evaluate:
• Shut down for maintenance • Establish actual failures and non-failures
• Temporary reduction of load to prolong life of equipment • Collect experiences with respect to diagnosis knowledge to be
until the time for next planned maintenance used later
• Permanent changes in operation condition • Evaluate the alarm levels and limit states used in the analysis
• Update the historical failure archive
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Mechanical problems cause vibration
These can be reduced to
one, or more, of five
different types of problem:
1.Unbalanced
• With few exceptions, it is the mechanical problems 2.Misaligned
associated with machinery operations which cause
vibration. 3.Loose
Vibration monitoring • Common problems: 4.Eccentric

• Imbalance of rotating parts 5.Reacting to some external
• Eccentric components force
• Misalignment of couplings and bearings
Professor Tore Markeset • Bent shafts
• Component looseness
• Worn, or damaged gears
• Bad drive belts and drive chains
• Bad anti-friction bearings
• Torque variations The cause of the vibration must be a force,
• Electromagnetic forces
• Hydraulic forces
which is changing in either its magnitude or
• Resonance in its direction
• Rubbing
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History Vibration – whole body motion

• First vibration sensor was human brain in combination with • In its simplest form Vibration can be considered to be the
touch + hearing oscillation or repetitive motion of an object around its
equilibrium position
• Vibration meters was introduced in the 1950’s
• The 1970’s computer development gave new tool for signal • The equilibrium position is the position the object will attain
when the force acting on it is zero position
analysis
• In the 1980’s small portable computers made field • This type of vibration is called “whole body motion”,
meaning that all parts of the body is moving together in the
measurements easy same direction at any point in time
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Vibratory motion What is vibration?
Vibration is the movement of a body about its reference position
• The vibratory motion of a whole body can be completely described as a combination of six
different types. These are translation in three orthogonal directions x, y, and z, and
rotation around the x, y, and z axes. Shaft vibration
• The rate and magnitude of the vibration of a given object is completely determined by the
excitation force (i.e. the force causing the vibration), direction and frequency
• This is the reason that the vibration analysis can determine the excitation force in a
machine
• These forces are dependent on machine condition, and therefore, knowledge of their
characteristics and interactions allows one to diagnose the machine problems
A shaft in a journal bearing moving about the centerline of the sleeve
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What is vibration? Vibration analysis

Vibration is caused by an excitation force. The job of the analyst A tool when doing:
is to determine the nature of the force causing the vibration (e.g. • Machine Diagnostics
• Predictive Maintenance
an imbalance or misalignment force) Advantages:
CASING VIBRATION • Fast
• Reliable (Good Repeatability)
• Sensible to changes
• Does normally not affect the machine operation
Disadvantage:
• Need special education to handle
• Change in load affects result
• Can give false alarm on machines with transient behavior
• Some fatigue problems not detected (cracks, broken bearing cage)
• Difficult to monitor slow rotating machines
A bearing moving back and forth on

its pedestal
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Major machinery
Application of artificial intelligence Mass / spring system
T1 T2 T3
Mass
Mass
Mass
Professor Tore Markeset - University of Stavanger

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Natural frequency and resonance Simple harmonic motion

Natural frequency
• The Natural Frequency is the frequency at which a mechanical system will continue to vibrate after
the excitation force is removed.
• Collapse of Tacoma Narrows bridge
•
•
Resonance
• A vibratory condition where a natural frequency and excitation frequency coincide
• Results in high vibration, and may reach damaging levels.
• It is of paramount importance that a machine not be operated at a speed that corresponds to a
natural frequency of the structures
1 k
ωn = k = stiffness m = mass ωn = natural frequency
2π m
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Transient vibration - damping
Time
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Vibration amplitude and frequency
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Some terms used in vibration analysis Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration
Displacement = A sin(ωt)
Velocity = A ω cos(ωt)
Displacement: actual radial or axial movement of shaft/
machine in relation to the central line Acceleration = - A ω2 sin(ωt)
Velocity: time rate change of displacement Amplitude
One cycle
Duration T
Acceleration: Time rate change of velocity
Time
t0
t0+T
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Time Domain
• Provides a vibration signature for a given time
• Usually overall amplitude value and phase relationship is represented
• It may be used for single stage pump/ gas turbine/ simple machine
• A synchronizing pulse should be available
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The single spectrum time domain signature shows nonrecurring peaks
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Broadband Broadband
• A overall vibration level which encompasses a wide range of frequencies is called a • It does not provide any information pertaining to the actual machine problem or failure
broadband measurement. mode
• Broadband Trending is a technique that acquires overall or broadband vibrations readings • At best, the broadband trending can be used as a simple indication that there has been a
from a select points on a machine-train change in either the mechanical condition or operating dynamics of the machine or system
• These data are compared to base line readings taken from a new machine or to a vibration • Consequently, this technique can be used as a gross scan of the operating condition of
critical machinery
severity chart to assess the condition of the relative condition of the machine
• However, broadband values must be adjusted to the actual production parameters, such as
• Normally an unfiltered broadband measurement that provides the total vibration energy load and speed, to be effective even is this reduced role
between 10 and 10 000 Hz is used for this type of analysis
• Changes in both the speed and load of machinery will have a direct effect on the overall
• Broadband or overall Root Mean Square (RMS) vibration data are strictly gross values that vibration levels
represent the vibration of the machine at the specific measurement points where the data
was acquired
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RMS Root mean square (RMS) Average
• RMS stands for root mean square, and is the measure of the overall signal • RMS stands for Root Mean Square, and is the measure of the overall level of a signal
• The RMS value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the peak value
• It is calculated by squaring the instantaneous value of the signal, averaging
the squared value over time, and taking the square root of the average value
• The RMS value is the value which is used to calculate the energy or power in
a signal
• The RMS value of a complex signal is difficult to predict without measuring it
• It is the accepted convention to measure RMS value of acceleration when
performing vibration analysis
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Broadband analysis Trend chart
• Only overall vibration (energy) from zero to user-

selected maximum frequency (Fmax) is analyzed
• Useful for
• Trend in overall condition
• Setting alarm/ alert level
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Vibration from cracked shaft at nuclear plant
Broadband RMS
IPS: inch per

second
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Narrowband Trending Narrowband analysis

• Narrow band trending, like broadband, monitors the total energy for a specific bandwidth
of vibration frequencies • Overall energy of selected specific groups of frequency is analyzed
• Unlike broadband, narrow band analysis utilizes vibration frequencies that represent
specific machine components or failure modes • Useful for machine component for trend and setting alarm
• This method provides the means to quickly monitor the mechanical condition of critical
components, not just the overall machine condition
• The technique provides the ability to monitor the condition of gears, bearings and other
machine components without manual analysis of vibration signatures
• As with broadband trending, changes in speed, load and other process parameters will
have a direct, often dramatic, impact on the vibration energy produced by each machine
component or narrowband.
• To be meaningful, narrowband values must be adjusted to the actual production
parameters
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Ideal band-pass filter Real band-pass filter
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Figure: Diagram of a tuneable band-

pass filter used to do frequency analysis
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Overall vibration vs. signature
analysis Frequency Domain
• Converts a time domain spectrum into a true representation of the individual
frequency components
Can be used for • A complex machine can be checked for its condition on component basis by
normalizing each vibration component
diagnosis
Cannot be used
for diagnosis
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Vibration signature analysis Resolution of typical waveform into its constituent harmonics by Fourier analysis
• A plot of amplitude versus frequency is represented to as the vibration

signature of a machine
• Unlike broadband and narrowband trending, signature analysis provides
visual representation of each frequency component generated by a
machine train.
• Most of the vibration based predictive maintenance programs use some
form of signature analysis.
• With proper training, plant staff can use vibration signature to identify
the fault and their by specific maintenance required by the plant.
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Fourier analysis Fourier transform

a) Two sine waves • Any periodic motion can be represented by a series of sines
b) Two sine waves combined and cosines that are harmonically related
c) Three-dimensional illustration of
different views
d) Time domain view as seen on an
oscilloscope
e) Frequency domain view as seen on a
spectrum analyzer
• Fourier spectrum: Plot of

coefficients of Fourier series
against frequency
• Fast Fourier Transform
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Discrete Fourier Transformation (DFT)
The mathematical calculation that “converts” or “transforms”

a sampled and digitized waveform into a sampled spectrum
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Amplitude and frequency views of a motor and gearbox
Transducers
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Frequency spectrum and typical machinery vibration Available systems divided into 3 groups
• Field analysis equipment (moveable diagnostic tool)

• Periodic monitoring (hand-held collector with analysis made
in office)
• Continuous monitoring (permanent on-line)
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Measurements
(Transducer / transmitter)
using sensors Three types of common transducers
•Transducer/sensor/pick up: a device to convert mechanical motions to

electrical signals
• Displacement sensor
• Velocity sensor
• Acceleration sensor (Accelerometer)
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The proximity probe in operation Displacement transducer
• Operates on the Eddy current principle
• It sets up a high frequency electric field in the gap between
the end of the probe and the metal surface that is moving
• The probe senses the change in the gap and therefore
measures the relative distance, e.g. bearing housing,
rotating shaft.
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Displacement transducers Shaft displacement probe

• Small •Measures shaft motion directly
• Usually based on eddy current or inductive principles
•Require good shaft surface
• Varying cost depending on performance
• Sensible to changes on the shaft surfaces (for example
Corrosion etc.)
• Extremely low to medium frequency 0- 1500 Hz
• Normally needs a permanent installation
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Velocity transducer Velocity transducer
• The voltage is proportional to the velocity of motion

• Internal mass in the form of a permanent magnet is suspended on springs
• The mass is suspended in a damping fluid (oil)
• A coil of wire is attached to the outer case
• The outer case moves with the vibrating object while the internal mass
remains stationary
• The relative motion between the mass and the coil generates a voltage
•Magnet moves with machine

•Motion is converted to electrical signals
•5Hz-1500 Hz
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Velocity Transducer Velocity transducers
• Large
• Low cost
• Includes moveable parts
• Can be disturbed by electric fields
• Low to medium frequency range, 8 - 1500 Hz
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Frequency response of a velocity transducer Piezoelectric accelerometer internal construction
Amplitude
Frequency
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Accelerometer Accelerometers
• The seismic mass is clamped to the base by an axial bolt bearing down on • Small & light
a circular spring
• The piezo-electric element is squeezed between the mass and the base
• When the piezo-electric material experiences a force, it generates an • Resistant to hostile environment such as dust, moisture,
electric charge between its surfaces high temperature, electric fields etc.
• There are many such materials, with quartz being one of the most
commonly used, but also synthetic ceramic piezo materials
• The piezo electric properties is lost if heated above the Curie temperature
• Broad Frequency range ( 1 - 20 000 Hz)
point
• When the accelerometer is moved up and down in direction, the force • Long time stability
required to move the seismic mass is born by the active element
• According to Newton’s second law, this force is proportional to the • Low cost
acceleration of the mass
• The force on the crystal produces an output signal which therefore is
proportional to the acceleration of the transducer
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Accelerometer frequency response Sensitivity versus frequency for typical, general purpose accelerometer
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Relationship of sensitivity to natural frequency for three sizes of Dynamic frequency response of common vibration transducers
accelerometers
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411 412
Common vibration transducers
Transduce Useful frequency
Measurement Advantages Disadvantages
r type range
Senses surface imperfections

Proximity Conductive parts only
0-1.500Hz Displacement Non contact
From analog to digital

probe Mounting difficulty
Frequency limits
Self generating Moving parts

Seismic Large
Velocity
8-1.500Hz Velocity Good indicator of Massive
pickup
machine condition Senses EM fields
Hand held Frequency limits
High frequencies
Rugged
Accelero-
1-20.000Hz Acceleration Seismic Temperature limits
meter
Small size
Hand-held
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The Fast Fourier transform (FFT) spectrum analyzer Simplified block diagram of an FFT spectrum analyzer
• FFT: is an algorithm which allows a computer to calculate the discrete FT Input amplifier
(DFT) in a fast and efficient manner
Anti-alias filter
• The FFT algorithm places certain limitations on the signal and the resulting
spectrum Sampling
• For instance, the sampled signal to be transform must consist of a number of A/D converter
samples equal to a power of two
• Most FFT analyzers allow 512, 1024, 2048, or 4096 samples to be transformed. Window
• The frequency range covered by FFT analysis depends on the number of FFT
samples collected and the sampling rate.
Time display Spectrum display
Sec. Hz
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Pitfalls of the FFT Sampling
• Sampling causes aliasing • To digitize an analog signal for processing in digital instruments such as FFT analyzers, it
first must be periodically sampled, and the sampling process occurs at a specific rate
• Sample at least 2x highest frequency called sampling frequency
• Use analog low pass anti-aliasing filter
• Time limitation causes leakage

• Use windowing weighting functions
• Discrete frequencies in the calculated spectrum causes the

picket fence effect
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417 418
Digitizing a 100-Hz sine wave. A voltage reading is taken every one- Analog to digital conversion
thousandths of a second, or 10 measurements per cycle
Values stored in analyzer

after A/D conversion
0.00
0.59
0.95
0.95
0.59
0.00
-0.59
-0.95
-0.95
-0.59
0.00
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419 420
Relationship between sampling rate, number of samples, time record length,
frequency resolution Aliasing
The sampling rate (Dt) in samples per second, times the time record length (T) in seconds, equals the number of
samples (N).
Dt=T/N
N=Dt x T, N=512 [29], 1024 [210], 2048 [211], or 4096 [212] • As long as the sampling frequency is less than twice as high as the highest frequency to
T=1/Df where Df=Frequency span be sampled, the sampled frequency will contain extraneous components called
Spectrum = N/2 lines “ALIASES”
• The generation of aliases is called aliasing
• Aliasing must be avoided in digital signal analysis to avoid error, and FFT analyzer always
contains low pass filters in their input stages to eliminate frequency components higher
than one half of the sampling frequencies
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421 422
Sampling theorem and aliasing Aliasing

• Nyquist theorem: Let fmax be the maximum frequency contained in a signal.
• For a given signal to be sampled without loss of information, the sampling
rate must be at least twice the maximum frequency of the signal.
• If fs is the sampling frequency, then fs ≥ 2 fmax
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423 424
Aliasing Example of Aliasing Effect
• Data sampling frequency fs= 100 Hz
• Nyquist folding frequency= fs/2 = 50 Hz
• Frequency component above this value is at fh= 60 Hz
• The effect of fh component shows up at frequency f<50 Hz
• fs+f= 60 f=100-60=40 Hz
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425 426
Effect of aliasing Anti-aliasing filter on, overall ampl. 0,022g

Anti-aliasing filter off, overall ampl. 0,222g
427 428
427 428
Leakage – caused by data truncation Window (to reduce the effect of
• The FFT analyzer is a batch processing device; that is it samples the input signal for a specific time
leakage)
interval colleting samples in a buffer, after which it performs the FFT calculation on that “batch” and
displays the resulting spectrum • to reduce the effect of leakage, it is necessary to see to it that the signal
• If the sinusoidal signal wave form is passing through zero level at the beginning and end of the time level is zero at the beginning of the time record.
record, i.e., if the time record encompasses exactly an integral number of cycles of the wave form, the
•
FFT spectrum will consist of one single line.
If, on the other hand, the signal level is not at the zero at one or both ends of the time record,
• Multiply the data samples by a so-called windowing or weighting function.
truncation of the time record occurs, resulting in a discontinuity in the sampled signal.
• This discontinuity is not handled well by the FFT process, and the results is a smearing of the spectrum
• Different shapes (Rectangular, Hanning, etc)
from a single line to adjacent lines.
• This is called “leakage”.
429 430
429 430
Windowing transient signals The Hanning window
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Windowing: Sinus wave – signal Windowing: Sinus wave in frequency Windowing (sinus wave – signal mismatched at beginning and end)
matched domain (no window applied)
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433 434
Windowing: Sinus wave in frequency

domain (no window applied)
Windowing: Sinus wave in frequency
domain (Hanning window applied)
Averaging
• The vibration signal from a rotating machine is not completely deterministic, but has some random
noise superimposed on it
• Because the noise is unpredictable, it alters the spectrum shape, and in many cases can seriously
distort the spectrum.
• In performing spectrum analysis, regardless of how it is done, some form of time averaging must be
done to determine the level of the signal at each frequency.
• If a series of spectra are averaged together, the noise will gradually assume a smooth shape, and the
spectral peaks due to the deterministic part of the signal will stand out and their levels will be more
accurately represented.
• It is not true that simply averaging FFT spectra will reduce the amount of noise – the noise will be
smoothed but its level will not be reduced
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435 436
Averaging Averaging
• In vibration analysis, the most important type of averaging employed is linear spectrum averaging,
where a series of individual spectra are added together and the sum is divided by the number of
spectra
• Averaging is very important when performing spectrum analysis of any signal which changes with time,
and this is usually the case with vibration signals of machinery.
• It is especially important for low-frequency measurements, which require long averaging times to
achieve a good statistically accurate estimate of the spectrum.
• Linear averaging smoothes out the spectrum of the random noise in a spectrum making the discrete
frequency components easier to see, but it does not actually reduce the noise level
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437 438
The picket fence effect (resolution bias error)

Pitfalls of the FFT
• The FFT spectrum is a discrete spectrum, consisting of estimates of what the spectral level is at specific frequencies
• These frequencies are determined by the analysis parameters that are set up in the analyzer, and have nothing to do
with the signal being analyzed • Sampling causes aliasing
• This means that there may be, and probably are, peaks in the true spectrum which are between the lines of the FFT • Sample at least 2x highest frequency
analysis • Use analog low pass anti-aliasing filter
• This means that in general, the peaks of the FFT spectrum will be measured to low in level, and the valleys will be
measured to high
• Moreover, the true frequencies where the peaks and valleys lie will not be those indicated in the FFT Spectrum. • Time limitation causes leakage
• Use windowing weighting functions
• Discrete frequencies in the calculated spectrum causes the

The picket fence effect
picket fence effect
Looking at a FFT spectrum is like looking
at mountain range through a picket fence
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Vibration problems Bearing vibrations
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441 442
Reasons for vibration in bearing Bearing defects

A.
Amplitude
=1/2 (Distance from ob1 to ob2)
Frequency generated by rotation of a ball around its centerline is called ball pass frequency
Frequency
=0.5 [1- (db cos α) / dm ] N n BSF=1/2 N (Dp/db) [1-(db/Dp)2]
The ball defect will appear at 2x BSF
B.
Cage defect frequency or Fundamental train frequency
FTF=0.5 N [1-db/Dp] ≈0.4 N
Defects
•Defect or spalls on balls
A defect in cage appears at 1xFTF
•Cage defects
•Defects in outer race
•Defects in inner race
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443 444
Parameters for calculating bearing frequency
•C. Outer race defect:

•Ball pass frequency outer race:
•BPFO=0.5 N n [1-db/Dp]
•A defect will be at 1xBPFO
•D. Inner race defect

•Ball pass frequency inner race:
•BPFI=0.5 N n [1+db/Dp]
•A defects will appear at 1xBPFI
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445 446
Formulas for calculating the specific frequencies A typical rolling element bearing signature will show all of the rotational
frequencies of the bearing
FTF (Fundamental train frequency) = 1/2 rps [1-(Bd/Pd) cos(ø)]
BS (Ball Spin)=(Pd/2Bd) rps [1- (Bd/Pd)2 cos2ø]
OR (Outer Race)=N (FTF)

IR (Inner Race)=N (rps - FTF)
rps=revolutions per second of inner race

Bd=ball diameter
Pd=pitch diameter
N=number of balls
ø=contact angle
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447 448
Bearing frequency factors
FTF BS OR IR
FAG 6311 0.378 1.928 3.024 4.976
SKF 6311 0.382 2.003 3.057 4.943
NTN 6311 0.384 2.040 3.072 4.928
Imbalance
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449 450
The gravity force creates a cyclical force on the heavy spot for an observer
on the rotating disk Causes of imbalance
• Porosity in casting
• Non-uniform density of material
• Manufacturing tolerances
• Gain or loss of material during operation
• Maintenance actions, like changing bearings, or cleaning
• Changing bolts
• Machining
• Loose material moving around, like water in cavities
• Keys
• Couplings
• Anything else that affects the rotational mass distribution
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451 452
Imbalance Spectrum of an out-of-balance
rooftop fan. The fan speed is 875 rpm
Spectrum after balancing the roof
top fan
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453 454
Misalignment Misalignment
a) Parallel misalignment
b) Angular misalignment
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Misalignment Analyzing machine condition-General Characteristics
• A bearing misaligned low will be unloaded and may exhibit

symptoms of instability
a) Vertical misalignment b) Horizontal alignment
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Alignment method Alignment method
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459 460
Spectrum of a 150 hp motor coupled to a boiler draft fan Some forcing frequencies for a centrifugal air compressor
The running speed is 1094 RPM (18.2Hz). These machines are well balanced, but the
harmonics of running speed indicate misalignment.
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461 462
Gear driven machine

Motor shaft rotating at 1780 RPM
Fundamental frequency of the motor is 1780 CPM
Multiply the gear ration with the motor shaft RPM

to find the fan shaft RPM
Fundamental frequency of the fan shaft is 640,8 CPM
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463 464
Wear and lubrication oil
monitoring
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Factors that cause equipment failures What is Tribology

• Tribology is concerned with contacts between surfaces in relative motion
Loss of usefulness
• Tribology is a general term that refers to design and operating dynamics of the bearing –
lubrication- rotor support structure of machinery.
• Tribology covers all aspects of friction, lubrication, and wear.
Obsolescence (15%) Surface degradation (70%) Accidents (15%)
Corrosion (20%) Mechanical wear (50%)
Abrasion Fatigue Adhesion
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Tribology definition Tribology losses
• 7% of GDP
• The study of friction, lubrication, and wear between moving •Potential savings
surfaces •Direct:
• The science and technology of interacting surfaces in • Reduced energy usage
relative motion and of the practices related thereto; the • Longer maintenance service and replacement interval
science concerned with the design, friction, lubrication, and •Indirect
wear of contacting surfaces that move relative to one • Reduced risk of total loss
another (e.g. bearings, cams, gears). • Reduced spare part use
• Reduced raw material use
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Potential benefits by improving tribology characteristics Tribology analysis
• Energy use is reduced through lower friction in machinery • Lubrication oil analysis
• Lubrication workload is reduced through the use of a central lubrication system
• Wear particle analysis
• Lubrication service life can be increased through improved design and oil
handling
• Maintenance and spare part costs can be reduced through improved tribology
• Tribology caused downtime costs can be reduced
• Machinery size for given effect can be reduced
• Investment costs can be reduced by increased machine service life
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Main causes for particle contamination Classification of Contaminant Types
• IMPLANTED: Manufacturing, Handling, Packaging Storing Transportation, Flushing, Commissioning (ETD/DTD/ITD)
• GENERATED: Wear, Chemical, Electrolysis (ETD/DTD/ITD)
1. Particle ingress from the atmosphere and dirty workshop environments through seals and • INGESTED: Breathing, Inadequate sealing (ETD)
reservoirs, and from new supplies of oil which are not as clean as they are required to
• INDUCED: Maintenance, Services (ETD)
be.
2. Wear debris generation from within the system. Note wear debris will always be • ESCAPED: Released from filter (ETD)
produced as a matter of course when there is contact between moving parts. • Easy to dislodge (ETD), Difficult to dislodge (DTD), Impossible to dislodge (ITD)
3. Particles retained in the system following construction or maintenance. These particles
must be monitored for during the early stages of operation to trigger corrective action
such as frequent filter changes until a satisfactorily contamination level is reached.
Origins of debris
a. Implanted
b. Generated
c. Ingested
d. Released
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Lubrication oil analysis Wear definition

• Wear has been defined as either mass or volume of material, removed or displaced from a
body which is repeatedly stressed in mechanical contact with another body or bodies.
In lubrication oil analysis we analyze two different things:
• Wear, in most instances, is undesirable, leading to increased clearances between moving
A. In the analysis of the quality of the lubrication oil we components, increased mechanical loading and maybe even fatigue failure. In grinding and
polishing process, however, high wear rates are desirable and small amounts of wear are
analyze if the lubrication still is fit for continued use or do often welcome in the running in of some types of machinery.
we need to change it.
• Wear is normally divided into two main types: adhesive wear and abrasive wear (both dry
B. In Wear debris analysis we analyze the Contaminants / friction).
debris/ particles we find in the oil since they may tell us
something about the wear process. Which parts are
experiencing wear and why.
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Wear
• Wear is a process of removal of material from one or both of
two solid surfaces in a solid- state contact. New surface
• Wear only takes place when solid surfaces are in sliding or Correctly run-in surface
rolling motion relative to each other.
• Classification of wear process is based on the type of wear Badly run-in surface (too high load)
contacts such as:
• Single phase wear or
• Multiple phase wear
Correctly run-in coarse surface
New surface with high finish
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Typical wear processes WEAR – FRICTION
• There is no general correlation between friction number size

and wear size
• Wear is dependent of many factors
• Material in surfaces
• Lubrication
• Operation conditions
• Ambient atmosphere
• Etc.
• Wear increases with load and glide path length

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Friction types FRICTION INFLUENCE FACTORS
• Gliding/ sliding/ slip friction •Atmosphere

• Oxygen => oxide layer => reduced wear (vacuum give large wear)
• Dry friction (Coloumb friction) – no lubrication between • Nitrogen => sometime nitration => hard surface => reduced wear
• Water vapor => lubrication, cooling => + humidity can increase wear
surfaces
• Mixed friction – some lubricant present •Load
• Increased load => increased wear
• Full-film lubrication (hydrodynamic lubrication)– no direct Friction •Glide velocity

contact between the surfaces, viscous friction number • Increased velocity => increased temperature=> increased wear
• Rolling friction – made up of several types of friction

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Wear equations Basic wear equation (in main cases)
• Wear dept: f = k x p x s • V=K W S

• Wear volume: W=k x N x s • V=Volume worn
• p: pressure (Mpa)
• s: glide path length • K=Coefficient of wear (wear coefficient)
• k: wear factor (mm^2/N)
• n: Normal force • W= Load
• Often used eq.: f = k x pv x t • S= Sliding distance
• pv: applied pv (pressure velocity) number (Mpa x m/s)
• k: wear factor (mm^3 x s/m / (N x h))
• t: Time
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Wear types Adhesive wear
• Adhesive wear • When the surface of one component moves over another, the
contacting asperities adhere together and local welds are formed.
• Abrasive wear
• Cavitation
• Corrosive wear • The tips of the softer asperities are then plucked off leaving them
adhering to the harder surface.
• Cutting wear
• Fatigue wear
• These tips may subsequently become detached giving rise to wear
• Sliding wear particles or fragments which can cause wear by abrasion.
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485 486
Adhesive wear Abrasive wear
• Adhesive wear is characterized by the development of local • Abrasive wear is characterized by the loss of material from a surface
metal joints that forms if solid materials are in contact on an that results from the motion of a hard material across the surface.
atomic scale.
•Three types of abrasion wear are normally considered:
ASPERITIES.- ??
• Gouging abrasion
• High stress abrasion
• Low stress abrasion
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487 488
Abrasive wear 2 body wear, 2 body wear, erosion
• Damage to the surface of a component can be caused by

hard asperities on a counter-face or by hard particles, forced
against and sliding along the surface.
Two body abrasion Three body abrasion Erosion
• The former is known as two-body and the latter as three-

body abrasive wear.
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489 490
Particle size
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491 492
Hard particles destroy the surface and cause stresses
Small particles- surface fatigue

Large particles- wear
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493 494
Particle hardness
Medium hard particles deform and are

deformed
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495 496
Particle generation rates of components up to failure Typical critical clearances in hydraulic and lube oil systems
Clearances
Type of component
micrometer
Hydraulic
Gear pump 0.5- 5.0
Vane pump 0.5- 1.0
Piston pump 0.5- 5.0
Servo valve 1.0- 4.0
Control valve 0.5- 40.0
Actuator 50- 250
Lube oil
Dynamic seals 0.05- 0.5

Roller element 0.1- 1.0
bearings
Gears 0.1- 1.0
Hydrostatic bearing 1.0- 25
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497 498
ISO 4406-International classification system for solid particles in fluids Recommended absolute filter pore size
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499 500
Examples of cleanliness levels for different hydraulic and lube oil systems
Fatigue wear
Types of systems Cleanliness level
Hydraulic
Silt- sensitive systems 13/10 • This usually occurs in rolling friction and is caused by the
Servo systems
High- pressure system
14/11
15/12
fatigue of the surface layers
Normal- pressure system 16/13
Medium- pressure system 18/15
Low-pressure system 19/16
Large-clearance system 21/18
Lube oil
Dynamic seals 13/10
Roller element bearing 14/11
Gears 15/12
Hydrostatic bearings 16/13
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501 502
Fretting wear Erosive wear
• When components are subjected to very small relative • A further type of wear involving hard particles is erosive
vibratory movements at high frequency, an interactive form wear. This is the process of material removal by the striking
of wear called fretting takes place. The process is initiated of hard particles, usually at high velocity, on component
by adhesion, amplified by corrosion and has main affect by surfaces.
abrasion.
• Erosion of material caused by impingement of solid particles

or small drops of liquid
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503 504
Types of wear The bathtub wear curve
Type of Wear Description Comments
Occurs when two surfaces are forced Increases with load and distance of
1. Adhesive together under load, and then slid over sliding. Decreases with hardness of
each other surface.
Particles may “plough- in” (with softer

Occurs when sliding between two
surfaces) or may cause actual metal
2. Abrasive surfaces includes particles between the
release from the surfaces (with harder
surfaces
surfaces)
This may happen due to direct impact or

Occurs when impacts between surfaces
from rolling and sliding producing a
3. Fatigue gradually cause fatigue damage to one or
repeated alternating stress. The impacts
other of the surfaces
may be due to cavitation
Occurs due to the presence of a chemical

4. The other three types of wear may also
Tribochemical
in the oil or atmosphere which causes
be involved
metal deterioration of the surfaces
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Wear debris monitoring advantages Wear debris analysis
• The FORCES and GEOMETRY and WEAR SITE all “influences the final • Quantity indicates the AMOUNT OF WEAR
wear product”
• The wear particles carried away in the used lubricant can be • Morphology (structure – form) indicates the WEAR ACTION WITH DIFFERENT WEAR
considered to carry the “signature” of the WEAR PROCESS PROCESS.
• SIGNATURES can be read and interpreted by wear particle analysis

techniques to asses machine health • Different size distribution indicates CHANGING WEAR ACTIVITY or ADDITIONAL WEAR.
• The QUANTITY, SIZE DISTRIBUTTION, and CHEMICAL COPOSISITION of
the material can give information about the “TRIBOOLOGICAL • Composition of wear particles indicates POTENTIAL SOURCES OF WEAR by identifying
CONDITION AT THE WORK SITE” the components made of the material that matches the particle.
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507 508
Wear debris analysis Types of debris shape found in oil
Particle shape Typical names Some possible origins
WEAR DEBRIS Metal fatigue
Impending failure • Amount Spheres Welding sparks
Glass peening beads
Pebbles and smooth Quarry dust

• Size ovoids Atmospheric dust
Metal fatigue
Chunks and Slabs Bearing pitting
Nature/ type of failure • Physical form Rock debris
Running-in metal wear
•Chemical form Platelets and Flakes Paint or rust

Copper in grease
Curls, Spirals and Machining debris

Slivers Produced at high temperature
509 Rolls Probably similar to platelets

510 but in a rolled form
509 510
Wear measurement advantages Wear debris analysis versus Vibration analysis

• Measurements can be independent of speed at which the • One of the advantages of wear debris monitoring over vibration
monitor machine is operating monitoring is that it can provide a much clearer indication of
the source of a fault
• It can monitor those machine components that the fluid • Only unhealthy machine components contribute excessive
come into contact with amounts of debris
Wear
debris
x
• Path of debris from the source to the sampling point is much
x
x clearer than that of vibration signal
x x
x x x • The component of a vibration signal caused by a fault can
x x
x
easily be masked by the vast array of large components
emanating from perfectly healthy machine components
x
Lead time Time

Trend
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511 512
Methods of oil analysis
(particle, shape, size, composition quantity)
Useful for machine condition
•Wear particle analysis
•Trending solid contacts
•Particulate matter analysis
Rubbing wear
Cutting wear
Rolling fatigue
Rolling & fatigue
Sliding wear
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Methods of oil analysis (condition) Methods of oil analysis
• Automatic particle counter • Ferrography

• Abnormal wear, blockage of orifices
• Magnetic field particle> 10µ
• Spectrometry oil analysis program (SOAP)
• Wear metal, additives • Cautions
• Sampling
• Chemical analysis • Frequency of sampling
• Water content, Fuel soot, Oxidation, Nitration, TAN, TBN • Understanding results of analysis
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Sampling precautions Where to sample, Diesel Engine
• Clean container
• Case during sampling-avoid external contamination
• Sampling should be done during operating on shortly thereafter
• Hot-normal temperature
• Not settlement
• Sample identification
• Date
• Hours since overhaul
• Hours since change
• Amount of oil added
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517 518
Where to sample, Hydraulic system Where to sample, compressor

• Sample on circulating system
before filter
• Sample on return-line
before filter
• Sample air compressor more
frequently than gas
• Sample downstream of compressors
work-end components
• Sample oil flooded
compressors more frequently
than reciprocating and
centrifugal compressors
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519 520
Automatic particle counters (APC)
Automatic particle counters (APC) works on the
Magnetic plug components light extinction principle where the particles
• a-probe body contained in the fluid interact with a beam of
light shining across a narrow sensing passage and
• b- self closing valve reduce the intensity of the light received by the
detektor.
• c- magnet This is effected by either using a light scattering
or adsorption principle. The reduction in
• d- probe seals intensity is related to particle size by
calibration. The APC can cater for a wide
• e- body particle size range , from 0,5 to over 2000 um
depending on the type of instrument and its
• f- magnet application, and they can work directly on-line
Magnetic plug installation positions or from bottle samples extracted from the
• g- magnetic probe system
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521 522
Ferrograph
Smallest
particles in
this end
• Typical Ferrogram- the largest particles are
arranged at one end and the smallest at the other.
The band shown has the largest particles between
50 and 55 mm and the smallest near the 10 mm
position
Figure: Schematic diagram of the FERROGRAPH-

the strength of the magnetic field increases to a
Largest
maximum at the bottom of the slope particles in
this end
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523 524
Contaminant monitoring techniques
SOAP: Spectrometric Oil Analysis Procedure
• Sampling
• Spectrometric analysis
• Diagnosis data interpretation
• Validation of the diagnosis
Sampling frequency
Obtaining sample (accepted methods)
Fraction- criticality
1. sampling location (away from mov. part)
Age-time overhaul
2. vacuum sampling (from oil compartment)
Operating schedule/ loading character.
3. drain stream (samples to be taken when
oil is hot and well mixed) Safety considerations
Rapidity of failure+ New eq-infant mort.
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525 526
Method of analysis by emission spectrometry

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527 528
Number of particles
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529 530
The amount of iron in the hydraulic oil of a machine

LUBRICANTS
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531 532
APPLICATION OF LUBRICANTS Function of oil
• Permit easy starting
• Lubricate and prevent wear
• Bearings
• Reduce friction
• Cylinders • Protect against rust and corrosion
• Keep engine parts clean
• Gears
• Minimize combustion chamber deposits
• Cool engine parts
• Seal combustion pressures
• Engine oil must be non-foaming
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533 534
Oil function in engine start/stop Bearing in motion
Polished bearing surface magnified approximately 10,000 times.

In Fig. A, oil pressure forces the bearing apart, metal to metal contact cannot take place.
However, when an engine is shut off, the film of oil collapses and metal to metal contact
occurs (Fig. B). When you next start the engine, you tear off the peaks of metal, which are Bearing in motion (at left) shows oil separating surface. The
then carried away in the oil (Fig. C). This is how a part is worn out. By using a pre- parts virtually ride on a thin film of oil. Bearing with engine
lubricating system the metal to metal wear can be eliminateed by automatically shut off (right) shows metal to metal contact.
pressurizing the entire engine before it is started (Fig. D).
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PRINCIPLE OF LUBRICATION Different modes of lubrication
FRICTION
• How to reduce it?
• By the use of lubricants
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537 538
Friction, wear, and lubrication
• Mixed lubrication
Stribeck curve
• Full fluid film lubrication
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539 540
Selection of lubricant Powdered metal lubricants
• Manufacturer’s recommendations • Acts like lubricating fluid

• The internal friction within structure of the powdered metal
or mineral is far less than that of the two metal surfaces in
• Operating and ambient temperature contact
• Powdered zinc – used as antiseize agent together with grease
• Abnormal and loading pressures
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541 542
QUALITY OF LUBRICANTS Quality of lubricants

• Viscosity
• Moisture content •“select a lubricant oil that is thin enough to have a low
internal friction yet heavy enough to separate the metal
• Total acid number surfaces”
• Total base number

• Flash point
• Pour point, etc.
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543 544
Load and pressure Speed of application
• The higher the load – the heavier the oil • The faster the speed – the lighter the oil
• The lighter the load – the lighter the oil • The slower the speed – the heavier the oil
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545 546
Temperature If oil is too thin
• The lower the temperature – the lighter the oil • It will not be able to separate the metal surfaces, and
• The higher the temperature – the heavier the oil • will allow the metal surfaces to come in contact and
increase the friction
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547 548
If oil is too viscous Lubrication oil analysis
•Types of tests performed
• Viscosity
• Viscosity: a fluid’s resistance to flow (simple definition)
• Contamination
• It will be able to separate the metal surfaces, BUT • Fuel dilution
• Solids contents
• Fuel soot
• internal friction within the oil layer is high • Oxidation
• Nitration
• Total Acid Number / Total Base Number
• Particle count
549 550
549 550
Measurable fluid condition characteristics

Viscosity
• Viscosity • “RESISTANCE TO FLOW” (simple definition)
• Water content • “Viscosity of a fluid govern it’s flow characteristics and
specifically functional losses when fluid in motion”
• Total acid number (TAN) – acidity
• “Viscosity is ordinarily expressed in term of the time
• Total base number (TBN) required for a standard quantity of fluid at a certain
temperature to flow through a standard orifice”
• Total solid content
551 552
551 552
. Viscosity index (VI)
• The common metric unit for absolute viscosity is “Poise”
• Defined as the force in “dynes” required to move a surface one square
centimeter in area past a parallel surface at speed of 1 cm per second, • “The measure of the rate of change of viscosity with
with the surfaces separated by a fluid film one millimeter thick temperature
• It is always expressed together with temperature • The higher VI, the lesser the tendency for viscosity change
• Viscosity absolute: ratio of shearing stress to shear rate – expressed in
centiPoise
• Kinematic viscosity: absolute viscosity divided by density of the fluid –
expressed in centiStokes
553 554
553 554
Moisture/ water content monitoring Total acid number (TAN)

• Compounds which form in early stages of oil oxidation are not harmful
• Further oxidation will convert initial oxidation products into acids
• Crackle test ( qualitative / quantitative) which attack and corrode metals
• The acidity of an oil is expressed as the milligram of Potassium
• Karl Fisher water test hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize a gram of oil.
• Commonly used • Two types of tests are usually performed to decide the acid numbers,
• High accuracy at low level of moisture – up to 10 ppm (0,001%) namely ASTM D974 & ASTM D664.
• Needs skilled personnel • ASTMD 974: This test determines the level of acidity by adding an
indicator solution and potassium hydroxide until the solution changes
• FT-IR color (mg KOH/g) (Accuracy: 15%)
• Up tom 1000 ppm (0,1%)
• ASTM D664: This is used for dark colored oil. Acidity is measured by
measuring the changes in electrical conductivity as KOH is added. (mg
KOH/g). (Accuracy: 4-5 %)
555 556
555 556
Main categories of lubricant tests Total base number (TBN)
• This gives the level of alkalinity of an oil sample, by
measuring the change in electrical conductivity.
• FUNCTIONAL TEST
• CHEMICAL TESTS • It is expressed in terms of equivalent number of milligrams
of KOH that is required to neutralize all basic constituent
• PHYSICAL TESTS present in 1 gram of oil sample (ASTM D 2896).
• This test is a measure of an oil’s ability to neutralize
corrosive acids that are formed during operation, thus an
indication of the suitability of oil for continued use.
557 558
557 558
Moisture in lubricant
Dissolved, suspended and free Lubricant additives
•How moisture enters oil / lubricant • Combine and change the structure of the mating metal
surfaces
• Absorption
• Extreme pressure additives like containing Sulfur?,
• Condensation Phosphorus, or Chlorine compounds is often used in
steel surfaces
• Heat exchangers
• Combustion/ oxidation / neutralization • They form sulphide film on the surface which has a
lower shear strength than iron
• Free water entry
559 560
559 560
Lubricant additives Lubricant additives
• Anti-wear agents – form a protective layer by chemical reaction with metal
surface (normally a metal soap)
• Detergents – a) neutralize acidity by products of lubricant oxidation and • Extreme pressure additive – also anti-seize additive, anti-scuffing additive, form
thermal decomposition, b) keep contaminants as sludge of oxidized oil soluble a protective layer by chemical reaction with metal surface
• Dispersants – control contamination from low temperature operation. Both • Foam depressants – control the tendency of foaming often caused by 1&2 through
1&2 attach themselves to particles and hold them in suspension aeration. Foaming can reduce lubricating ability of oil, and interfere with
• Oxidation inhibitors – reduce oxygen attack pumping of oil
• Corrosion inhibitors – protect non-ferrous metals by coating (barrier) • Viscosity index (VI) improvers – control viscosity of multi-grade oils. Long chained
• Rust inhibitors – protect iron and steel from oxygen attack polymers that function by uncoiling or dissociating at elevated temperatures,
increasing the oils resistance to flow. At low temperature little effect
• Friction modifiers – reduce friction by physical adsorption of polar materials on
the metal surface (fatty acids and esters, molybdenum compounds…) • Pour point depressants – gives an oil better low temperature fluidity
561 562
561 562
Distillation, refining, etc. to

Raw oil
Lubricant additives
base oils of same or mixed
chemical structure and
wanted viscosity
Oil additive Purpose Comments
Anti-oxidation To slow down the formation of oil Inactive compounds are formed instead, but the additives
oxidation which produces lacquer are used up in the process
Paraffin base oil Nafta base oil
Mixed base oil
To improve the metal surfaces so the
Anti-wear An adsorbed film is produced on the metal surface Additives to improve viscosity
wear is reduced
Lowest flow point Viscosity
improvement improvement
A high alkalinity is given in the oil, but this gradually
Corrosion inhibitor To counteract the development of acids Additives which build tribological films
reduces in effectiveness
Friction Wear Extreme Cutting & welding
modifier reducer pressure reducer
Demulsifier To separate the water from the oil This is used up in the proportion of water present
Additives which prolong the life of the oil
Foam modifier Cleaning Oxygen inhibitor
Extreme pressure To improve the surface of the metal
agent
A chemical reaction is caused by the additive
under pressure Additives which protect the lubricated surfaces against corrosion
Corrosion inhibitors
Viscosity index To reduce the change in viscosity with Long chain polymers which opens up with temperature. A
improver temperature high shear environment gradually breaks the polymers
COMPONENTS IN A FORMULATED LUBRICATION OIL
563 564
563 564
Don’t judge the cleanliness on what you see
The most important requirement for an oil is:
To have good lubrication characteristics and

prevent wear
To have good viscosity (thickness at

work temperature
Strand of hair
565 566
565 566
Protect against corrosion
Tolerate high temperatures
Not break down or oxidize
Function at low temperatures
567 568
567 568
Have high flame point
Not foam. Separate air fast
Not damage seals and tubes
Be clean
569 570
569 570
Viscosity
The choice of Low viscosity

High viscosity ADDITIVES
Lubricate and the best oil is a Flows best = least flow

seals best compromise losses For improving
Prevent
Against the viscosity Prevent
wear index foaming corrosion Etc.
An improved hydraulic oil
571 572
571 572
Professor Tore Markeset
Introduction
• Operations, maintenance and support costs are strongly influenced
Operations and maintenance by :

• Technology and production facility design
in Arctic
• Organizational structure design
• Human factors (e.g. competence and skills)
• Performance is dependent on the interaction between human,
organization and technology
• Other factors also have a serious impact on how a production facility
needs to be designed
• geographical location
• operating environment
• operational requirements
• culture and politics
573 574
573 574
Maintenance Maintenance as a process
• PrEN 13306: “Maintenance is defined as a combination of Undesirable Input

all technical, administrative and managerial actions, • Strike
including supervision actions, during life cycle of an • Bad Weather
item intended to retain it in, or restore it to, a state in INPUT OUTPUT
which it can perform the required function” See def. Resources Results
NORSOK Z - 008 • Material
Maintenance • Reduced Risk
• Organisation • Higher Reliability
• Documentation process • Higher Availability
• Information
Undesireable output
• Accidents
• Losses
575 576
575 576
System/Equipment Uptime and Downtime
• According to IEV 191-02-05, 2005 availability is the ability of

an item to be in a state to perform a required function
under given condition at a given instant of time or over a
given time interval, assuming that the required external
resources are provided.
577 578
577 578
Maintenance types Oil and gas development in Norway

Maintenance types
Planned Unplanned
Preventive Corrective Corrective
Period based Condition based
Calendar based Use based Subjective Objective
Continuous Non-continuous
579 580
579 580
Petroleum fields on the NCS in the Barents Sea Goliat petroleum field in sub-artic region
Murmansk
Southern
Goliat offshore Barents sea
petroleum field Artic circle
located in the
southern part of the
Barents Sea at
approximately 370m
sea depth, 85 km
from shore.
581 582
581 582
Arctic region Key issues

Sensitive environment:
• Rich and sensitive fishing resources and birdlife • Design (technical concepts and solutions, operations and maintenance concepts)
• Pollution will have more serious consequences due to the cold
temperature • Complex production facilities (top side, subsea, pipeline)
Harsh climate:
• Remote location (Long distance to market, far away from major populated area)
• Long winter • Harsh environment (cold, snow, storm, icing, dark)
• Cold temperature
• Ice and snow • Sensitive environment (fishing grounds, cold water temperature, slow
• Windy breakdown of spills)
• Polar night (two months without daylight)
• Operational processes (technical and management/administrative, topside
Remote location: and subsea , offshore/ onshore)
• Longer distance to market, suppliers and service providers
• Poor transportation infrastructure
• Maintenance processes (technical and management/administrative, topside
and subsea, offshore/ onshore)
• Poor communication infrastructure
• Low population • Support processes (operational and maintenance logistics, product support,
• Indigenous people industrial support services)
583 584
583 584
OMS – operation, maintenance and support Operational environment factors
Operation Temperature
• Reliability • Arctic: coldest months in January and February
• Operational environment • Materials such as metal, plastic and lubricants change properties
• Operational work processes • Sub-arctic region: large variation in temperature during short period of time.
Maintenance Wind
• Availability • Polar lows: sudden wind increase and large changes in wind direction
• Spare parts
• Windchill factors
• Maintenance program: preventive, corrective, periodic, condition-monitoring
etc.
Icing
Support • Icing process: depending on temperature, surface slope and direction,
• Inventory management
distance from shoreline/water surface
• Logistic • Snow/rain/wind generated waves + wind = rapid ice growth
• Competence • Enormous challenges if maintenance is needed
585 586
585 586
Operational environment factors Design factors
Snowdrift • Choice of materials

• Choice of equipments
• Easily suspended and transported by wind • Choice of support strategies
• Physical environment
• Snow accumulation: Restrict access to equipment and • Human factors
instruments • Health
• Environmental
• Freezing at surfaces • Safety
• Quality
Weather forecasting For cold regions:

• Access possibility
• Not adequate • Wind shielding
• Lighting
• May indicate polar lows, but not size, location and strength
• Evacuation and escape
587 588
587 588
Icing phenomenon Icing phenomenon
589 590
589 590
591 592
591 592
593 594
593 594
Expected types of problems in cold regions Expected types of problems in cold regions
• Embrittlement of steel, plastics and composites causing • Higher fuel consumption due to greater rolling resistance,
failures at loads that are routinely imposed without damage richer air/fuel mixture, and higher viscosity of lubricants
in warmer climate • Increased degradation of seal and filters resulting in
• Failure of lubricants to perform adequately, thereby increased loss of lubricants and coolants
resulting in increased wear rates • Generation of static electricity that can destroy computers
• Increased energy requirements for routine operations such and control circuitry
as steering, starting, braking and operation of controls
595 596
595 596
Man in the arctic Design for OMS in an Arctic climate
• Wind, snow and darkness reduces the operational effectiveness
• Humans are “designed” to operate in very narrow temperature Physical environment &
range geographical location Design for:
• Low temperatures cause:

• Operations
• Maintenance
– Reduced cognitive and reasoning abilities and cognitive • Support
errors are more likely to occur
– Significant reduction of the effectiveness of the workers
– Possibility of mistakes or being inaccurate increases
Components/
• Extra time must be allowed for all operations when the systems Human beings
temperature drops
597 598
597 598
Design for…… Design for maintenance

Remote Harsh Sensitive • Companies, society and other stakeholders will benefit from
– Improving production facilities in the design phase
– making production facilities more environmentally friendly, more safe, reliable and easy to
maintain as well as more effective, efficient, productive, profitable and competitive
Operation Ke • Maintenance is an enabler for improved business performance.
yi • The overall objective of the maintenance process is to
ssu
es – increase the profitability and
t ob – reduce the risks of the business in a total life cycle cost perspective, without
Maintenance et compromising on
ak – health, safety, environment or quality.
en • In design one need to take into account local influence factors (e.g. local operating
i nto conditions, system characteristics, climatic conditions, regulations, distance to
ac market, etc.)
co
Support u nt • Maintenance concepts that are designed keeping in view various influence factors,
will prolong the system’s life-cycle at a lower cost
599 600
599 600
Design for performance Production performance in operations
601 602
601 602
Potential failures due to gradual degradation over time Potential failures due to gradual degradation and load
variation
603 604
603 604
Performance degradation vs remaining useful life Challenges affecting life-cycle costs:
The harsh climate, remote location and sensitive

environment may influence the costs in all life cycle
phases
Increased cost due to:
• Technology (more failures, longer downtime, spills, etc)
• Logistics (man, materials, distance, time, storage, inventory, spare parts,
• Low availability of qualified and skilled personnel (higher salaries)
• Support services (expert assistance, field service, training)
• Work processes (performance)
• Seasonal low temperatures
• Uncertainty in data and
information
605 606
605 606
Life cycle costs, profits, performance Drilling rigs for the Arctic
Benefits &
Costs Performance
Price
Planned downtime (preventive maintenance) caused losses Reduce

Unplanned downtime (corrective maintenance) caused losses Losses
Benefit losses caused by ineffectiveness and inefficiency

(operations, maintenance, support, reduced output quality,
reduced capacity, slow switch-over, start-up, calibration, etc.)
Life Cycle Profit Extend
Generated in Active Uptime Life
Maintenance Costs
Reduce
Operational Costs Costs
Capital Costs
Time
607 608
607 608
Kashagan field development - Kashakhstan Kashagan, Winter working
Harsh and sensitive Environment
Winter weather covering examples
From Aker Solutions working on the building of the Statoil Hydro Snøhvit
LNG plant at Melkøya, Hammerfest in the North of Norway
Large Ice Pile up at the Kashagan Island - Occurred Jan 31 2002

609 610
609 610
Offshore production plant

in Caspean Sea
Kasakhstan,
courtesy Agip
611 612
611 612
Support in remote areas
Competence
Transportation route for • Few in the area with competence and expertise
• Training of local inhabitants
platform modules made in
• Hiring labour (shift work)
Norway. Transported on
barges on rivers in Transportation
• No shipyard in the area
• Limited development of road and railroad Less adequate airport and less frequent
flights
• Weather condition may restrict the helicopter usage
Communication
• Telecommunication for education program
• Technical advice
• Remote support
• ICT (Information and Communication Technology)
613 614
613 614
Support services Human errors

• Failure diagnosis may be assisted using remotely located specialists • The cost associated with accidents due
who normally would have to be transported to the site. to human error can be staggering.
• Instead of sending the experts to the installation, the data and live
video can be sent to the experts. • About 80% of offshore accidents are
• Condition analysis may also make it possible to prolong caused by humans with 64% occurring
maintenance intervals, to plan for maintenance and have spare during operations (Avery, 2007).
parts and personnel ready when they are needed.
• Using experts to monitor and analyze the data may also result in a • For example, Piper Alpha a disaster led
better understanding of the equipment, which can lead to ways to to 167 human loss and loss of about 3
keep it running longer between maintenance. billion US Dollar
• In all, this should reduce the number of failures, shorten the
downtime, increase the production performance and reduce the – The cause was attributed to
costs numerous human factors design and
organizational failures (Avery, 2007).
615 616
615 616
Outcomes of exposure to cold Maintainability issues in cold environments
• Reduced manual skills, dexterity, coordination etc.

• Increased risk of musculoskeletal injuries from stiffness of
muscles and joints and reduced peripheral circulation.
• Increased risk of accidents from reduced alertness, manual
dexterity and coordination.
• Discomfort from cold stiff hands and feet, runny nose and
shivering.
• Impaired ability to perceive cold, cuts, pain and heat.
• Reduced decision-making ability.
617 618
617 618
Ergonomic/Human Factors issues in Maintainability Design for Maintainability

in the Arctic Condition
Anthropometric Human sensory Anthropometric access:

• To enhance working efficiency
• To improve safety and comfort aspects of work
Maintainability • Bulky clothing, winter shoe and working gloves
should be taken into consideration
• Design for 90% user population
Physiological Psychological
Visual access:
Anthropometric: Measurement of human body. • Worker’s line of vision should not be blocked
Human sensory: Sight, vision, hearing, smell, touch. • Worker’s should not remove any part in order to
Psychological: Characteristics of human mind such as, visualize failed part from a equipment.
motivation, coordination. • Adequate illumination for the task
Physiological: Effect of environmental stresses on human
body.
619 620
619 620
Design for Maintainability Design for Maintainability
in the Arctic Condition in the Arctic Condition
Design features for physical access: Task simplification (Psychological demand)

• Design and locate the units so that they will not interfere with • Design to promote quick identification of risk or failure
removal or opening of the covers of units.
• Design to minimize the complexity of maintenance tasks.
• Design the equipment in a way that maintenance personnel are not
forced to remove non-failed components in order to access the fail • Design the instruction manuals and equipment in way that worker
component. should perceive and process information from maintenance
• Allow sufficient space around the parts considering maintenance environment in less time.
personnel wearing winter clothing so that the hand can grasp, • Avoid frequent tool changes and the use of incorrect tools in order
remove, manipulate and replace these parts easily.
to avoid supply problems.
• The material characteristics of equipment must take into
consideration of their characteristics in cold. Therefore, design the • Use standardized equipment in order to minimize the number and
equipment by using materials which are less vulnerable in extreme type of tools needed for maintenance purposes.
cold.
• Design the equipment with an easy locking system rather than using
nut-bolt or screw. This can save time and exposure to the cold.
621 622
621 622
Design for Maintainability

in the Arctic Condition Professor Tore Markeset
Incorporation of human factor into system design will

results in:
• Improved maintainability
Petroleum resources and
• Improved operability population in the Barents
• Reduced training time
region
• Reduced safety and health risk
• Reduced maintenance downtime
• Improved system availability
• Improved profit
623 624
623 624
Arctic sea ice,
warm and cold
currents
625 626
625 626
Petroleum
resources
and sea birds
colonies
627 628
627 628
Temperatures Urban and rural
in the Barents
region population in
the Barents
region
629 630
629 630
Population
631 632
631 632

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Tore Markeset

• Professor in Mechanical engineering - operations and maintenance

Tore Markeset, University of Stavanger / UIT - The Arctic University of Norway

Key topics of the course: The course teaching schedule

Module 2: Main concepts, tools and

• Reliability centered maintenance

Paradigm shift in maintenance What do we mean when talk about “maintenance”?

Maintenance process Meaning of downtime

Downtime Uptime Downtime

Standby / System Active Logistics delay Administrative

• Loss of a production opportunity

• Increased scrap Corrective

Inspection Servicing Checkout

• Higher overhead costs

• Increased costs of assets Corrective maintenance cycle

• Decreased life Repair of

• Decreased purchasing power

• Reduced morale/enthusiasm and replace it

Maintenance needs Failure development process and remaining useful life

• Therefore, it is important to consider issues such as reliability, Limit

maintainability, and supportability of equipment and software x2

Cost, Risk and Benefit are connected Maintenance purpose

The MAIN PURPOSE of maintenance is to

Unreliability Loss of Quality

Factors influencing Maintenance

• Assurance of System Performance (ROI, HSE)

• Commonly reliability is expressed in terms of MTTF/ MTBF or failure rate.

Maintainability Maintainability versus Maintenance

Definitions Availability Inherent availability

Reliability and availability Maintenance definition

during life cycle of an item intended to retain it

Cost of maintenance Maintenance

5- 50% of the operating costs depending on

Maintenance types/ classification Importance of maintenance strategy

Period based Condition based

Calendar based Use based Subjective Objective

Maintenance: a cross-functional discipline Elements of maintenance discipline

Business Support, Operational Research, Statistics

Engineering Business management

Design and development of maintenance concept

•The critical issues : • Design out failure (Design out maintenance)

Design for maintenance & product support

Integration of RAMS in design Performance management & measurement

Supportability •Less design iteration in detail design

Cost •Degrading mechanisms studied

Construction Exploitation Savings

Acquisition Utilization phase Time Objective

phase HSE : Health, Safety, Environment

PSA: Objectives and duties NPD: Objectives and duties

IEC ISO 14224

NORSOK – standards NORSOK Standard

Z-008 – Risk based maintenance and consequence

Z-016 – Regularity management & reliability technology

Z-013 – risk and emergency preparedness analysis

a) consequence classification of functional failure;

We define a technical system as: Boundary Conditions External threats

• a composite, at any level of complexity, of personnel,

Functional block Diagram of a diesel engine (Fig. 3.2)

Failures affect reliability. To improve reliability we have to study how a

Causal Unwanted Consequence

Figure 1.3 - Rausand & Høyland

Steps in Risk Analysis criticality analysis

Causes and sub-causes Effect Causes

Long SLL SLM* SLH***