Biology Organisms and Adaptations

Media Update Enhanced Edition 1st

Edition Noyd Solutions Manual
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7
Animal Growth
and Development
Chapter 7 utilizes the American lobster to describe patterns of growth and development from the
earliest stages of an embryo to a fully developed adult organism. The structure and replication of
DNA, as well as the details of the cell cycle, are included. Cell signals and communication are
discussed, as is the process of gene expression.

Learning Objectives
7.1 Growth and Development of the American Lobster
Summarize the growth and development of the lobster explaining the role of environmental and
hormonal factors on these changes.

7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development

Describe the characteristic patterns and rates of growth and development at the organism, species,
and tissue level.
 Distinguish between animal growth and development.
 Define cell differentiation and explain its role in growth and development.
 Explain how cell division, cell movement, cell arrangement, and cell specialization are
associated with animal growth and development.
 Summarize the relationship between animal growth, development, and life span. Be able to
predict the rate of growth and development based on life span.
 Understand the role of genes in animal growth and development.

7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development

Explain how external and internal factors control animal growth and development.
 Describe five environmental factors that influence growth and development.
 Explain how hormones act at the system, organ, tissue, and cellular level to influence growth
and development.

7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
Explain the importance of the cell cycle to animal growth and development.
 Explain the significance of the cell cycle.

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 Define and describe interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
 Describe the three stages of interphase.
 Describe how the molecular structure of DNA helps it to replicate during cell division.
 Explain DNA replication using the following terms: chromosome, enzymes, semiconservative,
template, and base pairing rules.
 State three roles mitosis plays in animals.

7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
Summarize the role of gene expression on growth and development in animals.
 At the molecular level, explain how environmental factors trigger animal growth and
development.
 Define growth factors and explain their significance in the cell cycle.
 Draw a general signaling pathway used in cells to create a cellular response.
 Define gene expression and its role in cell structure and function.
 Differentiate between transcription and translation.
 Compare and contrast DNA and RNA molecules.
 Draw the gene expression process using these structures and terms: nucleus, ribosome,
promoter, mRNA, DNA, transcription, translation, cytoplasm, protein, codons, amino acids, and
tRNA.

Key Concepts
Animal Growth and Development
Different animal groups show specific patterns of growth and development, which are controlled by
the expression of different genes. Very specific patterns of gene expression control the formation of
body plans in animals.
External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development
Animal growth and development are the result of complex interactions of many external and
internal factors, which include genetics, environment, nutrition, and hormones.
The Cell Cycle
The cell cycle consists of distinct phases with specific checkpoints that ensure proper cell division.
Growth is accomplished by the cell cycle and is highly regulated by hormones and external factors.
Cell Communication
Cells signal other cells to initiate processes of growth, development, reproduction, and survival.
Cells communicate commonly through intracellular chemical messengers.
Gene Expression
Cells are specialized to perform specific functions through the expression of genes. At the molecular
level, genes are transcribed to an RNA template, which then is translated into protein products

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inside the cell. Gene regulation and expression are highly ordered chemical interactions that
regulate cell differentiation, growth, and development.

Key Terms
In order of occurrence:
free-swimming phase cell cycle full complement of DNA
bottom-dwelling phase meiosis semiconservative
growth interphase growth factors
development mitotic phase apoptosis
life stages mitosis transcription
zygote cytokinesis translation
germ layers sister chromatids RNA (ribonucleic acid)
cell differentiation deoxyribose ribose
patterns of growth phosphate uracil
determinate growth nitrogenous bases promoter
indeterminate growth mutation codons
hormones DNA replication

Lecture Outline
7.1 Growth and Development of the American Lobster
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Summarize the growth and development of the lobster explaining the role of
environmental and hormonal factors on these changes.
B.Lobsters begin life as eggs on their mother’s abdomen, growing for 9–12 months.
1. The embryo develops in stages until it reaches a larval stage, at which point it hatches.
2. Lobster larvae are free-swimming in the plankton with very low survival rates.
3. Metamorphosis follows, where the lobster begins to develop its adult form, which is
bottom-dwelling.
4. Lobsters continue to grow throughout their lifetime, molting their old shell and
forming a new one when they get too big.
a. The regrowth, molting, and hardening process may take a month to complete each
time.
b.Lobsters may molt several times each year.
5. As with many organisms, temperature is the driving environmental factor for major
lobster life events.
a. Warmer temperatures lead to faster growth rates.
b.Temperature specifically influences several steroid hormones in the lobster that
direct development and growth.
7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Describe the characteristic patterns and rates of growth and development at the
organism, species, and tissue level.
B.Growth in an organism includes three processes:
1. Increased cell numbers
2. Increased individual cell size
3. Secretion of proteins and other materials around cells

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 C.Each process contributes to overall organismal growth.
D. Development refers to the various changes an animal undergoes through the maturation
process.
1. Different organisms have different developmental stages.
E.Each animal species has a characteristic pattern of development
1. Humans, as many animals, have life stages that range from fertilization, to cell growth
and cell specialization of a zygote, to fetus, to immature juvenile, to adult.
2. Embryonic development can tell scientists a great deal about the ancestral origins of
various species and is used to classify organisms.
a. Organisms whose mouth forms first are protostomes.
b.Organisms whose anus forms first are deuterostomes.
c. Animals all develop the head region first and the tail end last.
3. Many animals follow a pattern of cleavage, morula, blastula, gastrula, and
larva/embryo in their early development of a zygote.
4. Germ layers give rise to different tissue types.
a. Ectoderm gives rise to the epithelial tissues.
b.Endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive system.
c. Mesoderm gives rise to the muscular, skeletal, circulatory, and reproductive
systems.
5. Location, cellular communication, and other signals determine a particular cell’s fate,
which is known as cell differentiation.
a. Cell differentiation leads to cell specialization.
F.Animals show characteristic patterns and rates of growth and development
1. The fastest growth rates occur earliest in life for animals.
2. Determinate growth patterns are in organisms that stop growing at maturity.
3. Indeterminate growth occurs in organisms that continue to grow throughout their
lifetime.
4. Organisms with long life spans grow more slowly and take longer to mature than
those with short life spans.
5. All four tissue types show distinct patterns of growth.
7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Explain how external and internal factors control animal growth and development.
B.Cellular growth is controlled by cell communication and signals.
C.External and internal factors are both responsible for animal growth.
D. Environmental factors trigger growth and development
1. DNA preprograms the life stages of an organism.
2. Habitat influences modify these hardwired stages.
a. Food supply, oxygen levels, space, and temperature are all external factors that
affect an organism’s development.
b.Temperature is particularly important for many animals, as organisms have a faster
metabolism at higher temperatures.
c. Length of day is also an important cue for feeding, breeding, and hibernation.
E.Hormones play a major role in controlling growth and development
1. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by the body that target specific cell
types.
a. The receptors on the target cells initiate an appropriate response based on the
particular hormone.

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 b.Important hormones in humans include testosterone and estrogen, which promote
sexual maturation.
c. Production of some hormones is triggered by other hormones; for example,
luteinizing hormone controls the production of testosterone.
7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of the cell cycle to animal growth and development.
B.Growth is an increase in body mass.
1. Increases in cell number lead to growth; cells divide at different rates.
C.The process of cell growth and division is known as the cell cycle.
D. In addition to adding cells, the cell cycle replaces old cells.
E.Overview of the cell cycle
1. Cells progress through the cell cycle at different rates.
a. Some cells may only take minutes or hours to move through the cell cycle, while
others take years.
2. Cell division is highly controlled, is complex, and has many checkpoints.
a. Checkpoints limit the progression of the cell cycle if the conditions for the next step
are not met.
3. The cell growth and DNA replication portion of the cycle is known as interphase and
takes up approximately 90 percent of a cell’s life.
a. Interphase is triggered by hormones and other signaling molecules.
4. The mitotic phase is the process of dividing the genetic material, as well as dividing up
the cytoplasm and organelles.
a. Mitosis begins when the cell has enough DNA and components to support two cells.
5. The physical separation of the two identical daughter cells is known as cytokinesis.
F.A closer look at interphase
1. Interphase consists of three phases.
a. In G1, or gap phase 1, the cell grows and produces enzymes and other proteins at a
high rate.
b.The second phase, S or “synthesis” phase, is when the DNA is replicated; sister
chromatids are produced to support two new and identical cells.
c. G2, or gap phase 2, is the last phase and when the cell makes more structural
proteins for the process of mitosis.
G.Revisiting DNA structure
1. A chromosome consists of a long double helix of genetic material, coiled around
proteins to form chromatin.
2. DNA consists of a backbone of deoxyribose sugar and a phosphate group; the “rungs”
of the twisted ladder of a DNA molecule are composed of four different nucleotides:
adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
3. Adenine always pairs with thymine in the double helix, and guanine always pairs with
cytosine.
4. The order of the nucleotides codes for specific amino acid sequences.
5. A change in a DNA nucleotide, or series of nucleotides, is known as a mutation.
6. The double helix of the DNA is held together between nucleotides by hydrogen bonds.
H. DNA replication occurs during interphase
1. DNA molecules are duplicated completely in the synthesis phase.
2. Each new cell produced by the cell cycle is an exact copy of those that came before it.
3. To accomplish DNA replication, cells need enzymes to catalyze the process, additional
nucleotides to build new DNA molecules, and energy.

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 4. The nearly error-free process of DNA replication is known as semiconservative
replication.
5. Enzymes are an important part of DNA replication.
a. One enzyme unwinds the double helix, opening each side up for DNA polymerase to
add new complimentary nucleotides to match each side of the parent strand.
b.Other enzymes are involved with proofreading the new strand and in making sure
there are no significant errors in the daughter strands.
I. A closer look at mitosis
1. The process of mitosis divides the replicated DNA, organelles, and cytoplasm equally
into the two new daughter cells.
2. Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
a. In prophase, the chromosomes condense and organelles begin to migrate to one side
or the other.
b.In metaphase, the condensed chromosomes line up on the midline of the cell and
microtubules connect to one of each of the sister chromatids of a pair.
c. In anaphase, the microtubules condense and pull the duplicated chromosomes to
either side of the cells.
d.In telophase, the cytoplasm begins to divide into two; by the end of the process, two
new identical daughter cells are formed.
7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
A. Learning Objective—Students should be able to:
1. Summarize the role of gene expression on growth and development in animals.
B.Control over cellular growth and differentiation is crucial for eukaryotic cells.
C.Mutations or uncontrolled cell growth can have dire consequences for an organism.
D. Genes control the function of cells by directing which proteins are made.
E.Some gene products act as signals, while others act as catalysts.
F.Checkpoints are used throughout the cell cycle to monitor the process of cell growth and
division.
G.Cells respond to a variety of signals
1. Cells communicate directly with other cells or through intercellular messaging
compounds.
a. Many different signaling compounds and cellular receptors are utilized to maintain
complex cellular processes.
b.Growth factors regulate the cell cycle and cell growth.
c. The two major phases of the cell cycle that need to be monitored and controlled are
the synthesis phase and the mitotic phase; each has its own rate and needs to
complete the process.
2. Cellular suicide is known as apoptosis and can be triggered by internal or external
cellular signals.
a. Programmed cell death is necessary for the proper growth of tissues and organs, as
well as to rid the body of worn-out or infected cells.
3. Cell signaling is initiated when a messenger compound is received by a receptor inside
or on the plasma membrane of another cell.
a. A cascade of reactions occurs within the receiving cell after the receptor is triggered.
b.The activity of the cell is altered by turning certain genes on or off.
c. An example of cell signaling is the sexual maturation process; sex hormones are
produced in greater quantities and various cell types change in a fundamental way
as a result of the presence of estrogen or testosterone.
H. Different cells express different genes

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 1. Humans have over 200 different cell types.
2. Cell specialization is determined by which genes in that cell are expressed.
a. Proteins are made through the processes of transcription and translation,
collectively known as gene expression.
3. RNA is another nucleic acid and has a role in the production of proteins from DNA
molecules.
a. RNA can function in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm.
b.RNA is single-stranded.
c. RNA has ribose as its backbone sugar.
d.RNA uses the nucleotide uracil instead of thymine.
I. Transcription: the process where DNA produces RNA
1. In the process of transcription, mRNA (messenger RNA) is produced from a DNA
sequence in the nucleus with the help of enzymes.
a. DNA is unwound and a special enzyme binds to the specific promoter for that
particular gene.
b.Transcription begins via RNA polymerase, and RNA-specific nucleotides are
arranged in the proper order.
c. Transcription ends when a “stop” sequence is detected.
d.The mRNA strand is modified before leaving the nucleus for the cytoplasm.
2. The genetic code is “read” in triplets of nucleotides known as codons; 64 codons are
possible.
J. Translation: the process where RNA is interpreted to protein
1. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA strand is translated into an amino acid sequence with the
assistance of tRNA (transfer RNA) and ribosomes.
a. The tRNA carries a specific amino acid that will be released into the growing
polypeptide chain, in order, depending on the sequence of the mRNA.
b.The tRNA possesses an anticodon that is complimentary to the codon of the mRNA.
2. Once completed, the protein detaches from the ribosome and is processed further; the
mRNA degrades and the ribosomes and tRNAs are reused.

Ideas for Further Inquiry

 Use the following article for further discussion or to accompany the Data Analysis section of the
chapter:
 Spohr, H. L., Willms, J., and Steinhausen, H. C. (1994) The fetal alcohol syndrome in
adolescence. Acta Paediatrica, 83(s404): 19–26. Available from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13379.x/abstract.

 Have students research the following questions:

 What conditions speed up cellular growth and development? What conditions reduce
them?
 What is the value of having cell cultures such as HeLa cells? What are some of the ethical
considerations?
 Identify the enzymes that play a role in mitosis. Pick one and predict what would
happen if there was a mutation in the production of this enzyme.
 Besides polymerase, what other enzymes are important and what are their roles?

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Cengage Video—Lobsters
Discussion Questions
1. Summarize the growth and development of the lobster.
Talking Points: The lobster life cycle includes the following stages: embryo, larva, postlarva, juvenile,
adult. Lobster eggs hatch into larvae, which feed near the ocean’s surface on small plankton (the
free-swimming stage). As they molt from the larval to the adult stage, they develop long antennae, a
tail fan, and more sensory organs. The lobsters then descend to the bottom of the ocean, where they
spend the rest of their life (the bottom-dwelling phase). It takes several years for the lobster to
reach sexual maturity. Lobsters are the heaviest crustacean in the world. The record one weighed
44 pounds, but the one on your plate is probably 1–1½ pounds. Even it took 6–8 years to get that
large.

2. Describe the reproductive process in lobsters.

Talking Points: Lobsters start their life when a female shows she is interested in a male by releasing
pheromone-containing urine. The male is attracted to the pheromones. After some elaborate
fighting, she sheds her exoskeleton. He then puts sperm into her with the first pair of swimmerets
on his abdomen, which are modified for that job. After mating, the female can store sperm for many
months, fertilizing eggs as she produces them. She glues the eggs to the underside of her abdomen
and carries them around for 9–11 months, protecting them and fanning them to provide oxygen.

3. Describe the roles steroid hormones and temperature play during growth and development of
the lobster.
Talking Points: The lobster’s life cycle, from egg to mature lobster is determined by temperature,
nutrients, steroid hormones, day length, and even pollutants. Lobsters are very sensitive to high
temperatures. Temperature specifically influences several steroid hormones in the lobster that
direct development and growth. Over 68°F, they begin to move north to cooler waters. The New
England lobster fishery may decline due to global climate change.

Websites, Animations, and Additional Videos

7.1 Growth and Development of the American Lobster
Websites: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Homarus_americanus/
Information on the American lobster
http://www.neaq.org/animals_and_exhibits/animals/american_lobster/index.php
Information on the American lobster
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5cF08wEMos
A video on the ecology of the American lobster

7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development

Websites: http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/
Embryology
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Protostomes_vs_Deuterostomes.html
Protostomes versus deuterostomes

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Animations: http://www.indiana.edu/~anat550/embryo_main/
Human embryology animations

7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development

Websites: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/endocrine/hormones.html
Series of short articles on hormones
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookendocr.html
Online biology book—The Endocrine System
Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbdths0W5vs.
U.S. National Zoo’s Endocrine Lab
http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/cellsignals.html
Cell signaling

7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
Websites: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/main.html
The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Henrietta-Lacks-Immortal-
Cells.html
Henrietta Lacks’ Immortal Cells
Animations: http://www.cellsalive.com/
Animations and accompanying pictures of real cells that step through the cell
division process of mitosis and meiosis
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=ap13604
The cell cycle
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/tour_dna.html
What is DNA?
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/builddna/
Build a DNA molecule
Video: http://vcell.ndsu.edu/animations/mitosis/movie-flash.htm
An animated video of the process of mitosis

7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
Websites: http://www.dnaftb.org/38/
Resources on the science behind cell growth and apoptosis
http://www.dnaftb.org/35/
Resources on the science behind cell growth factors

Animations: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/transcribe/
Transcribe and translate a gene
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/firefly/
Animated example of protein synthesis

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Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6uHotlXvPo
Cell signaling

Alternative Organisms
Websites: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Alligator_mississippiensis/
American alligator
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Conus_geographus/
Cone snail

Suggestions for Lecture Enrichment

 Use a tool, such as model chromosomes or models of the phases of mitosis, to visually show the
process to students.
 Using the codon chart, put a sample DNA code on the board (including a start and stop codon)
and have students walk through the processes of transcription and translation together in small
groups.
 Show time-lapse videos of cells going through the mitosis process. Compare and contrast
mitosis in an animal cell with that in a plant cell.
 Use following alternative organisms to supplement the materials.
 American alligator
 Cone snail (venomous)

Suggested Activities
 Have students work through the transcription and translation activity listed in the Websites,
Animations, and Additional Videos section above for Section 7.5.
 Have students read excerpts of The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skoot on the
early days of cellular research and the bioethics involved.
 Use students to simulate a DNA strand, with students on either side holding hands to act as
hydrogen bonds. Choose another student to be the polymerase and place new students into the
strand on either side. One way to do this would be to have four different colored wristbands, or
something similar, to represent which students are which nucleotide.

Possible Answers to Check + Apply Your Understanding

7.2 Animal Groups Show Characteristic Patterns of Growth and Development
1. Cell differentiation is an important process of animal development that begins with a single cell.
What is cell differentiation?
Answer: The process by which the cell becomes specialized in its form and function.
2. Various tissues grow in different ways. Name the three ways tissues grow.
Answer: By increasing the number of cells by cell division, by increasing the size of their cells, or
by secreting materials around their cells.

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3. Cell division, cell movement, cell arrangement, and cell specialization are associated with
animal growth and development. Which of these cellular processes contribute to growth and
which contribute to development?
Answer: Cell division is associated with growth, whereas cell movement, cell arrangement, and
cell specialization are associated with development.
4. Describe the difference in the pattern of growth in lobsters and in humans. Do they follow a
determinate or an indeterminate pattern?
Answer: Both lobsters and humans stop growing when they reach adulthood and maintain their
size as adults; therefore, they both are determinate.
5. The tiger salamander is an amphibian with a life cycle similar to that of a frog (see Fig. 9.2).
(You can see a photo of a tiger salamander in Fig. 7.14.) For each set of genes, state whether
they are turned on or off at the particular stage given: (1) yolk synthesis in the tadpole stage,
(2) gill development in the adult stage, (3) limb development at the tadpole stage.
Answer: (1) During the tadpole stage, yolk synthesis genes would be turned off; (2) as an adult
the tiger salamander uses lungs and therefore the gill development genes would be turned off;
(3) during the tadpole stage, the genes for limb development would be turned on.

7.3 External and Internal Factors Control Growth and Development

1. List three external factors that influence growth and development.
Answer: Temperature, daylight, available nutrients.
2. Describe how a hormone interacts with a cell to cause it to divide.
Answer: Hormones cross over cell membranes and bind to specific receptors. This action
triggers cellular responses that turn on or off certain genes.
3. In addition to altering daylight conditions, livestock breeders provide growth hormones to their
animals. These hormones increase muscle mass by 20 percent. What target cells do these
growth hormones act on?
Answer: The lean mass that is of interest to the market is muscle. These particular growth
hormones act on muscle cells.
4. In males, what would happen if the epithelial cells lacked receptors for testosterone?
Answer: Because the epithelial tissues could not respond to the signal, the characteristics of hair
growth would not occur.
5. The Arctic krill (see Fig. 1.2) is an arthropod like the lobster. Krill release about 1,000 eggs at
one time each summer. The eggs develop into larva over a two-week period. Predict what
environmental factors cue krill to begin the reproduction phase of their lives.
Answer: Because krill are arthropods, their regulation of development is similar to that of
lobsters. The krill respond to the ocean’s temperature as a key indicator for spawning. In
summer the cue would be a temperature.

7.4 The Cell Cycle Carries Out Growth at the Cellular Level
1. Distinguish between interphase and mitosis in the life of a dividing cell. Mitosis serves several
functions in animals. List four functions of mitosis.
Answer: Growth, development, wound/tissue repair, asexual reproduction.
2. In cells that continually divide throughout their life span, in what phase does the cell spend the
majority of its time and what is it doing during that phase?
Answer: The cell spends 90 percent of its time in interphase. At this time, it performs its specific

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 job and prepares itself for mitosis by replicating its DNA and organelles as well as growing its
cytoplasm.
3. In DNA replication, if the original DNA sequence is ACCGTCG, what is the sequence of the newly
synthesized strand?
Answer: TGGCAGC.
4. How does the cell cycle of a nerve cell compare to that of an epithelial cell that secretes mucus
in the intestine?
Answer: A nerve cell is active in early development and then goes dormant for the rest of the
organism’s life cycle. The cells in the intestine constantly divide and turn over, so they
continuously go through mitosis.
5. The drug taxol is used in chemotherapy for treatment of cancer. It blocks the assembly of
microtubules. Explain how taxol inhibits cancer cells from dividing. Would it also stop normal
cells from dividing?
Answer: These protein fibers are critical for moving the chromosomes and separating the sister
chromatids. If the microtubules are dysfunctional, then proper cell division cannot occur.

7.5 Growth and Development Are Highly Regulated Processes at the Molecular Level
1. In early stages of development, the lobster goes through rapid cell division, changing from a
fertilized egg to a larva. List the two ways cells communicate with each other during this
transformation.
Answer: Cell communication occurs through direct physical contact between adjacent cells and
through intercellular chemical messengers.
2. Many growth factors are signaling molecules that bind to the promoter region on DNA. What is
the promoter’s function?
Answer: A promoter binds to a start region of the gene and triggers transcription.
3. Why is apoptosis (pre-programmed cell death) important as a part of embryonic development?
Give an example where it operates.
Answer: Programmed cell death (apoptosis) is important to reabsorb developing tissues. For
instance, the tail of a tadpole is reabsorbed through apoptosis in frog development. In humans,
as the tissues around the fingers and toes develop the old tissue needs to be broken down and
absorbed.
4. How do the functions of transcription and translation differ?
Answer: Transcription is the process that rewrites (or transcribes) the DNA into mRNA,
whereas translation interprets (or translates) the mRNA to a protein sequence.
5. During embryonic development, epidermal growth factor (EGF) triggers the growth
differentiation of many cell types. Refer to Figures 7.23 and 7.25 to explain the general
mechanism of how EGF triggers cell growth and differentiation.
Answer: EGF is released as a response to environmental cues or signaling molecules. EGF binds
to a cell membrane receptor and enters the cell. Inside of the cell, it triggers a cascade reaction
that releases other signaling molecules that act as transcription factors for gene expression. The
expression of various genes results in the growth and differentiation of cells.

Answers to Self-Quiz on Key Concepts

1. growth (b), cell differentiation (a), development (c)

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2. c. chordates.
3. a. It gives rise to organs such as the brain and skin.
4. d. all of the above.
5. c. genetics.
6. interphase (c), mitosis (a), cytokinesis (b)
7. b. the same number of chromosomes.
8. c. doing its job.
9. d. Hormones elicit the identical response in every cell type at all stages of life.
10. transcription (c), translation (b), DNA replication (a)
11. a. carrying the code in the form of codons.
12. b. transcription; translation.

Possible Answers to Applying the Concepts

13. You have just adopted a basset hound puppy (Fig. 7.31). Apply the following concepts—
patterns of growth, germ layers, life stages, and life span—to the growth and development of
this puppy by answering these questions:
a. List three areas of the puppy’s body that are currently undergoing cell division.
b. Describe how the puppy’s body shape changes as it develops into an adult. How do its head,
eyes, ears, and legs change through time?
c. Refer to Figure 7.9, what germ layer gives rise to the dogs muscles? Lungs?
d. Hounds are known for their great sense of smell. From what germ layer do these olfactory
neurons arise?
Answer: (a) A few examples are the ears, nose, tail, and body. Other cell types that constantly
divide, such as the epithelial cells of the skin and intestine, are also undergoing cell division. (b)
As the puppy grows, it grows into its feet. Its ears and nose elongate, developing into their final
body shape and form. The skin around the eyes grows “droopy.” (c) Muscles arise from the
mesoderm and the lungs arise from the endoderm. (d) Neurons arise from the ectoderm.
14. Mitosis occurs for three basic reasons in multicellular organisms. List these three reasons and
describe one in detail. Describe how mitosis relates to the cell cycle.
Answer: Mitosis occurs for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms.
Some animals use mitosis as a form of asexual reproduction. Growth is the increase in size of
the animal; development is the formation and rearrangement of cells; and tissues need to repair
or renew themselves as a part of maintaining the organism.
15. Many cancer drugs stop cell division. List several mechanisms that could hinder cell division.
Answer: Essentially the cell cycle can be interrupted at any phase. Some examples of drug
interactions include the prevention of DNA replication, the prevention of microtubule
formation, and the blocking of receptors preventing growth factors from triggering the cell
cycle.
16. In humans the gene that codes for insulin is located on chromosome 11. This gene is about 150
base pairs long. The sequence AAACTCCAC is a small portion of the insulin gene. Take this DNA
sequence and transcribe it to an mRNA sequence. Describe how this mRNA is translated into a
protein.
Answer: The mRNA sequence is UUUGAGGUC. This mRNA sequence is the code for an amino
acid sequence. The mRNA is made in the nucleus, modified, and transported to a ribosome in
the cytoplasm. On the ribosome, enzymes, amino acids, and tRNA help to facilitate the
interpretation of the mRNA code to a sequence of amino acids that make up the insulin protein.

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Possible Answers to Data Analysis
Data Interpretation
17. Figure 7.32a shows a plot of the percentage of alcohol use among women who are pregnant
versus those who are not pregnant. Use the 2005 data to create a summary table comparing
both “any alcohol use” and binge drinking among pregnant and nonpregnant women.
Answer: See Table below.

Group Percent Using Any Alcohol Percent Binge Drinking

Not pregnant 50% 10%

Pregnant 10% 1%

18. Examining the developmental chart (Fig. 7.32b), what two major structural birth defects are
most common in babies born to mothers who drink alcohol?
Answer: Defects to the central nervous system and ears.

Critical Thinking
19. In 2009, there were about 4.2 million births in the United States. If the same trends from the
graph shown in Figure 7.32a hold true, how many babies were born from mothers who used
alcohol during pregnancy? How many were born from binge-drinking mothers?
Answer: 10 percent of 4.2 million (or 420,000 births) were from mothers who used alcohol, and
1 percent were from binge-drinking mothers.
20. In the United States, 50 percent of pregnancies are unplanned. This means that women who are
not planning on getting pregnant usually are not aware they are pregnant until 4 to 8 weeks
into the baby’s term. Use your understanding of development to explain why this is a concern.
Answer: Development of the central nervous system, heart, and sensory organs is well under
way at this point. If 50 percent of mothers drink, this can have detrimental effects on the fetus,
perhaps leading to FAS or other birth defects.
21. Human brains go through a rapid growth spurt during weeks 26–38 (the third trimester), so
they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of alcohol during this period. Developing neurons
are impaired by the interactions with alcohol. Signals indicating that development is not
progressing normally are sent. The end result is that the neurons are sent into apoptosis. How
do you think this ultimately affects the brain?
Answer: As a result of the cells committing suicide, less brain tissue is present in babies born to
mothers who drink in the third trimester. With fewer brain cells and less mass, these babies
may develop other developmental issues. These babies have behavioral and learning
disabilities, and some are mentally retarded.

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Possible Answers to Question Generator
This section of the text is a good launching point for class discussions after students have prepared
their own answers to the questions.

Potential Student-Generated Questions

1. If conditions are not ideal, how long can a Monarch larva stay in a particular stage of
development?
2. What is the impact of juvenile hormone being released in later stages of development?

If additional class discussion is warranted, please use the following questions to generate
further discussion.
1. What are considered ideal conditions for metamorphosis?
2. What are some of the possible consequences if larva progress through metamorphosis too early
or too quickly?

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Lesson Plan
by Robert K. Noyd

7
Animal Growth and Development
Learner Readiness
How strong is your students’ conceptual foundation?
This chapter strongly connects to and builds on concepts in:
 Chapter 1: characteristics of life—organisms grow, develop, and reproduce; macromolecules;
bonds; chromosomes, DNA, genes, and proteins (Fig. 1.6); evidence of evolution
(developmental patterns)
 Chapter 2: animal diversity
 Chapter 4: habitat and niche; resources needed to live—Table 4.2
 Chapter 6: animal body organization and structure—endocrine system; cell structure
(ribosomes, nucleus); macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids); homeostasis

Learning Goal
Students will explain how environmental factors interact with biological processes to cause an
animal to grow and develop from a zygote to a mature adult.

Note: The verb explain means that the student will show how biological processes (cell division, cell
signaling, gene expression) respond to environmental factors (temperature, light, oxygen,
hormones, growth factors) to bring about the growth and developmental of a zygote through the
embryonic stages to the sexually mature adult.

Core Concepts
Note that each section and subsection title in the textbook is a concept statement.
 Rates and patterns of growth and development
 Control of growth and development hormones and environmental factors
 Cellular level—cell cycle and mitosis
 Molecular level—gene expression—transcription and translation

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Student Preparation: Out-of-Class Learning Experiences
 Read section(s) in the textbook and complete the Check + Apply Your Understanding questions.
 Complete the online quizzes presented through Aplia®.

Note: The goal of preparation is to expose and prime students to the vocabulary and basic concepts
of the chapter. Without this, you, the instructor, are doing most of the work of encoding the
information for the students, rather than helping them to actively encode, construct, and remember
the material.

The Lesson: In-Class Learning Experiences

As I play my learning facilitator role, it is essential for me to break the belief that “if I don’t tell them,
they will not learn it.” I structure the lesson to gain interest, link new knowledge to their
experiences, probe their thinking, and lecture on concepts that are especially difficult or need a
deeper level of development (providing numerous examples, analogies, and explanations). A
successful lesson is one where students made learning gains; a successful lesson is not based on
how well I lectured. The success of the lesson can only be crowned if you have evidence that
students learned the core concepts…like a scientist, this comes in your assessment.

Part 1. Establishing Context and Interest

Cengage Video—Lobsters
 Show the short video clip of the lead organism.

Part 2. Linking the Organism to the Topic

Post-Video Activity
 Use the video to introduce concepts in the chapter.
 Ask students what they observed about lobster growth and development in the video, which
follows the chapter opener story (Section7.1). For example:
 How many years of growth and development did it take to put a lobster on your dinner
plate?
 List the five stages in the life cycle of the lobster.
 Out of a thousand lobster eggs, how many make it to the postlarval stage?
 Name two structures that develop during the postlarval stage.
 Describe how environmental cues influenced the timing of the lobster’s development.
 Why does a lobster molt? What cues trigger molting?
 What is the role of steroid hormones in the development of the lobster?
 Thinking Question: You are interested in speeding up the growth and development of the
lobster, what would you do?

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Knowledge Probe—“What Are Students Thinking?”
 Ask students to write a sentence or two that describes the relationship between (1) growth,
(2) development, (3) genes, and (4) hormones.
 What is the relationship between (1) the average age of sexual maturity and (2) life span?
 Show students the “approved solutions,” so they can learn how to think more clearly and
completely.
 You may also want to go over the specific Check + Apply Your Understanding questions that
students found challenging, vague, or confusing.

Part 3. Explaining and Linking the Core Concepts: Mini-Lecture Presentation

“Students Follow Your Thinking”
 Section 7.2: Embryonic development was first introduced as evidence of evolution in Chapter 1
(pp. 28–30). Here’s an opportunity to link similarities in embryonic development to similarities
in genetic information. Use Figure 7.8 to show students how developmental patterns are
evidence of evolutionary change and ancestry. Developmental patterns are the result of gene
actions and their timing.
 Section 7.2: Figure 7.9 shows how the single-celled zygote gives rise to the variety of cell types
in the animal body. From which germ layer did the acid-producing cell of the leatherback turtle
arise? The main point of this section is not for the student to memorize which germ layers will
give rise to which organ systems, but rather that body plan originates early in development. The
issue of embryonic stem cells can be brought up here as the cells start on their developmental
pathways and fates.
 Section 7.2: The determinate growth pattern in animals will be compared to the indeterminate
pattern in plant shoots and roots.
 Section 7.2: Variation in developmental pattern. Use the cover photo description (About the
Cover—opposite the Brief Contents page) of the tree frog on the cover and the more typical frog
life cycle shown in Figure 7.13.
 Section 7.3: Control. Develop concepts in this section through examples students can relate to,
such as farm animals or frogs or insects. Help students connect seasonal factors such as day
length, temperature, and food supply to the timing and control of development. Hormones are
the mechanism by which these environmental factors are manifested in the development and
growth rate.
 Section 7.4: Cell cycle. There are many good animations of the cell cycle on the Internet. Here is
the place to connect animal and cell structure in Chapter 6 to cell division in Chapter 7. I have
found that showing students mitosis in fast motion (in addition to super slow motion) helps
them understand the process. The cell cycle will be reinforced in plants in Chapter 12, and in
fungi, in Chapter 15. Link it to increases in cell number = growth.
 Section 7.5: Gene expression. By placing gene expression here, we strive to make it clear to
students that specific genes turn on to produce growth and developmental changes. There is a
risk that students will confuse the two processes; therefore, it is important to probe their
thinking to be sure they understand the different and interacting roles that the cell cycle and
gene expression play in animal growth and development.

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Going Beyond the Text
 There are many good video animations at the HHMI BioInteractive website at
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/evolution/gene_switch.html.

Other Learning Activities—“You Follow Their Thinking”

 Student Made Teaching Videos: Have students pair up so that one student uses their camera or
smartphone to make a three-minute video of their partner explaining to a classmate how the
process of gene expression works. (Instruct them to make their own Khan Academy–type
teaching video.) My students really enjoy this activity! They rehearse several times first with
feedback from me and other students.
 Mitosis Sequence Cards: Create cut outs of the different stages of mitosis, and have students put
them in the correct sequence.

Part 4. Finding Out How Much Students Have Learned

 Use the Check + Apply Your Understanding questions as clicker questions.
 Use questions from the End of Chapter Review, Self-Quiz on Key Concepts, and Data Analysis
features.
 Pose several of the Applying the Concepts questions from the end of the chapter.
 Have students use the Question Generator feature to see if they can formulate testable
questions.

Think–Pair–Share
 Ask students to answer these two questions to see if they understand how these two processes
interact:
 Yes or No? Can mitosis occur without gene expression?
 Yes or No? Can gene expression occur without mitosis?

 Ask students to answer the following:

The following describes which processes in growth and development?
a. Cell cycle/cell division
b. Gene expression
c. Both
___ 1. The entire genome is replicated.
___ 2. Only part of the genome, or specific genes, is used.
___ 3. Increases the number of cells.
___ 4. Occurs in only specific cells.
___ 5. Occurs in all cells.
___ 6. Growth factors influence these process(es).

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It is easy for students (and instructors) to get down so far into the “weeds” and details of the
cellular and molecular processes that students miss how these processes contribute to the big
picture called animal growth and development.

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