Biology Organisms and Adaptations

Media Update Enhanced Edition 1st

Edition Noyd Solutions Manual
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7
Animal Growth
and Development
Chapter 7 utilizes the American lobster to describe patterns of growth and development from the
earliest stages of an embryo to a fully developed adult organism. The structure and replication of
DNA, as well as the details of the cell cycle, are included. Cell signals and communication are
discussed, as is the process of gene expression.

Learning Objectives
7.1 Growth and Development of the American Lobster
Summarize the growth and development of the lobster explaining the role of environmental and
hormonal factors on these changes.

7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development

Describe the characteristic patterns and rates of growth and development at the organism, species,
and tissue level.
 Distinguish between animal growth and development.
 Define cell differentiation and explain its role in growth and development.
 Explain how cell division, cell movement, cell arrangement, and cell specialization are
associated with animal growth and development.
 Summarize the relationship between animal growth, development, and life span. Be able to
predict the rate of growth and development based on life span.
 Understand the role of genes in animal growth and development.

7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development

Explain how external and internal factors control animal growth and development.
 Describe five environmental factors that influence growth and development.
 Explain how hormones act at the system, organ, tissue, and cellular level to influence growth
and development.

7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
Explain the importance of the cell cycle to animal growth and development.
 Explain the significance of the cell cycle.

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 Define and describe interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
 Describe the three stages of interphase.
 Describe how the molecular structure of DNA helps it to replicate during cell division.
 Explain DNA replication using the following terms: chromosome, enzymes, semiconservative,
template, and base pairing rules.
 State three roles mitosis plays in animals.

7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
Summarize the role of gene expression on growth and development in animals.
 At the molecular level, explain how environmental factors trigger animal growth and
development.
 Define growth factors and explain their significance in the cell cycle.
 Draw a general signaling pathway used in cells to create a cellular response.
 Define gene expression and its role in cell structure and function.
 Differentiate between transcription and translation.
 Compare and contrast DNA and RNA molecules.
 Draw the gene expression process using these structures and terms: nucleus, ribosome,
promoter, mRNA, DNA, transcription, translation, cytoplasm, protein, codons, amino acids, and
tRNA.

Key Concepts
Animal Growth and Development
Different animal groups show specific patterns of growth and development, which are controlled by
the expression of different genes. Very specific patterns of gene expression control the formation of
body plans in animals.
External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development
Animal growth and development are the result of complex interactions of many external and
internal factors, which include genetics, environment, nutrition, and hormones.
The Cell Cycle
The cell cycle consists of distinct phases with specific checkpoints that ensure proper cell division.
Growth is accomplished by the cell cycle and is highly regulated by hormones and external factors.
Cell Communication
Cells signal other cells to initiate processes of growth, development, reproduction, and survival.
Cells communicate commonly through intracellular chemical messengers.
Gene Expression
Cells are specialized to perform specific functions through the expression of genes. At the molecular
level, genes are transcribed to an RNA template, which then is translated into protein products

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inside the cell. Gene regulation and expression are highly ordered chemical interactions that
regulate cell differentiation, growth, and development.

Key Terms
In order of occurrence:
free-swimming phase cell cycle full complement of DNA
bottom-dwelling phase meiosis semiconservative
growth interphase growth factors
development mitotic phase apoptosis
life stages mitosis transcription
zygote cytokinesis translation
germ layers sister chromatids RNA (ribonucleic acid)
cell differentiation deoxyribose ribose
patterns of growth phosphate uracil
determinate growth nitrogenous bases promoter
indeterminate growth mutation codons
hormones DNA replication

Lecture Outline
7.1 Growth and Development of the American Lobster
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Summarize the growth and development of the lobster explaining the role of
environmental and hormonal factors on these changes.
B.Lobsters begin life as eggs on their mother’s abdomen, growing for 9–12 months.
1. The embryo develops in stages until it reaches a larval stage, at which point it hatches.
2. Lobster larvae are free-swimming in the plankton with very low survival rates.
3. Metamorphosis follows, where the lobster begins to develop its adult form, which is
bottom-dwelling.
4. Lobsters continue to grow throughout their lifetime, molting their old shell and
forming a new one when they get too big.
a. The regrowth, molting, and hardening process may take a month to complete each
time.
b.Lobsters may molt several times each year.
5. As with many organisms, temperature is the driving environmental factor for major
lobster life events.
a. Warmer temperatures lead to faster growth rates.
b.Temperature specifically influences several steroid hormones in the lobster that
direct development and growth.
7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Describe the characteristic patterns and rates of growth and development at the
organism, species, and tissue level.
B.Growth in an organism includes three processes:
1. Increased cell numbers
2. Increased individual cell size
3. Secretion of proteins and other materials around cells

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 C.Each process contributes to overall organismal growth.
D. Development refers to the various changes an animal undergoes through the maturation
process.
1. Different organisms have different developmental stages.
E.Each animal species has a characteristic pattern of development
1. Humans, as many animals, have life stages that range from fertilization, to cell growth
and cell specialization of a zygote, to fetus, to immature juvenile, to adult.
2. Embryonic development can tell scientists a great deal about the ancestral origins of
various species and is used to classify organisms.
a. Organisms whose mouth forms first are protostomes.
b.Organisms whose anus forms first are deuterostomes.
c. Animals all develop the head region first and the tail end last.
3. Many animals follow a pattern of cleavage, morula, blastula, gastrula, and
larva/embryo in their early development of a zygote.
4. Germ layers give rise to different tissue types.
a. Ectoderm gives rise to the epithelial tissues.
b.Endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive system.
c. Mesoderm gives rise to the muscular, skeletal, circulatory, and reproductive
systems.
5. Location, cellular communication, and other signals determine a particular cell’s fate,
which is known as cell differentiation.
a. Cell differentiation leads to cell specialization.
F.Animals show characteristic patterns and rates of growth and development
1. The fastest growth rates occur earliest in life for animals.
2. Determinate growth patterns are in organisms that stop growing at maturity.
3. Indeterminate growth occurs in organisms that continue to grow throughout their
lifetime.
4. Organisms with long life spans grow more slowly and take longer to mature than
those with short life spans.
5. All four tissue types show distinct patterns of growth.
7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Explain how external and internal factors control animal growth and development.
B.Cellular growth is controlled by cell communication and signals.
C.External and internal factors are both responsible for animal growth.
D. Environmental factors trigger growth and development
1. DNA preprograms the life stages of an organism.
2. Habitat influences modify these hardwired stages.
a. Food supply, oxygen levels, space, and temperature are all external factors that
affect an organism’s development.
b.Temperature is particularly important for many animals, as organisms have a faster
metabolism at higher temperatures.
c. Length of day is also an important cue for feeding, breeding, and hibernation.
E.Hormones play a major role in controlling growth and development
1. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by the body that target specific cell
types.
a. The receptors on the target cells initiate an appropriate response based on the
particular hormone.

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 b.Important hormones in humans include testosterone and estrogen, which promote
sexual maturation.
c. Production of some hormones is triggered by other hormones; for example,
luteinizing hormone controls the production of testosterone.
7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of the cell cycle to animal growth and development.
B.Growth is an increase in body mass.
1. Increases in cell number lead to growth; cells divide at different rates.
C.The process of cell growth and division is known as the cell cycle.
D. In addition to adding cells, the cell cycle replaces old cells.
E.Overview of the cell cycle
1. Cells progress through the cell cycle at different rates.
a. Some cells may only take minutes or hours to move through the cell cycle, while
others take years.
2. Cell division is highly controlled, is complex, and has many checkpoints.
a. Checkpoints limit the progression of the cell cycle if the conditions for the next step
are not met.
3. The cell growth and DNA replication portion of the cycle is known as interphase and
takes up approximately 90 percent of a cell’s life.
a. Interphase is triggered by hormones and other signaling molecules.
4. The mitotic phase is the process of dividing the genetic material, as well as dividing up
the cytoplasm and organelles.
a. Mitosis begins when the cell has enough DNA and components to support two cells.
5. The physical separation of the two identical daughter cells is known as cytokinesis.
F.A closer look at interphase
1. Interphase consists of three phases.
a. In G1, or gap phase 1, the cell grows and produces enzymes and other proteins at a
high rate.
b.The second phase, S or “synthesis” phase, is when the DNA is replicated; sister
chromatids are produced to support two new and identical cells.
c. G2, or gap phase 2, is the last phase and when the cell makes more structural
proteins for the process of mitosis.
G.Revisiting DNA structure
1. A chromosome consists of a long double helix of genetic material, coiled around
proteins to form chromatin.
2. DNA consists of a backbone of deoxyribose sugar and a phosphate group; the “rungs”
of the twisted ladder of a DNA molecule are composed of four different nucleotides:
adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
3. Adenine always pairs with thymine in the double helix, and guanine always pairs with
cytosine.
4. The order of the nucleotides codes for specific amino acid sequences.
5. A change in a DNA nucleotide, or series of nucleotides, is known as a mutation.
6. The double helix of the DNA is held together between nucleotides by hydrogen bonds.
H. DNA replication occurs during interphase
1. DNA molecules are duplicated completely in the synthesis phase.
2. Each new cell produced by the cell cycle is an exact copy of those that came before it.
3. To accomplish DNA replication, cells need enzymes to catalyze the process, additional
nucleotides to build new DNA molecules, and energy.

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 4. The nearly error-free process of DNA replication is known as semiconservative
replication.
5. Enzymes are an important part of DNA replication.
a. One enzyme unwinds the double helix, opening each side up for DNA polymerase to
add new complimentary nucleotides to match each side of the parent strand.
b.Other enzymes are involved with proofreading the new strand and in making sure
there are no significant errors in the daughter strands.
I. A closer look at mitosis
1. The process of mitosis divides the replicated DNA, organelles, and cytoplasm equally
into the two new daughter cells.
2. Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
a. In prophase, the chromosomes condense and organelles begin to migrate to one side
or the other.
b.In metaphase, the condensed chromosomes line up on the midline of the cell and
microtubules connect to one of each of the sister chromatids of a pair.
c. In anaphase, the microtubules condense and pull the duplicated chromosomes to
either side of the cells.
d.In telophase, the cytoplasm begins to divide into two; by the end of the process, two
new identical daughter cells are formed.
7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Summarize the role of gene expression on growth and development in animals.
B.Control over cellular growth and differentiation is crucial for eukaryotic cells.
C.Mutations or uncontrolled cell growth can have dire consequences for an organism.
D. Genes control the function of cells by directing which proteins are made.
E.Some gene products act as signals, while others act as catalysts.
F.Checkpoints are used throughout the cell cycle to monitor the process of cell growth and
division.
G.Cells respond to a variety of signals
1. Cells communicate directly with other cells or through intercellular messaging
compounds.
a. Many different signaling compounds and cellular receptors are utilized to maintain
complex cellular processes.
b.Growth factors regulate the cell cycle and cell growth.
c. The two major phases of the cell cycle that need to be monitored and controlled are
the synthesis phase and the mitotic phase; each has its own rate and needs to
complete the process.
2. Cellular suicide is known as apoptosis and can be triggered by internal or external
cellular signals.
a. Programmed cell death is necessary for the proper growth of tissues and organs, as
well as to rid the body of worn-out or infected cells.
3. Cell signaling is initiated when a messenger compound is received by a receptor inside
or on the plasma membrane of another cell.
a. A cascade of reactions occurs within the receiving cell after the receptor is triggered.
b.The activity of the cell is altered by turning certain genes on or off.
c. An example of cell signaling is the sexual maturation process; sex hormones are
produced in greater quantities and various cell types change in a fundamental way
as a result of the presence of estrogen or testosterone.
H. Different cells express different genes

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 1. Humans have over 200 different cell types.
2. Cell specialization is determined by which genes in that cell are expressed.
a. Proteins are made through the processes of transcription and translation,
collectively known as gene expression.
3. RNA is another nucleic acid and has a role in the production of proteins from DNA
molecules.
a. RNA can function in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm.
b.RNA is single-stranded.
c. RNA has ribose as its backbone sugar.
d.RNA uses the nucleotide uracil instead of thymine.
I. Transcription: the process where DNA produces RNA
1. In the process of transcription, mRNA (messenger RNA) is produced from a DNA
sequence in the nucleus with the help of enzymes.
a. DNA is unwound and a special enzyme binds to the specific promoter for that
particular gene.
b.Transcription begins via RNA polymerase, and RNA-specific nucleotides are
arranged in the proper order.
c. Transcription ends when a “stop” sequence is detected.
d.The mRNA strand is modified before leaving the nucleus for the cytoplasm.
2. The genetic code is “read” in triplets of nucleotides known as codons; 64 codons are
possible.
J. Translation: the process where RNA is interpreted to protein
1. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA strand is translated into an amino acid sequence with the
assistance of tRNA (transfer RNA) and ribosomes.
a. The tRNA carries a specific amino acid that will be released into the growing
polypeptide chain, in order, depending on the sequence of the mRNA.
b.The tRNA possesses an anticodon that is complimentary to the codon of the mRNA.
2. Once completed, the protein detaches from the ribosome and is processed further; the
mRNA degrades and the ribosomes and tRNAs are reused.

Ideas for Further Inquiry

 Use the following article for further discussion or to accompany the Data Analysis section of the
chapter:
 Spohr, H. L., Willms, J., and Steinhausen, H. C. (1994) The fetal alcohol syndrome in
adolescence. Acta Paediatrica, 83(s404): 19–26. Available from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13379.x/abstract.

 Have students research the following questions:

 What conditions speed up cellular growth and development? What conditions reduce
them?
 What is the value of having cell cultures such as HeLa cells? What are some of the ethical
considerations?
 Identify the enzymes that play a role in mitosis. Pick one and predict what would
happen if there was a mutation in the production of this enzyme.
 Besides polymerase, what other enzymes are important and what are their roles?

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Cengage Video—Lobsters
Discussion Questions
1. Summarize the growth and development of the lobster.
Talking Points: The lobster life cycle includes the following stages: embryo, larva, postlarva, juvenile,
adult. Lobster eggs hatch into larvae, which feed near the ocean’s surface on small plankton (the
free-swimming stage). As they molt from the larval to the adult stage, they develop long antennae, a
tail fan, and more sensory organs. The lobsters then descend to the bottom of the ocean, where they
spend the rest of their life (the bottom-dwelling phase). It takes several years for the lobster to
reach sexual maturity. Lobsters are the heaviest crustacean in the world. The record one weighed
44 pounds, but the one on your plate is probably 1–1½ pounds. Even it took 6–8 years to get that
large.

2. Describe the reproductive process in lobsters.

Talking Points: Lobsters start their life when a female shows she is interested in a male by releasing
pheromone-containing urine. The male is attracted to the pheromones. After some elaborate
fighting, she sheds her exoskeleton. He then puts sperm into her with the first pair of swimmerets
on his abdomen, which are modified for that job. After mating, the female can store sperm for many
months, fertilizing eggs as she produces them. She glues the eggs to the underside of her abdomen
and carries them around for 9–11 months, protecting them and fanning them to provide oxygen.

3. Describe the roles steroid hormones and temperature play during growth and development of
the lobster.
Talking Points: The lobster’s life cycle, from egg to mature lobster is determined by temperature,
nutrients, steroid hormones, day length, and even pollutants. Lobsters are very sensitive to high
temperatures. Temperature specifically influences several steroid hormones in the lobster that
direct development and growth. Over 68°F, they begin to move north to cooler waters. The New
England lobster fishery may decline due to global climate change.

Websites, Animations, and Additional Videos

7.1 Growth and Development of the American Lobster
Websites: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Homarus_americanus/
Information on the American lobster
http://www.neaq.org/animals_and_exhibits/animals/american_lobster/index.php
Information on the American lobster
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5cF08wEMos
A video on the ecology of the American lobster

7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development

Websites: http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/
Embryology
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Protostomes_vs_Deuterostomes.html
Protostomes versus deuterostomes

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Animations: http://www.indiana.edu/~anat550/embryo_main/
Human embryology animations

7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development

Websites: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/endocrine/hormones.html
Series of short articles on hormones
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookendocr.html
Online biology book—The Endocrine System
Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbdths0W5vs.
U.S. National Zoo’s Endocrine Lab
http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/cellsignals.html
Cell signaling

7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
Websites: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/main.html
The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Henrietta-Lacks-Immortal-
Cells.html
Henrietta Lacks’ Immortal Cells
Animations: http://www.cellsalive.com/
Animations and accompanying pictures of real cells that step through the cell
division process of mitosis and meiosis
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=ap13604
The cell cycle
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/tour_dna.html
What is DNA?
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/builddna/
Build a DNA molecule
Video: http://vcell.ndsu.edu/animations/mitosis/movie-flash.htm
An animated video of the process of mitosis

7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
Websites: http://www.dnaftb.org/38/
Resources on the science behind cell growth and apoptosis
http://www.dnaftb.org/35/
Resources on the science behind cell growth factors

Animations: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/transcribe/
Transcribe and translate a gene
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/firefly/
Animated example of protein synthesis

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Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6uHotlXvPo
Cell signaling

Alternative Organisms
Websites: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Alligator_mississippiensis/
American alligator
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Conus_geographus/
Cone snail

Suggestions for Lecture Enrichment

 Use a tool, such as model chromosomes or models of the phases of mitosis, to visually show the
process to students.
 Using the codon chart, put a sample DNA code on the board (including a start and stop codon)
and have students walk through the processes of transcription and translation together in small
groups.
 Show time-lapse videos of cells going through the mitosis process. Compare and contrast
mitosis in an animal cell with that in a plant cell.
 Use following alternative organisms to supplement the materials.
 American alligator
 Cone snail (venomous)

Suggested Activities
 Have students work through the transcription and translation activity listed in the Websites,
Animations, and Additional Videos section above for Section 7.5.
 Have students read excerpts of The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skoot on the
early days of cellular research and the bioethics involved.
 Use students to simulate a DNA strand, with students on either side holding hands to act as
hydrogen bonds. Choose another student to be the polymerase and place new students into the
strand on either side. One way to do this would be to have four different colored wristbands, or
something similar, to represent which students are which nucleotide.

Possible Answers to Check + Apply Your Understanding

7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development
1. Cell differentiation is an important process of animal development that begins with a single cell.
What is cell differentiation?
Answer: The process by which the cell becomes specialized in its form and function.
2. Various tissues grow in different ways. Name the three ways tissues grow.
Answer: By increasing the number of cells by cell division, by increasing the size of their cells, or
by secreting materials around their cells.

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3. Cell division, cell movement, cell arrangement, and cell specialization are associated with
animal growth and development. Which of these cellular processes contribute to growth and
which contribute to development?
Answer: Cell division is associated with growth, whereas cell movement, cell arrangement, and
cell specialization are associated with development.
4. Describe the difference in the pattern of growth in lobsters and in humans. Do they follow a
determinate or an indeterminate pattern?
Answer: Both lobsters and humans stop growing when they reach adulthood and maintain their
size as adults; therefore, they both are determinate.
5. The tiger salamander is an amphibian with a life cycle similar to that of a frog (see Fig. 9.2).
(You can see a photo of a tiger salamander in Fig. 7.14.) For each set of genes, state whether
they are turned on or off at the particular stage given: (1) yolk synthesis in the tadpole stage,
(2) gill development in the adult stage, (3) limb development at the tadpole stage.
Answer: (1) During the tadpole stage, yolk synthesis genes would be turned off; (2) as an adult
the tiger salamander uses lungs and therefore the gill development genes would be turned off;
(3) during the tadpole stage, the genes for limb development would be turned on.

7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development

1. List three external factors that influence growth and development.
Answer: Temperature, daylight, available nutrients.
2. Describe how a hormone interacts with a cell to cause it to divide.
Answer: Hormones cross over cell membranes and bind to specific receptors. This action
triggers cellular responses that turn on or off certain genes.
3. In addition to altering daylight conditions, livestock breeders provide growth hormones to their
animals. These hormones increase muscle mass by 20 percent. What target cells do these
growth hormones act on?
Answer: The lean mass that is of interest to the market is muscle. These particular growth
hormones act on muscle cells.
4. In males, what would happen if the epithelial cells lacked receptors for testosterone?
Answer: Because the epithelial tissues could not respond to the signal, the characteristics of hair
growth would not occur.
5. The Arctic krill (see Fig. 1.2) is an arthropod like the lobster. Krill release about 1,000 eggs at
one time each summer. The eggs develop into larva over a two-week period. Predict what
environmental factors cue krill to begin the reproduction phase of their lives.
Answer: Because krill are arthropods, their regulation of development is similar to that of
lobsters. The krill respond to the ocean’s temperature as a key indicator for spawning. In
summer the cue would be a temperature.

7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
1. Distinguish between interphase and mitosis in the life of a dividing cell. Mitosis serves several
functions in animals. List four functions of mitosis.
Answer: Growth, development, wound/tissue repair, asexual reproduction.
2. In cells that continually divide throughout their life span, in what phase does the cell spend the
majority of its time and what is it doing during that phase?
Answer: The cell spends 90 percent of its time in interphase. At this time, it performs its specific

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 job and prepares itself for mitosis by replicating its DNA and organelles as well as growing its
cytoplasm.
3. In DNA replication, if the original DNA sequence is ACCGTCG, what is the sequence of the newly
synthesized strand?
Answer: TGGCAGC.
4. How does the cell cycle of a nerve cell compare to that of an epithelial cell that secretes mucus
in the intestine?
Answer: A nerve cell is active in early development and then goes dormant for the rest of the
organism’s life cycle. The cells in the intestine constantly divide and turn over, so they
continuously go through mitosis.
5. The drug taxol is used in chemotherapy for treatment of cancer. It blocks the assembly of
microtubules. Explain how taxol inhibits cancer cells from dividing. Would it also stop normal
cells from dividing?
Answer: These protein fibers are critical for moving the chromosomes and separating the sister
chromatids. If the microtubules are dysfunctional, then proper cell division cannot occur.

7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
1. In early stages of development, the lobster goes through rapid cell division, changing from a
fertilized egg to a larva. List the two ways cells communicate with each other during this
transformation.
Answer: Cell communication occurs through direct physical contact between adjacent cells and
through intercellular chemical messengers.
2. Many growth factors are signaling molecules that bind to the promoter region on DNA. What is
the promoter’s function?
Answer: A promoter binds to a start region of the gene and triggers transcription.
3. Why is apoptosis (pre-programmed cell death) important as a part of embryonic development?
Give an example where it operates.
Answer: Programmed cell death (apoptosis) is important to reabsorb developing tissues. For
instance, the tail of a tadpole is reabsorbed through apoptosis in frog development. In humans,
as the tissues around the fingers and toes develop the old tissue needs to be broken down and
absorbed.
4. How do the functions of transcription and translation differ?
Answer: Transcription is the process that rewrites (or transcribes) the DNA into mRNA,
whereas translation interprets (or translates) the mRNA to a protein sequence.
5. During embryonic development, epidermal growth factor (EGF) triggers the growth
differentiation of many cell types. Refer to Figures 7.23 and 7.25 to explain the general
mechanism of how EGF triggers cell growth and differentiation.
Answer: EGF is released as a response to environmental cues or signaling molecules. EGF binds
to a cell membrane receptor and enters the cell. Inside of the cell, it triggers a cascade reaction
that releases other signaling molecules that act as transcription factors for gene expression. The
expression of various genes results in the growth and differentiation of cells.

Answers to Self-Quiz on Key Concepts

1. growth (b), cell differentiation (a), development (c)

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2. c. chordates.
3. a. It gives rise to organs such as the brain and skin.
4. d. all of the above.
5. c. genetics.
6. interphase (c), mitosis (a), cytokinesis (b)
7. b. the same number of chromosomes.
8. c. doing its job.
9. d. Hormones elicit the identical response in every cell type at all stages of life.
10. transcription (c), translation (b), DNA replication (a)
11. a. carrying the code in the form of codons.
12. b. transcription; translation.

Possible Answers to Applying the Concepts

13. You have just adopted a basset hound puppy (Fig. 7.31). Apply the following concepts—
patterns of growth, germ layers, life stages, and life span—to the growth and development of
this puppy by answering these questions:
a. List three areas of the puppy’s body that are currently undergoing cell division.
b. Describe how the puppy’s body shape changes as it develops into an adult. How do its head,
eyes, ears, and legs change through time?
c. Refer to Figure 7.9, what germ layer gives rise to the dogs muscles? Lungs?
d. Hounds are known for their great sense of smell. From what germ layer do these olfactory
neurons arise?
Answer: (a) A few examples are the ears, nose, tail, and body. Other cell types that constantly
divide, such as the epithelial cells of the skin and intestine, are also undergoing cell division. (b)
As the puppy grows, it grows into its feet. Its ears and nose elongate, developing into their final
body shape and form. The skin around the eyes grows “droopy.” (c) Muscles arise from the
mesoderm and the lungs arise from the endoderm. (d) Neurons arise from the ectoderm.
14. Mitosis occurs for three basic reasons in multicellular organisms. List these three reasons and
describe one in detail. Describe how mitosis relates to the cell cycle.
Answer: Mitosis occurs for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms.
Some animals use mitosis as a form of asexual reproduction. Growth is the increase in size of
the animal; development is the formation and rearrangement of cells; and tissues need to repair
or renew themselves as a part of maintaining the organism.
15. Many cancer drugs stop cell division. List several mechanisms that could hinder cell division.
Answer: Essentially the cell cycle can be interrupted at any phase. Some examples of drug
interactions include the prevention of DNA replication, the prevention of microtubule
formation, and the blocking of receptors preventing growth factors from triggering the cell
cycle.
16. In humans the gene that codes for insulin is located on chromosome 11. This gene is about 150
base pairs long. The sequence AAACTCCAC is a small portion of the insulin gene. Take this DNA
sequence and transcribe it to an mRNA sequence. Describe how this mRNA is translated into a
protein.
Answer: The mRNA sequence is UUUGAGGUC. This mRNA sequence is the code for an amino
acid sequence. The mRNA is made in the nucleus, modified, and transported to a ribosome in
the cytoplasm. On the ribosome, enzymes, amino acids, and tRNA help to facilitate the
interpretation of the mRNA code to a sequence of amino acids that make up the insulin protein.

13
Possible Answers to Data Analysis
Data Interpretation
17. Figure 7.32a shows a plot of the percentage of alcohol use among women who are pregnant
versus those who are not pregnant. Use the 2005 data to create a summary table comparing
both “any alcohol use” and binge drinking among pregnant and nonpregnant women.
Answer: See Table below.

Group Percent Using Any Alcohol Percent Binge Drinking

Not pregnant 50% 10%

Pregnant 10% 1%

18. Examining the developmental chart (Fig. 7.32b), what two major structural birth defects are
most common in babies born to mothers who drink alcohol?
Answer: Defects to the central nervous system and ears.

Critical Thinking
19. In 2009, there were about 4.2 million births in the United States. If the same trends from the
graph shown in Figure 7.32a hold true, how many babies were born from mothers who used
alcohol during pregnancy? How many were born from binge-drinking mothers?
Answer: 10 percent of 4.2 million (or 420,000 births) were from mothers who used alcohol, and
1 percent were from binge-drinking mothers.
20. In the United States, 50 percent of pregnancies are unplanned. This means that women who are
not planning on getting pregnant usually are not aware they are pregnant until 4 to 8 weeks
into the baby’s term. Use your understanding of development to explain why this is a concern.
Answer: Development of the central nervous system, heart, and sensory organs is well under
way at this point. If 50 percent of mothers drink, this can have detrimental effects on the fetus,
perhaps leading to FAS or other birth defects.
21. Human brains go through a rapid growth spurt during weeks 26–38 (the third trimester), so
they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of alcohol during this period. Developing neurons
are impaired by the interactions with alcohol. Signals indicating that development is not
progressing normally are sent. The end result is that the neurons are sent into apoptosis. How
do you think this ultimately affects the brain?
Answer: As a result of the cells committing suicide, less brain tissue is present in babies born to
mothers who drink in the third trimester. With fewer brain cells and less mass, these babies
may develop other developmental issues. These babies have behavioral and learning
disabilities, and some are mentally retarded.

14
Possible Answers to Question Generator
This section of the text is a good launching point for class discussions after students have prepared
their own answers to the questions.

Potential Student-Generated Questions

1. If conditions are not ideal, how long can a Monarch larva stay in a particular stage of
development?
2. What is the impact of juvenile hormone being released in later stages of development?

If additional class discussion is warranted, please use the following questions to generate
further discussion.
1. What are considered ideal conditions for metamorphosis?
2. What are some of the possible consequences if larva progress through metamorphosis too early
or too quickly?

15
Lesson Plan
by Robert K. Noyd

7
Animal Growth and Development
Learner Readiness
How strong is your students’ conceptual foundation?
This chapter strongly connects to and builds on concepts in:
 Chapter 1: characteristics of life—organisms grow, develop, and reproduce; macromolecules;
bonds; chromosomes, DNA, genes, and proteins (Fig. 1.6); evidence of evolution
(developmental patterns)
 Chapter 2: animal diversity
 Chapter 4: habitat and niche; resources needed to live—Table 4.2
 Chapter 6: animal body organization and structure—endocrine system; cell structure
(ribosomes, nucleus); macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids); homeostasis

Learning Goal
Students will explain how environmental factors interact with biological processes to cause an
animal to grow and develop from a zygote to a mature adult.

Note: The verb explain means that the student will show how biological processes (cell division, cell
signaling, gene expression) respond to environmental factors (temperature, light, oxygen,
hormones, growth factors) to bring about the growth and developmental of a zygote through the
embryonic stages to the sexually mature adult.

Core Concepts
Note that each section and subsection title in the textbook is a concept statement.
 Rates and patterns of growth and development
 Control of growth and development hormones and environmental factors
 Cellular level—cell cycle and mitosis
 Molecular level—gene expression—transcription and translation

16
17
Student Preparation: Out-of-Class Learning Experiences
 Read section(s) in the textbook and complete the Check + Apply Your Understanding questions.
 Complete the online quizzes presented through Aplia®.

Note: The goal of preparation is to expose and prime students to the vocabulary and basic concepts
of the chapter. Without this, you, the instructor, are doing most of the work of encoding the
information for the students, rather than helping them to actively encode, construct, and remember
the material.

The Lesson: In-Class Learning Experiences

As I play my learning facilitator role, it is essential for me to break the belief that “if I don’t tell them,
they will not learn it.” I structure the lesson to gain interest, link new knowledge to their
experiences, probe their thinking, and lecture on concepts that are especially difficult or need a
deeper level of development (providing numerous examples, analogies, and explanations). A
successful lesson is one where students made learning gains; a successful lesson is not based on
how well I lectured. The success of the lesson can only be crowned if you have evidence that
students learned the core concepts…like a scientist, this comes in your assessment.

Part 1. Establishing Context and Interest

Cengage Video—Lobsters
 Show the short video clip of the lead organism.

Part 2. Linking the Organism to the Topic

Post-Video Activity
 Use the video to introduce concepts in the chapter.
 Ask students what they observed about lobster growth and development in the video, which
follows the chapter opener story (Section7.1). For example:
 How many years of growth and development did it take to put a lobster on your dinner
plate?
 List the five stages in the life cycle of the lobster.
 Out of a thousand lobster eggs, how many make it to the postlarval stage?
 Name two structures that develop during the postlarval stage.
 Describe how environmental cues influenced the timing of the lobster’s development.
 Why does a lobster molt? What cues trigger molting?
 What is the role of steroid hormones in the development of the lobster?
 Thinking Question: You are interested in speeding up the growth and development of the
lobster, what would you do?

18
Knowledge Probe—“What Are Students Thinking?”
 Ask students to write a sentence or two that describes the relationship between (1) growth,
(2) development, (3) genes, and (4) hormones.
 What is the relationship between (1) the average age of sexual maturity and (2) life span?
 Show students the “approved solutions,” so they can learn how to think more clearly and
completely.
 You may also want to go over the specific Check + Apply Your Understanding questions that
students found challenging, vague, or confusing.

Part 3. Explaining and Linking the Core Concepts: Mini-Lecture Presentation

“Students Follow Your Thinking”
 Section 7.2: Embryonic development was first introduced as evidence of evolution in Chapter 1
(pp. 28–30). Here’s an opportunity to link similarities in embryonic development to similarities
in genetic information. Use Figure 7.8 to show students how developmental patterns are
evidence of evolutionary change and ancestry. Developmental patterns are the result of gene
actions and their timing.
 Section 7.2: Figure 7.9 shows how the single-celled zygote gives rise to the variety of cell types
in the animal body. From which germ layer did the acid-producing cell of the leatherback turtle
arise? The main point of this section is not for the student to memorize which germ layers will
give rise to which organ systems, but rather that body plan originates early in development. The
issue of embryonic stem cells can be brought up here as the cells start on their developmental
pathways and fates.
 Section 7.2: The determinate growth pattern in animals will be compared to the indeterminate
pattern in plant shoots and roots.
 Section 7.2: Variation in developmental pattern. Use the cover photo description (About the
Cover—opposite the Brief Contents page) of the tree frog on the cover and the more typical frog
life cycle shown in Figure 7.13.
 Section 7.3: Control. Develop concepts in this section through examples students can relate to,
such as farm animals or frogs or insects. Help students connect seasonal factors such as day
length, temperature, and food supply to the timing and control of development. Hormones are
the mechanism by which these environmental factors are manifested in the development and
growth rate.
 Section 7.4: Cell cycle. There are many good animations of the cell cycle on the Internet. Here is
the place to connect animal and cell structure in Chapter 6 to cell division in Chapter 7. I have
found that showing students mitosis in fast motion (in addition to super slow motion) helps
them understand the process. The cell cycle will be reinforced in plants in Chapter 12, and in
fungi, in Chapter 15. Link it to increases in cell number = growth.
 Section 7.5: Gene expression. By placing gene expression here, we strive to make it clear to
students that specific genes turn on to produce growth and developmental changes. There is a
risk that students will confuse the two processes; therefore, it is important to probe their
thinking to be sure they understand the different and interacting roles that the cell cycle and
gene expression play in animal growth and development.

19
Going Beyond the Text
 There are many good video animations at the HHMI BioInteractive website at
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/evolution/gene_switch.html.

Other Learning Activities—“You Follow Their Thinking”

 Student Made Teaching Videos: Have students pair up so that one student uses their camera or
smartphone to make a three-minute video of their partner explaining to a classmate how the
process of gene expression works. (Instruct them to make their own Khan Academy–type
teaching video.) My students really enjoy this activity! They rehearse several times first with
feedback from me and other students.
 Mitosis Sequence Cards: Create cut outs of the different stages of mitosis, and have students put
them in the correct sequence.

Part 4. Finding Out How Much Students Have Learned

 Use the Check + Apply Your Understanding questions as clicker questions.
 Use questions from the End of Chapter Review, Self-Quiz on Key Concepts, and Data Analysis
features.
 Pose several of the Applying the Concepts questions from the end of the chapter.
 Have students use the Question Generator feature to see if they can formulate testable
questions.

Think–Pair–Share
 Ask students to answer these two questions to see if they understand how these two processes
interact:
 Yes or No? Can mitosis occur without gene expression?
 Yes or No? Can gene expression occur without mitosis?

 Ask students to answer the following:

The following describes which processes in growth and development?
a. Cell cycle/cell division
b. Gene expression
c. Both
___ 1. The entire genome is replicated.
___ 2. Only part of the genome, or specific genes, is used.
___ 3. Increases the number of cells.
___ 4. Occurs in only specific cells.
___ 5. Occurs in all cells.
___ 6. Growth factors influence these process(es).

20
It is easy for students (and instructors) to get down so far into the “weeds” and details of the
cellular and molecular processes that students miss how these processes contribute to the big
picture called animal growth and development.

21
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Section of Bunker Hill Monument
Reproduced from Solomon Willard, Plans and
Sections of the Obelisk on Bunker’s Hill
(Boston, 1843), Plate V
As described in the Baldwin Report, the circular winding
staircase is composed of granite steps, starting with a width of about
four feet and narrowing as the ascent is made. Baldwin called for
“places of repose” (landings) at intervals. Modern architects call the
part around which a circular staircase winds, the “newel.” Baldwin’s
newel is a hallow wall, 10 feet in diameter at the base, about two feet
thick.
Thus, the monument was designed by an engineer, not an
architect. Baldwin violated a common rule for the proportions of
ancient Egyptian obelisks, that the pyramidion should be as high as
the base is wide, which is one reason why the Washington
Monument is so beautiful. One regrets that architect Willard, who
picked up where Baldwin left off, did not see fit to modify the Baldwin
lines. There seems never to have been any question as to the
monument’s material: granite, the native New England stone.
Although we admire the Bunker Hill Monument for its somber
strength, it cannot be called a structure of beauty, as is the lighter-
tinted and finer-textured marble Washington Monument, with its
sharper apex.
We can also speculate on why Baldwin made the monument
wholly of granite. At today’s prices, the circular inner surface of the
shaft and the circular chimney, or newel, around which the stone
staircase winds, would be of tremendous cost. The dressing of the
stone for a square inner area would be much cheaper.
Before criticizing Baldwin on his ponderous stair design, which
could be replaced by a light, modern fire escape, we should look at
the status of the tiny American iron industry of his day. The
ironmasters were recovering from the decline of activity in the War of
1812, during which they had lost their British market. Baldwin would
know that certain early railroad promoters estimated that granite
tracks mounted with iron plates would be less expensive than the
English-rolled rails, which the Americans could not produce. With
masons in Massachusetts receiving about $0.18 an hour, granite
was considered cheaper than iron. Baldwin therefore designed his
stairway of granite, with a massive granite chimney “newel” to
support the inner ends of the treads. Long before the monument was
completed, however, a square staircase of either cast iron or
wrought iron could have been produced, economically, by American
ironmasters. It was then too late to make the change, however.
At about the time of the completion of the monument the first
mechanical elevator was exhibited, but there was no room for an
elevator at Bunker Hill—the newel was in the way. To climb a few
score steps would be an easy task to our sturdy forebears, and to
say that one has “climbed the Bunker Hill Monument” is a boast that
hundreds of thousands of tourists to Boston have been proud to
make for over 100 years. Baldwin may have been right again, as he
usually was.
Baldwin specified that the monument should be square with the
compass, a common Egyptian practice. As built, however, it is
oriented to fit the redoubt (southeast corner) of the battle fortification.
Structurally, Baldwin designed a sound foundation, 12 feet deep,
built of six courses of stone with no small rubble that might
deteriorate through the years. He specified that the starting level of
the base of the monument should be established at the best
elevation to avoid an uneconomical distribution of the excavated
earth; today we would say that he balanced cut and fill.
The modern building contractor finds the estimate that went with
the report both practical and quaint. He will find that the digging of
the pit for the foundation of the monument was figured in “squares,”
at $2.00 each; and since a square meant eight cubic yards, hand
excavation was therefore priced at $0.25 per cubic yard. This price
must have included the expense of shoring; also the pumping that
such a deep pit would require. Baldwin proposed to dig a deep well
on the site (today called a test pit), which would not only indicate the
adequacy of the soil, but would also furnish water for construction
purposes. Much water would be needed to mix the lime and sand
mortar for the monument as well as for the Roman cement, for which
5
the estimated 100 casks were figured at $7.00 each.

5
“The use of natural cement was introduced
by Mr. Parker, who first discovered the properties
 of the cement-stone in the Isle of Sheppy, and
took out a patent for the sale of it in 1796, under
the name of ‘Roman Cement.’”—Edward
Dobson, Rudiments of the Art of Building
(London: John Weale, 1854).

Masonry was then estimated in “perches,” and by a little

arithmetic, the modern contractor will learn that a perch was then
equal to 25 cubic feet, or nearly a cubic yard. The 784 perches of
masonry for the foundation were priced at $10 per perch, including
“stones, hammering, mortar, laying, etc.”
The report of Baldwin contains no computations on the structural
stability of the monument. If the modern structural designer wishes to
investigate how near the safe limit the monument has been tested by
Boston’s occasional hurricane winds, he has available the major
dimensions given in the Baldwin Report, and the drawings of
Willard’s classic Plans and Sections of the Obelisk from which to
make this simple computation.
Such computation shows that the monument is so heavy that a
hurricane wind has an almost imperceptible effect on its stability.
When it is subjected to a 100-mile-per-hour wind, the resultant force
is displaced only a fraction of a foot from the center of the 50-foot-
wide foundation. The maximum load on the soil is about five tons per
square foot—a safe bearing load on “the bed of clay and gravel
which composes the soil of the Hill” as described in an old account.
The same account speaks of “great pains having been used in
loosening the earth, and in puddling and ramming the stones.”
Surely, our construction ancestors would not have purposely
disturbed the underlying soil, in an attempt to improve upon the
natural bearing strength of one of the firmest of foundations: glacial
hardpan. Like any good builder, they were undoubtedly merely
puddling with water the earth backfill around the completed
foundation.
Baldwin knew that granite would not deteriorate when exposed
to the alternately hot and cold temperatures of Boston. Half a century
later, the engineers who transported an Egyptian obelisk (one of the
Cleopatra’s Needles) to Central Park, New York, learned that the
lovely textured syenitic granite of the Nile Valley was markedly
inferior to New England granite in weather resistance, although it
had kept its surface intact for centuries in the mild climate of Egypt.
To protect Cleopatra’s Needle in New York, a paraffin coating was
found necessary.
Baldwin soon resigned from the building committee, partly
because of the press of other work, but largely in protest against a
clause which made its members, all of whom freely donated their
services, financially responsible for the estimate. Promptly after
accepting his resignation, the directors revised this clause. In
reviewing the quaint old methods, the question arises: Would
modern estimates be more accurate if the consulting architects and
engineers had to pay for overruns?

Transient Cornerstone
On 17 June 1825, the cornerstone of the monument was laid
with impressive ceremonies. As the colorful procession marched up
Bunker Hill to the stirring rendition of “Yankee Doodle” by the
drummer of Colonel William Prescott’s regiment, who, 50 years
before, had been in the battle, the rear of the procession was just
starting from distant Boston Common. The little Boston of over a
century ago was crowded with visitors who had come from places as
remote as South Carolina by stagecoach, sailing vessel, or on foot,
to hear the great speech of Daniel Webster, President of the Bunker
Hill Monument Association, and America’s first orator of the day.
Years earlier, Chaplain Joseph Thaxter had paid the last offices to
dying soldiers in the battle; now, he invoked God’s blessing on the
young American republic, as 40 veterans of the battle sat in a place
of honor.
The most important visitor, of course, was General Lafayette,
who, as a good Mason, spread the mortar on the stone when it was
laid by Most Worshipful Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of
Massachusetts, John Abbot. As the battle’s only monument up to
this date had been erected by the Masons, it was considered
appropriate that the permanent monument should have its
cornerstone laid with the Masonic ceremony. A little later, this
procedure was sharply criticized during the Antimasonic period,
6
which occurred before the monument was finished.

6
Joseph Warren, the outstanding hero of the
battle, was Grand Master of Freemasons for
North America.

Many of the spectators knew that the cornerstone records would

later have to be moved, for the plans of the monument were hardly
started. Now, the box with its old newspapers, Continental currency,
and other data is within a stone at the monument’s northeast corner,
and the original cornerstone stands in the center of the foundation.
With his usual generosity, Daniel Webster presented the
copyright of his famous speech to the Bunker Hill Monument
Association. The copyright was sold for $600, which was the second
largest single contribution up to that date.

The Leading Character

Solomon Willard, architect and superintendent of the Bunker Hill
Monument, developed the methods for the quarrying, dressing,
transporting, and erecting the huge stones of the monument that
started granite on its way to becoming a principal material for
massive structures in America for half a century, until reinforced
concrete took over. (Today, granite is used extensively as a
protective facing for concrete, for highway curbing, and for
memorials.)
It is impressive to note the universal respect for the integrity and
ability of this early American architect which all the records of the
monument stress. In the drama of the building of the Bunker Hill
Monument, he played the leading part, and his character resembled
the sturdy structure which he designed in detail and erected. During
his 18 years of service in the construction of his masterpiece, the
Bunker Hill Monument, he would accept no recompense except for
his expenses, deeming it his duty to work without pay on such a
patriotic venture. He was also a substantial contributor to the building
fund.
A self-educated man, who had learned architecture with
sufficient thoroughness to become a teacher in the subject, he had
also become proficient in the various sciences. Starting as a
carpenter, Willard had proved both his craftsmanship and artistry by
becoming an adept carver of ships’ figureheads and models,
including a model of the Capitol at Washington.
At the time the monument was begun, Willard was one of the
leading architects of Boston. Typical of an architect’s versatility, he
had played an important part in the change from the heating of
buildings by wood-burning fireplaces and Franklin stoves, to hot-air
furnaces, using either wood or coal. As an expert in furnace heat, he
was called in for advice in the design of the heating system of
America’s most important building, when the President demanded
that the national Capitol should have adequate heat.
Appointed in October, 1825, to the combined position of architect
and superintendent, Willard spent the following winter on the plans,
models, and computations required to develop the construction
details, from the over-all dimensions of the Baldwin Report. During
these preliminary steps, Willard experimented with a promising
machine for dressing the stones. The selection of the Bunker Hill
Quarry in Quincy, Mass., was made after Willard had made a careful
search for suitable stone, in which he was said to have walked 300
miles. The right to quarry, at Quincy, sufficient granite for the
monument was purchased for $325. Part of the amount to be
provided by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts was to have been
supplied by the cost of the dressing of the stone (then called
“hammering”) by the convicts of nearby Charlestown State Prison.
The convicts, however, were obviously not sufficiently independent
to work on this shrine of independence, so this procedure was not
adopted.

Up-To-Date Quarry (Circa 1825–1843)

From various old American and English records of masonry
construction, it is possible to construct an account of how the stones
for the Bunker Hill Monument must have been quarried and dressed.
The old names are used for the tools and methods, and the modern
mason will find many of these old descriptions quite familiar.
The hornblende granite of the Quincy region was (and is) of very
uniform texture and varies only in color, from gray to dark gray. In
Quincy, Willard would find that both “sheet” and “boulder” quarry
formations occurred: the joints in the ledge of the sheet areas
making the granite appear as if stratified, and hence more easily
removed; but the huge, rounded boulders in the other areas,
measuring up to 40 feet across, had no joints. Rows of holes were
drilled by hand (at least 25 years would elapse before practical
power-rock drills became available) and large blocks loosened from
the ledge or boulder, probably by wedges, possibly by light blasts of
gunpowder. At this stage the quarried block was called “quarry-
pitched.” Stone of the smaller size for the monument was split from
these blocks along lines of holes in which wedges were driven.
These were probably of the plug-and-feather type, in which an iron
wedge with an acute angle is fitted between two semicircular iron
feathers, which taper in the opposite direction to that of the wedge,
and thus fit the hole drilled in the stone, nicely. Granite has no
cleavage planes, like slate; but a routine of smart taps on the plugs,
back and forth along the line, soon splits the stone along a fairly
smooth face. Two lewises (an ancient device), attached at about the
quarter points of the top of the stone, were used to lift it. Three
members make the lewis: a flat center bar with an eye at the top, the
center bar being flanked by two wedge-shaped side pieces which
are thicker at the bottom of the hole, and these also have eyes at the
top. The wedges are inserted first, then the center bar slipped
between; thereafter any lifting pull on the three bars is bound to
expand the lewis to fill the hole and lift the stone, for the hole is
drilled wider at the bottom than at the top.
With Solomon Willard’s well-rendered isometric drawing of each
stone for a guide, the stonecutter dressed it, first selecting the best
face for the “bed” (bottom) and hammered it to a plane surface,
determined by shallow channels (chisel drafts) cut diagonally across
the stone.
From this surface, the stonecutter laid out the other faces,
including the “build” (top), by his good mason’s square or template.
The texture of the visible face was “tooled,” that is, the marks of the
chisel remained visible. Quincy granite is a quality product, taking a
high polish, but the builders of the Bunker Hill Monument desired no
polish on their monument. Today, the surface of the monument
shows faint, well-weathered lines, like those produced by the modern
bushhammer, which has a head made of several thin steel plates
bolted together, each sharpened to a cutting edge. In England during
the period, flat iron bars with rough edges were in use to saw softer
stone than granite, and at Quincy, Willard experimented with
dressing machines. The conclusion may be drawn, however, that the
stones which we now see on the monument were undoubtedly
shaped to their present dimensions by hand.
Today, 110 years after its capstone was put in place, the Bunker
Hill Monument stands as an impressive testimonial to the
conservative judgment of its designer, Loammi Baldwin, and the
painstaking fidelity of the man who supervised its construction,
Solomon Willard. An engineer familiar with its maintenance states
that there is no evidence of settlement, and that a check by
surveyor’s transit revealed no signs of misalignment. Its joints
occasionally need pointing, the last pointing being performed about
20 years ago. Various iron or steel members of the observation
chamber have had to be replaced. Its lightning rod has been in place
for many years, but there is no readily available record to check
whether the monument has ever been struck by lightning. With their
empirical methods of design and their crude, mostly hand-operated,
construction apparatus, our forebears built a sturdy structure, which,
barring an earthquake, should last for centuries.

The Granite Railway

On 7 October 1826, the first railroad in America started
operation. This was the horse-operated Granite Railway, built to
transport the stones for the Bunker Hill Monument from the quarry in
Quincy down to the Neponset River, a distance of nearly three miles.
The track and cars of the railroad had been designed and built by a
young engineer of 28, Gridley Bryant, whose Granite Railway project
started him on a long career of achievement in the invention of
equipment that played a major part in the rapid and successful
development of the American railroad system.
Ample precedent for the Granite Railway existed in England,
where, since the reign of Charles II, wooden tracks, sometimes
armored with iron plates, had been used as runways for coal cars
from the pits to the nearest waterway. Within five years of the start of
the Granite Railway, similar systems are recorded in the states of
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, and Maryland. At first, the
motive power for these lines was supplied by gravity, stationary
engines, or horses, but soon tiny steam locomotives were tried.
Thus, in the year 1829, Peter Cooper built the famous Tom Thumb, a
successful locomotive which used rifle barrels for flues. In the same
year the Stourbridge Lion, “the first locomotive that ever turned a
7
driving wheel on a railroad on the Western Continent,” was brought
by sailing vessel from England and started operation in
Pennsylvania. The American steam railroad system was thus well
under way by the time the lower courses of the monument were
being raised.

7
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution,
1889.

Bryant later described his railroad as having stone sleepers laid

across the track, 8 feet apart. Upon these, were placed wooden rails,
6 inches thick and 12 inches high (replaced by stone within a few
years). Spiked on top of these were iron plates, 3 inches wide by ¼
inch thick. However, at road crossings, stone rails were used, with 4-
inch by ½-inch iron plates bolted on top. This “permanent”
construction was also used on the double-track, inclined plane at the
quarry. (Well-preserved vestiges of this “permanent” construction are
visible today at the rise to the Bunker Hill Quarry.) Here, an endless
chain allowed the loaded, descending cars to pull up the empty
ascending ones.
The standard gauge of American railroads is now 4 feet, 8½
inches, measured between railheads, a standard adopted after many
years of confusion before the present gauge dimension was
adopted. Although Bryant described his track gauge as 5 feet, this
dimension was measured between the “bearing points” of the wheels
on the tracks. If the bearing points are assumed to be the center of
the treads of the wheels, his gauge is found to match closely the
present standard gauge. This track gauge agrees with that adopted
by the famous English railroad engineer, George Stephenson, at
about the same time, after he had measured scores of carts used by
his farmer neighbors. Possibly, both Stephenson and Bryant knew
that their selected gauge had a very early beginning; for some
historians suggest that the English carts were originally made to fit
the ruts cut in the roads of Britain by the Roman chariots, many
centuries earlier, during the Roman occupation of Britain.
On the day when the railroad started operation, 16 tons of
granite from the Bunker Hill Quarry, and loaded on three “wagons,”
were easily pulled by one horse, once started. Bryant’s first car had
flanged wheels, 6½ feet in diameter, from the axles of which a
platform was hung to carry the granite. This platform was lowered to
receive the load and then raised by an ingenious gearing device.
Naturally, Bryant based the design of his early railroad cars upon
the construction of the horse-drawn wagons of his day. Like the
wagons, his cars had to be flexible if they were to keep on the track
when passing over the two curves of the otherwise straight Granite
Railway. In his description of another of his cars appear the road
wagon terms—bolsters, truck, and center kingpin, to allow a
swiveling motion. Rigidly bolted to cross timbers beneath the truck
were two iron axletrees, on which revolved cast-iron wheels. (Some
time would elapse in railroad progress before the wheels would be
fixed to, and revolve with, the axles in journals.)
In early American railroad development Bryant is credited with
the invention of the eight-wheel car, the turntable, switch, turnout,
and many other improvements. In 1832, he had invented and used in
the building of the United States Bank at Boston, his portable derrick,
“used in every city and village in the country wherever there was a
stone building to erect.” Others profited from Bryant’s amazing
ingenuity. Although the Supreme Court of the United States decided
in his favor in his most important invention, the eight-wheeled car, he
8
did not collect, and he died poor.

8
For more data on the Granite Railway and
Gridley Bryant, see: Charles B. Stuart, Civil and
Military Engineers of America (New York: D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., 1871); and The First
Railroad in America (Boston: Privately printed for
Granite Railway Company, 1926).

In the fine saga of the Bunker Hill Monument, the Granite

Railway plays a prominent part. The demand of the monument for
granite definitely inspired Bryant to conceive the idea of America’s
first railroad, and to design pioneer equipment that contributed
hugely to the subsequent progress of America’s great railroad
system. The accurate account of the building of the monument,
however, has to record the fact that the railroad was not so great a
benefit as anticipated. In the short distance of 12 miles there was too
much loading and unloading. Willard freely expressed his annoyance
at these hindrances. That he took action is indicated in the following
quotation from an apparently authentic source: “The stone used for
the foundation and for the first forty feet of the structure (the
monument) was transported from the quarry on a railroad to the
wharf in Quincy (actually located in Milton) where it was put into flat-
bottomed boats, towed by steam-power to the wharf in Charlestown,
and then raised to the Hill by teams moving upon an inclined plane.
The repeated transfer of the stones, necessary in this mode of
conveyance, being attended with delay, liability to accident, and a
defacing of the blocks, was abandoned after the fortieth foot was
laid, and the materials were transported by teams directly from the
9
quarry to the hill.” This account fails to tell how the teams got up
and down the steep hill at the quarry: the 84-foot rise at an angle of
15 degrees. Clever Bryant must have used his endless chain to drag
the empty teams up, and to brake the loaded ones down.

9
George E. Ellis, History of the Battle of
Bunker’s (Breed’s) Hill (Boston: Lockwood,
Brooks and Company, 1875).
 Hoc nomen est in æternum, et hoc
memoriale in generationem et generationem.
© R. Ruzicka 1915

Bunker Hill Monument in 1915

Reproduced from a wood engraving by Rudolph
Ruzicka in the Boston Athenæum
 Judah Touro
Reproduced from a portrait in the Redwood
Library, Newport, R. I.
 Amos Lawrence
Reproduced from a portrait by Chester
Harding owned by the Massachusetts
Hospital Life Insurance Company
 Foundation of Bunker Hill Monument
Reproduced from Willard, Plans and Sections, Plate II
 Construction of Bunker Hill Monument
Reproduced from Willard, Plans and Sections, Plate IV
 Construction of Bunker Hill Monument
Reproduced from Willard, Plans and Sections, Plate X
 Bunker Hill Monument in 1830
Reproduced from C. H. Snow, A Geography of Boston (Boston, 1830)

Beacon for Mariners

In the noisy grogshops on the streets leading to the Boston
waterfront, in the sail lofts on what is now Commercial Street, and at
the tall desks of the counting rooms of State Street, those who got
their living from the sea eagerly discussed the progress of the
monument in Charlestown. It was to be their beacon, and when the
many frigates, packets, sloops, and schooners had safely passed
the danger spots of the lower harbor, the monument would welcome
them to the busy inner port of Boston, then much livelier than it is
today. But progress proved to be slow. Naturally the stones broken
from the Quincy ledges and boulders were not always of the
dimensions planned by Willard for the lower courses; many were of
sizes needed for the upper courses. Economical Willard dressed the