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LECTURE OUTLINE
7.2 The Light Reactions: How Is Light Energy Converted to Chemical Energy?
A. Light Is Captured by Pigments in Chloroplasts
1. The sun emits energy in a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (Figure 7-5)
a. This energy ranges from short-wavelength gamma rays to very-long-wavelength radio waves
b. Light is composed of individual packets of energy called photons
c. Short-wavelength photons have high energy; long-wavelength photons have low energy
d. Visible light is composed of wavelengths of light that are energetic enough to power reactions but
not damage cells
2. When light strikes an object, it is either absorbed, reflected, or transmitted
a. Absorbed light produces heat or drives reactions
b. Reflected or transmitted light that reaches our eyes produces color
3. Chloroplasts contain pigment molecules that absorb different wavelengths of light
a. There are several pigments in chloroplasts
b. The primary pigment is chlorophyll a, which absorbs violet, blue, and red light and reflects green
light
c. Accessory pigments include chlorophyll b and carotenoids, which absorb additional wavelengths of
light energy
d. Carotenoids are usually masked by chlorophyll and become apparent as chlorophyll breaks down
in the fall (Figure 7-6)
Lecture Activity 7.1: Fluorescence of Chlorophyll
Lecture Activity 7.2: Chromatography of Pigments from Spinach Leaves
Have You Ever Wondered: What Color Might Plants Be on Other Planets?
B. The Light Reactions Occur in Association with the Thylakoid Membranes
1. Thylakoids contain many copies of two photosystems, photosystem I (PS I) and photosystem II (PS II)
a. Each photosystem consists of a cluster of chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
b. Each photosystem has a unique electron transport chain located adjacent to it
i. Energized electrons pass through these chains, which ultimately produce ATP and NADPH
2. Photosystem II and its electron transport chain capture light energy, create a hydrogen ion gradient,
and split water (Figure 7-7)
a. Light-dependent reactions are initiated when photons of light are absorbed by PS II, energizing
electrons
i. Pigments absorb light and pass energy to a reaction center, a specialized region of the
photosystem
ii. These electrons are then passed to an electron transport chain (ETC)
iii. Splitting water maintains the flow of electrons through photosystems
b. As electrons are passed down the ETC, energy is used to pump H+ ions across the thylakoid
membrane
c. Energy stored in the H+ ion concentration gradient is harnessed to make ATP by chemiosmosis
3. Photosystem I and its electron transport chain generate NADPH
a. Light also energizes electrons in photosystem I
i. These electrons are passed to another ETC that produces NADPH
4. The hydrogen ion gradient generates ATP by chemiosmosis (Figure 7-8)
a. The gradient produced by the ETC associated with photosystem II is used to drive the synthesis of
ATP
i. The movement of H+ ions through ATP synthase is similar to a turbine (Figure 7-8)
ii. The movement of H+ generates energy for ATP synthase to use to produce ATP
5. Summing up: Light reactions
Case Study Continued: Did the Dinosaurs Die from Lack of Sunlight?
7.3 The Calvin Cycle: How Is Chemical Energy Stored in Sugar Molecules?
A. The Calvin Cycle Captures Carbon Dioxide
1. The Calvin cycle uses the energy in the ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to make
glucose from CO2
2. This cycle occurs in three stages (Figure 7-9)
a. Carbon fixation
i. Carbon from CO2 is “fixed” into a larger organic molecule
a. RuBP is combined with the CO2 to form an unstable 6-C molecule
ii. This unstable molecule quickly splits to form molecules of 3-C PGA (phosphoglyceric acid)
b. Synthesis of G3P
i. ATP and NADPH energy is used to convert 6 PGA to 6 G3P
c. Regeneration of RuBP
i. 5 of the 6 G3P are used to regenerate RuBP
ii. The remaining G3P exits the cycle
3. The Calvin cycle can be disrupted
a. Photorespiration occurs when O2 rather than CO2 is combined with RuBP
b. No useful energy is generated
4. Some plants living in hot, dry environments have evolved the C4 pathway or the CAM pathway of
carbon fixation
In Greater Depth: Alternate Pathways Increase Carbon Fixation (Figures E7-1 and E7-2)
Lecture Activity 7.5: Global Warming and Photosynthesis
B. Carbon Fixed During the Calvin Cycle Is Used to Synthesize Glucose
1. Two G3P molecules can be used to produce glucose (Figure 7-9)
2. Glucose can then be used to produce other types of sugars
3. Summing up: The Calvin cycle
Earth Watch: Biofuels—Are Their Benefits Bogus? (Figures E7-3 and E7-4)
Lecture Activity 7.3: The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Photosynthesis
Lecture Activity 7.4: Modeling Photosynthesis
Case Study Revisited: Did the Dinosaurs Die from Lack of Sunlight?
KEY TERMS
accessory pigment crassulacean acid metabolism photorespiration
ATP synthase (CAM) photosynthesis
bundle sheath cells cuticle photosystem
C3 pathway electromagnetic spectrum reaction center
C4 pathway electron transport chain (ETC) rubisco
Calvin cycle epidermis stoma (plural, stomata)
carbon fixation grana stroma
carotenoid light reactions thylakoid
chemiosmosis mesophyll
chlorophyll NADPH (NADP+; nicotinamide
chlorophyll a dinucleotide phosphate)
chloroplast photon
LECTURE ACTIVITIES
Section Reference
7.2 Light Reactions: How Is Light Energy Converted to Chemical Energy?
Introduction
This is a good activity for introducing the properties of light and chlorophyll as a light-capturing molecule. In this
activity, chlorophyll that has been extracted from green leaves is exposed to UV light. Photons of light will cause
electrons in the chlorophyll molecules to be boosted to higher energy levels. If an electron acceptor molecule is not
present, the excited electrons will immediately drop back to ground state, giving off energy as light (fluorescence) and
heat.
For student and/or instructor background, perform an Internet search using the terms “chlorophyll fluorescence.”
Materials Needed
Mortar and pestle Pasteur pipettes
Centrifuge 3–5 spinach leaves
Test tubes Ethyl acetate (or ethanol)
Laboratory balance UV light
Procedures
You may begin with dry spinach leaves and extract chlorophyll with ethanol (Procedure A) or use fresh spinach leaves
and extract the chlorophyll with ethyl acetate (Procedure B).
Procedure A for dry spinach leaves:
1. Dry 3–5 spinach leaves until brittle, overnight in a dry location at room temperature or in an oven at 45–
50°C for 2–3 hours.
2. Grind leaves with mortar and pestle in approximately 5–10 ml of solvent (enough to cover the leaves).
Either ethyl acetate or ethanol can be used as a solvent.
3. Add the leaf mixture to a centrifuge tube. Rinse the contents from the mortar and pestle into the tube.
4. Centrifuge for about 5 minutes or until there is a solid pellet at the bottom and a green liquid fraction.
5. Using a Pasteur pipette, extract the green liquid fraction containing chlorophyll dissolved in ethyl acetate
and transfer to a clean, dry test tube. Cap the test tube to prevent evaporation.
Procedure B for fresh spinach leaves:
1. Use 3–5 fresh spinach leaves. (Do not dry.)
2. Grind the leaves with a mortar and pestle in 5–10 ml of ethyl acetate. (Ethanol is not an appropriate solvent
for the extraction of pure chlorophyll because water is soluble in ethanol.)
3. Add the leaf mixture to a centrifuge tube. Use additional solvent to rinse the contents from the mortar and
pestle into the tube.
4. Centrifuge for about 5 minutes.
5. Using a pipette, remove the green liquid fraction containing the ethyl acetate and chlorophyll and transfer to
a clean, dry centrifuge tube. Discard any solids and the aqueous layer.
6. Add 2–3 ml of water to the tube containing the chlorophyll solution, shake, and re-centrifuge.
7. Remove the lower aqueous layer by pipette and discard.
8. Cap the remaining green liquid that contains the chlorophyll.
Fluorescence under ultraviolet light:
To observe fluorescence in the UV range, use a black light that emits in the 365-nm range. Bring the test tube
containing chlorophyll to within a few centimeters of the black light and note the color of the chlorophyll extract.
For discussion purposes, you may want to try to shine other types of light (e.g., blue, green, or red light) on the
chlorophyll and note whether any fluorescence occurs.
Assessment Suggestions
Use the questions on the following page for individual assessment or group discussion.
2. What has happened to the excited electrons in the chlorophyll molecule when fluorescence occurs?
4. Trace the pathway of the light energy from the excitation of chlorophyll to the completion of the light-
dependent reactions.
5. During the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, what molecule is the final electron acceptor?
6. Where do electrons come from to replace the energized electrons that are constantly leaving chlorophyll
molecules?
Section Reference
7.2 Light Reactions: How Is Light Energy Converted to Chemical Energy?
Introduction
Paper chromatography is a method of separating substances in a mixture based on their physical properties. Leaves
appear green but actually contain a combination of several different pigments that have different solubility
characteristics. As the solvent moves up the paper, the pigment components of the leaf will be separated.
Materials Needed
Chromatography paper
Chromatography chamber (2-qt canning jar)
Petroleum ether acetone solvent: about 20 ml of a 90% (v/v) petroleum ether: 10% acetone solvent; keep in
covered chromatography chamber. (Note that this solvent should be prepared fresh; if too much evaporation
of petroleum ether occurs, separation will not be good.)
One large spinach leaf
Penny
Procedures
1. On a piece of chromatography paper, make a pencil (not ink!) line 2 cm from the bottom of the paper.
2. Place a large spinach leaf over the pencil line. Using a penny, rub the spinach leaf in one long straight line to
cover the pencil mark.
3. Place it in a chamber with acetone–petroleum ether solvent. Note: petroleum ether and acetone are
extremely flammable! The spot should NOT be immersed in the solvent.
4. Allow the solvent to move to within 2 cm of the top of the strip and then remove and air-dry the paper.
5. When the chromatogram is dry, record the results as a sketch, showing the position of the spots on the
paper. Four spots should be visible: from the bottom, working upward, the pigments are chlorophyll b,
chlorophyll a, xanthophyll (this may be one or two spots), and carotene. Xanthophyll and carotene are
yellow-orange pigments that belong to the class of pigments called carotenoids.
Assessment Suggestions
Use the questions on the following page for individual assessment or group discussion.
3. If the experiment were repeated with colorful fall leaves (yellows and oranges), how would the results
differ?
Section Reference
7.3 The Calvin Cycle: How Is Chemical Energy Stored in Sugar Molecules?
Introduction
The activity assumes that students know that CO2 is exhaled during breathing.
Materials Needed
Two 125-ml flasks with airtight stoppers
Fresh Elodea
Bright light source (this can be a shop light)
Bromothymol blue (1% solution)
Procedures
1. Have all solutions at room temperature.
2. Fill two 125-ml flasks (Flask A and Flask B) with water and a few drops of bromothymol blue.
3. Using a straw, blow gently into the water in both flasks until the solution turns a pale green.
4. Place a 6- to 8-cm sprig of Elodea into Flask B. Make a fresh, angled cut in the stem of the Elodea. It should be
placed with the stem side up, immersed in the water.
5. Place an airtight stopper on each flask. This activity works best when there is not a lot of air left in the flask.
6. Place the flasks about 1.5 to 2 feet from a bright source of light.
7. At the end of the class period, note any color changes in the flask.
Assessment Suggestions
Use the questions on the following page for individual assessment or group discussion.
Questions
1. Why did the solutions change color after your instructor exhaled into them?
2. At the end of the class period, was there any change in the color of the beakers? Explain.
3. Trace the path of the carbon dioxide after it is taken up by the Elodea plant.
4. If the experiment were repeated with both flasks in the dark, what would you expect to happen?
Section References
7.2 Light Reactions: How Is Light Energy Converted to Chemical Energy?
7.3 The Calvin Cycle: How Is Chemical Energy Stored in Sugar Molecules?
Introduction
In this activity, students will build the reactants of photosynthesis and trace a “radioactive” atom in the formation of
products.
Materials Needed
Molecular modeling kits
Tape
Procedures
1. Provide the students with molecular modeling kits. Instruct them to build a molecule of carbon dioxide and
a molecule of water.
2. Mark either the O in the water molecule or the C in carbon dioxide with a piece of tape to represent a
radioactive atom.
3. Now build the products (glucose and oxygen), making the appropriate product “radioactive.”
4. If you would like to “balance” the equation, have a group of students work together to provide six molecules
of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water.
Assessment Suggestions
Use the questions on the following page for individual assessment or group discussion.
2. Which product would be radioactive if you began the reaction with radioactive oxygen in the water?
3. Which product would be radioactive if you began the reaction with radioactive carbon in the carbon
dioxide?
4. What else is required for photosynthesis, other than oxygen and carbon dioxide?
Section Reference
This activity may be used to open the chapter or used as an extension at the end of the chapter.
Introduction
There are many broad-reaching consequences of global warming. This class discussion helps apply the information in
this chapter to a relevant environmental concern.
Materials Needed
Computers with Internet access
Procedures
1. Introduce the topic:
Most likely, students are already familiar with the problem of global warming. You may want to open the
discussion by determining what the class already knows about global warming. Additionally, you could have the
students perform an Internet search using “global warming” as the search term and have them take notes on
what global warming is, what causes it, and what some of the environmental impacts might be. After students
have gained some background knowledge, the discussion may proceed.
2. Questions for discussion:
a. What is global warming?
(Global warming is an increase in the average global temperature as a result of the buildup of greenhouse gases.
One of the primary greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide.)
b. What is the relationship between photosynthesis and global warming?
(Plants are carbon dioxide “sinks.” They utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for photosynthesis, thereby
decreasing the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.)
c. As carbon dioxide levels rise, what will happen to the rate of photosynthesis?
(Some studies have demonstrated an increased rate of photosynthesis as a result of increased carbon dioxide
levels.)
d. What are the potential benefits of an increased rate of photosynthesis? What are the concerns?
(If rates of photosynthesis increase, the amount of carbon dioxide utilization will also increase. A concern is that
an increased growth rate may lead to a decreased nutrient value per pound of vegetation.)
e. Will photosynthesis occur at a rapid rate indefinitely? Why or why not?
(No, most likely some other nutrient will become limiting.)
Assessment Suggestions
None
CHAPTER XI.