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Developments on
(Bio)Membranes
Developments on
(Bio)Membranes
Recent Advances on Membrane
Reactors
Edited by
Angelo Basile
Hydrogenia, Genova, Italy
Unit of Chemical-Physics Fundamentals in Chemical Engineering,
Department of Engineering, University Campus Bio-Medical of Rome,
Rome, Italy
Fausto Gallucci
Sustainable Process Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering and
Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
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List of contributors
Luca Ansaloni SINTEF Industry, Oslo, Norway
Pietro Argurio Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Calabria, Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Angelo Basile Hydrogenia, Genova, Italy; Unit of Chemical-Physics

Fundamentals in Chemical Engineering, Department of Engineering, University
Campus Bio-Medical of Rome, Rome, Italy
Slamet Budijanto Department of Food Science and Technology,

IPB University, Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor, Indonesia
Loredana De Bartolo CNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute

on Membrane Technology, Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Kiwinta Diaussie Department of Food Science and Technology,

Alberto Figoli Institute on Membrane Technology (CNR-ITM), Rende,

Cosenza, Italy
Francesco Galiano Institute on Membrane Technology (CNR-ITM), Rende,

Cosenza, Italy
Fausto Gallucci Sustainable Process Engineering, Chemical Engineering and

Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven,
The Netherlands
Ellen Gapp Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT) at Karlsruhe

Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
Hua Huang Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

University, Clemson, SC, United States
Cristina Lavorato Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

xiii
xiv List of contributors
Marco Martino Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno,

Fisciano, Italy
Eugenio Meloni Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno,

Fisciano, Italy
Pierre Millet Paris-Saclay University, ICMMO (UMR 8182), Orsay, France
Raffaele Molinari Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Sabrina Morelli CNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute on

Membrane Technology, Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Vincenzo Palma Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno,

Fisciano, Italy
Thijs A. Peters SINTEF Industry, Oslo, Norway
Peter Pfeifer Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT) at Karlsruhe

Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
Antonella PiscioneriCNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute

on Membrane Technology, Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Carmella Rosabel Department of Food Science and Technology,

Simona Salerno CNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute on

Membrane Technology, Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Sergio Santoro Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Azis Boing Sitanggang Department of Food Science and Technology,

Jianhua Tong Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

Hilde J. Venvik Department of Chemical Engineering, Norwegian University

of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
J. Vital
Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology,
LAQV-Requimte, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
List of contributors xv
Zeyu Zhao Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

Minda Zou Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

Contents
List of contributors xiii

Preface xvii
1. Introduction to membrane and membrane reactors 1
VINCENZO PALMA, MARCO MARTINO, EUGENIO MELONI AND ANGELO BASILE
1.1 Introduction and principles 1

1.2 Membranes 6
1.3 Membrane bioreactors 8
1.4 Combination of membranes and catalytic reactions 10
1.4.1 Interfacial contactor mode 15
1.4.2 Flow-through contactor mode 15
1.5 Conclusions and future trends 15
Nomenclature 16
Acronyms 16
Symbols 16
References 17
2. Protonic electrocatalytic membrane reactors 21

ZEYU ZHAO, MINDA ZOU, HUA HUANG AND JIANHUA TONG
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Ammonia synthesis 22
2.2.1 The common design of protonic electrocatalytic
membrane reactors for the ammonia synthesis 23
2.2.2 Electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction mechanism 24
2.2.3 Electrolyte materials 26
v
vi Contents
2.2.4 Cathode materials 27

2.2.5 Anode hydrogen feedstocks 28
2.3 CO2 reduction 30
2.3.1 The common design of Protonic electrocatalytic
membrane reactors for the CO2 reduction 31
2.3.2 Mechanisms of the CO2 electrocatalytic reduction 31
2.3.3 Electrolyte materials 32
2.3.4 Cathodic materials and catalysts 34
2.3.5 Anodic materials 35
2.4 Hydrocarbon dehydrogenation 36
2.4.1 Methane upgrading 36
2.4.2 Conversion of alkanes to alkenes 42
2.5 Other reactions 44
2.6 Conclusion and future trends 45
Nomenclature 46
Acronyms 46
References 47
3. Packed bed membrane reactors 59

FAUSTO GALLUCCI
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Latest developments in packed bed membrane reactors 62
Nomenclature 73
Acronyms 73
References 74
4. Fluidized bed membrane reactors 77

FAUSTO GALLUCCI
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Latest developments in fluidized bed membrane reactors 79
Contents vii

Nomenclature 91
Acronyms 91
References 91
5. Microstructured membrane reactors for

process intensification 95
ELLEN GAPP, LUCA ANSALONI, HILDE J. VENVIK,
THIJS A. PETERS AND PETER PFEIFER
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Design and fabrication 96
5.3 Examples of microstructured membrane reactors 105
5.3.1 Polymeric 105
5.3.2 Metallic membranes 110
5.3.3 Zeolite membranes 113
5.3.4 Ceramic oxygen and proton conducting membranes 115
Nomenclature 118
Acronyms 118
Symbols 118
References 118
6. Pervaporation membrane reactor 127

SERGIO SANTORO, ALBERTO FIGOLI AND FRANCESCO GALIANO
6.1 Introduction 127

6.2 Pervaporation membrane reactors 130
6.3 Fields of application 134
6.3.1 Esterification reactions 135
6.3.2 Etherification reactions 139
6.3.3 Acetalization reactions 140
6.3.4 Condensation reactions 141
viii Contents
6.3.5 Bio-alcohol production (pervaporation bioreactors) 141

Nomenclature 144
Acronyms 144
References 145
7. Polymeric membrane reactors 151

J. VITAL

7.2 Polymeric membranes 152
7.2.1 Structure of polymeric membranes 152
7.3 Classification of membrane reactors 167
7.3.1 Extractor-type membrane reactors 168
7.3.2 Contactor-type membrane reactors 171
7.3.3 Distributor-type membrane reactors 176
7.4 Polymeric membrane microreactors 177
7.6 Acronyms 179
References 181
8. Current trends in enzymatic membrane reactor 195

AZIS BOING SITANGGANG, KIWINTA DIAUSSIE,
CARMELLA ROSABEL AND SLAMET BUDIJANTO

8.2 Designs of enzymatic membrane reactor 196
8.3 Membrane characteristics 197
8.4 Enzyme immobilization in enzymatic membrane reactor 203
8.5 Enzymatic membrane reactor versus other reactor
configurations 209
8.6 Applications of enzymatic membrane reactor 210
8.7 Conclusion and outlook 217
Contents ix
Nomenclature 217
Acronyms 217
References 218
9. Membrane reactors in bioartificial organs 227

SABRINA MORELLI, SIMONA SALERNO,
ANTONELLA PISCIONERI AND LOREDANA DE BARTOLO

9.2 Bioartificial organs—design issues 228
9.3 Transport phenomena 229
9.4 Membrane bioreactor as bioartificial liver 231
9.4.1 Membrane bioartificial livers in flat configuration 232
9.4.2 Membrane bioartificial livers in hollow fiber
configuration 233
9.5 Membrane bioreactors for bioartificial kidney 236
9.5.1 Membranes for BAK 236
9.5.2 BAK devices in animal studies and clinical trials 237
9.6 Membrane bioreactor as a biomimetic model for
nervous tissue analogue 239
9.7 Conclusions and future perspectives 243
Nomenclature 243
References 244
10. Photocatalytic membrane reactors 251

RAFFAELE MOLINARI, CRISTINA LAVORATO AND PIETRO ARGURIO

10.2 Basic principles of photocatalysis 253
10.3 Basic of photocatalytic membrane reactors 257
10.3.1 Types of photocatalysts 257
10.3.2 Types of membranes 260
10.3.3 Membrane modules and system configurations 263
x Contents
10.4 Applications of photocatalytic membrane reactors 268

10.4.1 Photocatalytic membrane reactors in
photodegradation of pharmaceuticals in water 268
10.4.2 Photocatalytic membrane reactors in the
conversion of CO2 in solar fuels 273
10.5 Advantages and limitations of photocatalytic membrane
reactors 274
List of symbols 277
List of acronyms 277
Acknowledgments 278
References 278
11. Electrochemical membrane reactors 285

PIERRE MILLET

11.2 Electrochemical reactors 286
11.2.1 General principles 286
11.2.2 Endergonic transformers 289
11.2.3 Exergonic transformers 290
11.2.4 Cell separators 290
11.3 Diaphragms for liquid electrolytes 292
11.3.1 Asbestos 293
11.3.2 Thermoplastic diaphragms 293
11.4 Polymer membrane materials 295
11.4.1 Proton conducting ionomers 295
11.4.2 Hydroxyl-ion conducting ionomers 298
11.5 Ceramic membrane materials 300
11.5.1 Nonorganic proton conductors 300
11.5.2 Oxide-ion conductors 302
11.6 Selected endergonic applications 304
Contents xi
11.6.1 Water electrolysis 304

11.6.2 Main water electrolysis technologies 305
11.6.3 Brine electrolysis 305
Nomenclature 310
References 311
Further reading 313
12. Modeling of membrane reactors 315

FAUSTO GALLUCCI

12.2 Packed bed membrane reactors 316
12.2.1 1D pseudo-homogeneous model 316
12.2.2 2D pseudo-homogeneous model 322
12.2.3 Modeling of fluidized bed membrane reactors 325
Nomenclature 332
References 334
13. Techno-economic analysis of membrane reactors 337

FAUSTO GALLUCCI

13.2 Latest developments in techno-economic analysis for
membrane reactors 340
Nomenclature 353
References 353
Index 355
Preface
Membrane reactors (MRs) are multiphase, multifunctional systems in which reactions and
separation (through a membrane) are integrated within a single vessel.
Membranes can be used to either extract one or more components from the reaction sys-
tem or to feed a reactant into the reaction system. In any case, the integration of membrane
separation and reaction is used to enhance the performance of the reactor in terms of con-
version, selectivities, and/or energy efficiency.
MRs are especially interesting for reaction systems that are limited by thermodynamic
equilibrium or where the reaction system is a combination of reactions in series in which the
product can be further converted to by-products. In both cases, by adding a membrane, the
system can enhance the yield of the products.
Most of the MRs in the literature are used for equilibrium-limited reactions. Shortly, if at
least one of the products or the reaction is removed from the reaction system, the equilib-
rium is shifted toward the products, thus higher conversions can be achieved under the
same operating conditions, or similar conversions are achieved under milder conditions.
Other MRs are used to feed a reactant in the system, such as in partial oxidation reactions or
in bioreactors where air is fed through porous membranes.
In this book, at first different types of MRs are shown. Indeed, depending on the catalyst
system, there are packed bed MRs (PBMRs), fluidized bed MRs (FBMRs), microstructured
MRs, or catalytic MRs.
Different types of membranes are also used in MRs: from metallic to ceramic, to poly-
meric ones. For example, most bioreactors use polymeric (hollow fibers) or ceramic mem-
branes. In these cases, some MRs use also particles to remove or decrease the fouling of the
membranes (to be underlined that this is very difficult to completely prevent in membrane
bioreactors). For gas-phase reactions in MRs, generally metallic or ceramic membrane reac-
tors are used, as these reactions occur at high to very high temperatures.
Going a bit into details, the book starts with a general introduction to both membranes
and inorganic MRs, given in Chapter 1 (Palma, Martino, Meloni, and Basile). In this work,
hydrogen is considered the most promising energy carrier for sustainable energy systems of
the future. This is because the production of high purity hydrogen is essential for several
applications, including feeding of proton exchange membrane fuel cell stacks, which is the
most promising alternative to the internal combustion engines for several transportation
applications. However, the authors also stress that high-grade hydrogen is difficult to store
and transport suggesting that these issues may be solved through the generation of hydrogen
utilizing MRs systems, which have gained great efforts from the scientific community. In fact,
in recent years, a consistent stream of studies addressed investigating the combination of
hydrogen production and separation. To summarize, in this chapter, brief descriptions of
xvii
xviii Preface
both the general principles of membrane separation processes and the possible ways to cou-
ple a catalyst and a membrane in catalytic MRs are provided. Moreover, a brief overview of
membrane bioreactors is also given. Finally, future trends and current challenges about MRs
are discussed.
The next chapter, Chapter 2 (Zhao, Zou, Huang, and Tong), concentrates on a particular
type of MR called protonic electrocatalytic membrane reactors (PEMFCs). Following the
authors, the increasing energy and power generation demand mainly depends on the con-
sumption of fossil fuels, which contributes to climate change. In this context, PECMRs offer
promising potentials for sustainable energy conversion and storage with low energy con-
sumption and low emission due to their high process and energy efficiencies. Many practical
applications have been demonstrated based on PECMRs, such as ammonia synthesis, the
reduction of CO2, the dehydrogenation of hydrocarbons, and other environmental applica-
tions. In this interesting scenario, the chapter summarizes the most recent development of
PECMRs by sorting application types, including the introduction of theoretical principles, the
progress of the material development, and presenting challenges and perspectives.
In Chapter 3 (Gallucci), a particular kind of MR, named PBMR, is considered the easiest
configuration studied in laboratory settings for the proof-of-concept of MRs. The author
reports a few examples of these systems as appearing in the specialized literature in the last
5 years (2018 22). The chapter also illustrated a few of the latest examples of this kind of
reactor.
The same author continues the discussion in the next Chapter 4 (Gallucci), with the
FBMRs, considered an extension or an improvement of PBMRs. In fact, the fluidized bed
configuration allows more uniform temperature due to the movement of particles even for
very exothermic reactions and decreased concentration polarization. Also, in this case, vari-
ous examples of MRs appearing in literature in the last 5 years (2018 22) are presented.
During the last two decades, a new kind of during the last two decades has attracted wide
interest and undergone rapid development. For this reason, Chapter 5 (Gapp, Ansaloni,
Venvik, Peters, and Pfeifer) illustrates the importance of microstructured MRs for process
intensification. The authors focus on microstructured MRs for process intensification
employing membranes with a combined gas-selective and/or catalysis function. Firstly, the
design and fabrication strategies of such devices are introduced, then followed by various
examples of microstructured MRs employing polymeric, and ceramic. And as well metallic
membranes are also given by introducing possible applications of microstructured MRs
which involve gas liquid and gas gas reactions. The chapter ends by discussing the poten-
tial outlook for the technology.
Another kind of MR, the so-called pervaporation MRs (the acronym is PVMRs), is dis-
cussed in detail in Chapter 6 (Santoro, Figoli, and Galiano). Shortly, also PVMRs represent
an integrated separation system where a chemical (or biochemical) reaction is coupled with
a membrane-based separation in, in this case, a pervaporation unit. This hybrid process
offers a series of advantages in terms of both investment costs reduction and higher opera-
tional performance. To be added that PVMRs are today considered a consolidated technol-
ogy in esterification reactions, but encompass also condensation reactions, acetylation
Preface xix
reactions, etherification reactions, and biochemical reactions, where a series of products are
generated from a microbial conversion.
Chapter 7 (Vital) introduces and deeply illustrates the polymeric MRs. Polymeric mem-
branes, applicable in-low temperature processes (below 150 C), due to their high versatility
and variety in types and properties, are very suitable and advantageous for applications in
the fine chemistry field, when compared with their inorganic counterparts. In this chapter,
an overview of polymeric MRs is presented, and membrane structures, such as dense,
porous, symmetric, asymmetric, integral, composite, and mixed matrices, until the mem-
brane role in the reactor is given. Techniques for membrane preparation, such as phase
inversion or the methods used to prepare metal nanoparticles loaded mixed matrices, are
reviewed in detail. MRs’ classification according to the membrane material's nature, the role
of the membrane in the catalytic process, the transport function of the membrane, or the
reactor configuration is widely revisited. Moreover, recent progress on new membrane types
or MRs, such as ionic liquid membranes, polymeric microporous membranes, or polymeric
membrane microreactors is referred to.
The current trends in enzymatic membrane reactor (EMR) are deeply discussed in
Chapter 8 (Sitanggang, Diaussie, Rosabel, and Budijanto). Following the authors, the term
EMR, used for both single or monophasic reactors and multiphasic reactors, is generally
accepted for any biochemical reaction catalyzed by a certain enzyme(s) or enzyme-
producing cells and coupled with membrane separation. EMR has shown the ability to
improve the efficiency of enzyme-catalyzed bioconversion, increase product yield, and is eas-
ily scaled up for industrial purposes compared to conventional reactors. Especially in food
and pharmaceutical applications, EMR is used mostly for the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolytic
reactions to improve the product’s nutritional and functional properties, thus increasing their
economic values. In particular, this chapter focuses on the designs, membrane characteris-
tics, and applications of EMR in assorted fields to produce a product in single and multi-
phase systems.
The aspects of MRs in bioartificial organs are deeply discussed in Chapter 9 (Morelli,
Salerno, Piscioneri, and De Bartolo), where an overview of the application of membrane bio-
reactor technology to engineer bioartificial organs that can be used as extracorporeal devices
providing temporary support for patients with organ failure waiting for transplantation or as
implantable systems is provided. These devices can also offer an in vitro platform for drug
toxicity testing and studies. In detail, after a brief introduction on the critical issues in the
design of a membrane bioreactor to be used as a bioartificial organ, a summary of the trans-
port phenomena within the bioreactor by using computational modeling is reported, since
they have to be analyzed to optimize the overall operational conditions. Then, special atten-
tion is given to the membrane bioreactor devices used as bioartificial liver, bioartificial pan-
creas, and biomimetic model of the nervous system. The current status of their development
in in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as in clinical trials performed within the last decades is
also discussed.
Chapter 10 (Molinari, Lavorato, and Argurio) regards the photocatalytic MRs.
Heterogeneous photocatalysis is largely studied in the field of environment recovery by the
xx Preface
total degradation of organic and inorganic pollutants and for the synthesis of chemicals. In
this context, the chapter discusses the basic principles of photocatalysis together with both
the advantages and disadvantages related to its coupling with a membrane separation in
photocatalytic MRs. The types of membranes used and their criteria of selection are briefly
examined. On the base of their configuration and membrane operation, photocatalytic MRs
are used in reactions of photodegradation of pollutants and reactions of synthesis, evidenc-
ing as the appropriate choice of the configuration is a key step given large scale implementa-
tion. Some case studies in water treatment (i.e. pharmaceuticals removal) and the reaction
of synthesis (CO2 reduction) are discussed, evidencing potentialities, drawbacks, and future
trends.
In Chapter 11 (Millet), an overview of some electrochemical MRs of great practical inter-
est for the chemical industry and the energy transition is provided. First, the different types
of electrochemical reactors are categorized from general thermochemical considerations. In
detail: the general features of electrochemical membrane reactors are summarized, followed
by the diaphragms used with liquid electrolytes and then an ion-conducting polymer electro-
lyte used either directly or soaked in electrolytes is described. Moreover, solid oxides are
used as electrolytes and cell separators; and a few selected endergonic electrochemical pro-
cesses of industrial interest (water electrolysis, brine electrolysis, and electrodialysis) are
described. Various processes are described too, including limitations of current materials
together with some prospective issues.
A very important aspect of MRs is their modeling, which is discussed in Chapter 12
(Gallucci), where a few general models that can be used for membrane reactors are reported
and various examples of model results from the literature are also given. Although the list of
models is not exhaustive, most of the MRs reported in this book can be modeled with one of
the models proposed in this chapter. Of course, closure equations for kinetics and mem-
brane flux are presented for the examples reported in this chapter and should be changed
and verified by the users for their specific problems.
The books end with Chapter 13 (Gallucci) with a techno-economic analysis of MRs. As
said, MRs are often used as the advancement of existing technologies because, by integrating
reaction and separation in a single vessel, the efficiency of the systems/processes increases.
However, the real indicator that shows if the MR is outperforming a conventional system is
the final cost of the product, which can be calculated by using a techno-economic analysis.
In this chapter, a few examples of techno-economic studies of membrane reactors appearing
in literature in the last 5 years are shown.
The editors would like to take this opportunity to express their sincere gratitude to all the
contributors to this book, whose excellent support resulted in its successful completion. We
are grateful to them for the commitment and sincerity they have shown towards their contri-
butions. Without their enthusiasm and support, the compilation of this book would not have
been possible. Last but not least, we would also like to thank the publisher, in particular spe-
cial thanks to the responsible at Elsevier, Ivy Dawn C. Torre, Santos Veronica, Anita Koch,
Narmatha Mohan, and Kostas Marinakis, for their great help.
Fausto Gallucci
Angelo Basile
1
Introduction to membrane and
membrane reactors
Vincenzo Palma1, Marco Martino1, Eugenio Meloni1, Angelo Basile2,3
1
DEPARTME NT OF INDUSTRIAL E NGINEERING, UNIVERSITY O F S AL ERNO, FISCIANO, ITAL Y
2
HYDROGENIA, G ENOVA, ITALY 3 UNIT OF CHEMICAL-PHY SICS FUNDAMENTALS IN CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING, DEPART ME NT OF ENGINEERING, UNI VERSITY CAMP US BIO-ME DICAL OF
ROME , ROME, ITAL Y
1.1 Introduction and principles

According to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry recommendations, a
membrane is a “structure, having lateral dimensions much greater than its thickness,
through which mass transfer may occur under a variety of driving forces” [1]. A membrane
allows controlling the mass transfer between two adjacent fluid phases by acting as a sieve to
separate different species and controlling the relative rates of transport across the membrane
[2]. Through the membrane (Fig. 11), a fluid stream (retentate stream), is depleted of some
of its original components, to form another fluid stream (permeate stream), which is concen-
trated in these components. The driving force that regulates the transport process across the
membrane typically depends on a gradient of concentration, pressure, temperature, electric
potential, etc. [3].
The membrane can be used to continuously remove the products and increase the con-
version, thus overcoming the equilibrium limitations (Le Chatelier principle), or to increase
the selectivity by distributive feeding a reactant [5].
The membranes can be classified according to their nature (biological or synthetic), geometry,
and separation regime, as well as organic, inorganic, or organic/inorganic hybrids [5].
Biological membranes can be easily fabricated; however, they have many limitations,
including low temperatures of use, tolerance to a limited pH range, and susceptibility to
microbial attack [5]. Synthetic membranes can be organic or inorganic in nature; the organic
membranes are polymeric materials [6], such as polyamide or polystyrene and in some cases
can be used up to 300 C, while the inorganic membranes can be ceramic, such as zeolites or
oxides, or metallic, such as palladium or metal alloys, and show high stability in a wide range
of temperatures (up to 1000 C, in some cases) and tolerance to a broad pH range [7].
Inorganic membranes can also be classified based on pore diameter (dp) sizes, microporous
(dp , 2 nm), mesoporous (2 nm , dp . 50 nm), and macroporous (dp . 50 nm), and
Current Trends and Future Developments on (Bio-)Membranes. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823659-8.00008-3

© 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 Current Trends and Future Developments on (Bio-)Membranes
FIGURE 1–1 Conceptual scheme of a membrane reactor system [4].
FIGURE 1–2 The choice of membrane with respect to the size of particles [8].
current membrane processes include microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, gas and

vapor separation, and pervaporation (Fig. 12).
The latter mentioned process in the last two decades is finding an increasing application
in liquid hydrocarbons separations (petrochemical application, alcohol/ether separations),
removal of volatile organic compounds from water, removal of water from glycerin, and
dehydration to intensify esterification reaction [8]. Moreover, the metallic membranes can be
classified as supported and unsupported [5]. The supported dense membranes [9], obtained
by deposition of metallic layers on a porous support, such as alumina, silica, carbon, or zeo-
lite, are particularly interesting in the field of hydrogen production.
The mechanisms that regulate the mass transport through porous and dense membranes
are very different; in porous membranes, the mechanism depends on the porosity, while in
dense metallic membranes a solution-diffusion mechanism is effective [5].
The gas transport mechanisms through a porous membrane include molecular sieving,
Knudsen diffusion, capillary condensation, and laminar flow (e.g., Poiseuille flow), depend-
ing on the membrane pore size and diameter of gas molecules [10]. Different mechanisms of
gas transport through membranes are shown schematically in Fig. 13.
Chapter 1 • Introduction to membrane and membrane reactors 3
FIGURE 1–3 Diffusion mechanisms: (A) bulk flow through pores; (B) Knudsen diffusion through pores; (C) molecular
sieving; (D) solution diffusion through dense membranes [10].
The permeability (P) is a characteristic property of the membrane, and in the case of dense
membranes, it is proportional to solubility (S) and diffusivity (D), according to the Eq. (1.1) [11].
P5S3D (1.1)
The solubility is related to the affinity between the gas molecules and the membranes
materials, the diffusivity to the free volume, and the size of gases. The perm-selectivity (α)
depends on the operative conditions, including temperature and pressure, and has been
defined as the ratio between the permeability of two gases [12], according to the Eq. (1.2)
ρi
αði;jÞ 5 (1.2)
ρj
In the case of dense polymer membranes, the perm-selectivity can be also influenced by the
plasticization phenomenon [13], due to the physical dissolution of the penetrant gas in the poly-
mer matrix, which induces an increase in the segmental mobility of the polymer chains [14].
The gas permeance (Pe) depends on the gas permeability and the membrane thickness
(δ) according to the Eq. (1.3) [11].
Pe 5 P 3 δ (1.3)
The efficiency of the separation process is defined as the separation factor (SF), which is
related to the molar fractions of the components in the permeate (Xi,p, Xj,p) and feed stream
(Xi,f, Xj,f), according to the Eq. (1.4) [11]
xi;p =xj1 p
SF 5 (1.4)
xi1 f =xj;f
As mentioned above in the case of porous membranes, the mechanisms depend on the
size of the pores. When the mean pore diameter is larger than the mean free path of the fluid
molecules (macroporous materials) the Poiseuille flow (viscous flow) is operating (Fig. 14),
the collision between the molecules is more probable than the collision between the mole-
cules and the pore walls [15].
In the case of mesoporous materials, the molecules tend to collide more with the pore
walls than among themselves [16] (Fig. 14). When the mean pore diameter and the mean
free path of the fluid molecules are similar, the Knudsen mechanism occurs, and the flow
through the membrane is calculated according to Eq. (1.5) [17], where G is the geometrical
factor related to the membrane porosity and pore tortuosity.
GΔPi
Ji 5 1 (1.5)
lð2Mi RT Þ2
FIGURE 1–4 Mass transport mechanism inside porous materials and their perm-selectivity [4].
In the case of Knudsen diffusion, unlike the Poiseuille flow, the flow does not depend on
absolute pressure. In this case, the highest separation factor obtainable for a binary mixture,
when the vacuum is imposed on the permeate side, is equal to the square root of the ratio
between the molecular weights of the two different molecules, thus the smaller molecules
are transferred more intensively across the membrane [15]. When the molecules are physi-
sorbed or chemisorb on the pore walls, surface diffusion occurs [17], and selective transport
takes place, however, the adsorbed molecules reduce the pore size, hindering the further
transferring [15]. Capillary condensation takes place when one of the components condenses
within the pores, as a result of capillary forces, the condensate fills the pores and then evapo-
rates at the permeate side where low pressure is kept [15]. Multi-layer diffusion is considered
an intermediate flow regime between surface diffusion and capillary condensation [5,18]. In
the case of microporous materials, the mechanism is comparable to a molecular sieve, only
small molecules can permeate, making it possible to achieve very high selectivity [4]. It has
been demonstrated that the permeating flow through the microporous materials increases
with the temperature [19], according to Eq. (1.6).

2 Eact
J ~ J0 exp (1.6)
RT
where Eact is the apparent activation energy, ranging from 2 to 40 kJ/mol, depending on
micropore size and gas molecule size. Moreover, De Lange et al. [20] described the gas trans-
port and separation in microporous membrane materials, thus the activated transport may
be expressed according to the Eq. (1.7)
ρ12ε q 2 E
st i
J52 D0 kO exp (1.7)
l ε RT RT
where Do (m2/s) is the mean intrinsic diffusion coefficient for micropore diffusion, and ko is
the intrinsic Henry constant, the membrane porosity, l the membrane thickness, ρ the bulk
density, qst the isosteric heat adsorption, Ei the activation energy for gas species, R the uni-
versal gas constant, and T the temperature [4].
Pervaporation is a combination of permeation and evaporation, which consist of the sep-
aration of liquid mixtures (feed stream) by partial vaporization through a dense membrane,
therefore it is based on a liquid-vapor phase change [16], and the permeate stream is recov-
ered as vapor. The process consists of several phases, the liquid feed is heated up to the
operating temperature, then sent to the active side of the membrane, where the separation
occurs, and finally, the permeate vapor is continuously removed from the other side of the
membrane. The continuous removal of the permeate vapor generates a concentration gradi-
ent across the membrane which acts as the driving force of the process [21]. The mass trans-
fer of a specie across the membrane can be explained through a solution-desorption model
[16], which consists of three main steps: sorption of the permeating species at the feed side,
transport across the membrane according to the Fick’s law, and desorption at the permeate
side under vacuum [21] or a sweep gas [16] (Fig. 15A).
FIGURE 1–5 Schematic representation of pervaporation or vapor permeation process: (A) by vacuum; (B) by a
carrier gas. For pervaporation, the feed is liquid; for vapor permeation, the feed is vapor [16].
In addition to mass transfer, the change in the physical state of the permeate component
implies also heat transfer; the decreasing of the temperature brings to the decrease of the
partial pressure and consequently to the driving force of the mass transfer, so that some-
times, at industrial scale, upstream heat exchange is used to compensate [16].
Unlike gases, the adsorption from the liquid feed is almost independent of the pressure,
thus the driving force for the adsorption depends on the fugacity of the species (Eq. 1.8) [22].
f
f^ i 5 xl γ i pi (1.8)
where xi is the feed mole fraction, ɣi is the activity coefficient and pi is the saturated vapor
pressure. The fugacity increases with the temperature, moreover, in mixtures, the adsorption
selectivity seems to increase with the increase of the feed fugacity ratio [22].
Contrary to pervaporation, in vapor permeation the feed is a mixture of vapor and gases, there-
fore there happens no phase change and consequently, a non-heat supply is necessary. In this
case, the driving force is the chemical potential gradient due to the difference in the partial pressure
through the membranes, thus the separation is regulated by a solution diffusion mechanism [16].
Polymeric and zeolite membranes are used in pervaporation and vapor permeation pro-
cesses; while the most common applications are water removal from organics and vice-
versa, separation of organic mixtures, and concentration of aqueous solutions. The main
advantage of these processes resides in the possibility to easily separate azeotropic mixtures
or mixtures for which a high number of theoretical stages is required [21].
1.2 Membranes
As previously mentioned, membranes can be classified according to the materials, and the
choice of the type of membrane depends on the type of process in which they are to be used.
Polymeric membranes are particularly interesting due to their low cost, however, can be
used only at low temperatures, up to 150 C [6]. The separation process depends on several
parameters; however, the characteristics of the polymer play a crucial role. The polymers
used as membranes can be rubber or glassy, the former is usually high permeable for gases
but low selective, on the contrary, the latter is selective but lower permeable. The main phys-
icochemical factors influencing the gas permeability and permselectivity of the polymeric
membranes are the free volume of the polymer, the chains mobility, and the solubility of the
gas in the polymer [6]. The chain rigidity favors the permselectivity but is disadvantageous
for the permeability, as in the case of glassy polymers, however, to improve the permeability
an increase in the free volume can be beneficial. On the other hand, the high flexibility of
the polymer chain in the rubbery polymers allows the high permeability and high selectivity.
Glassy polymer membranes provide high mechanical resistance and good reproducibility;
however, they suffer from poor temperature resistance, surface corrosion, and swelling effect
due to plasticization phenomena. The most used glassy polymers are polysulfone, polyethersul-
fone, polyetherimide, and polyimide [11]. Rubbery polymers generally show a high affinity for
CO2 gas molecules; the most used polymers are poly(ethylene oxide)-based polymers, poly
(amide-6-b-ethylene oxide), poly(dimethylsiloxane), and polyvinyl amine [11]. Really attractive
are polymers from natural sources, the so-called bio-polymers, which are mostly synthesized by
living organisms, and are biodegradable, compostable, and environmentally sustainable [11].
The most interesting examples are:
• Cellulose acetate, a glassy polymer commercialized in the 1980s, is used for CO2
separation.
• Thermoplastic starch, obtained from plants, including potatoes, corn, etc., is used for
packaging applications.
• Cross-linked chitosan, obtained by deacetylation of chitin, is used in water treatment
processes.
• Polylactic acid, is used in packaging applications and tissue engineering.
• Polyhydroxyalkanoates, obtained by microbial fermentation, are characterized by
hydrophobicity, optical purity, and high processability.
• Polyvinyl alchol, is characterized by high hydrophilicity and good barrier properties.
• Polyurethane, is obtainable from plant oil, such as castor or soybean oil. PUs possess
good physical and tensile strength, chemical resistance, and mechanical properties.
Inorganic membranes consist of metals, oxides carbon, or elementary carbon, they are
highly selective and permeable and can operate in severe operative conditions [23].
Although more expensive, inorganic membranes present several advantages compared to
polymeric ones: a well-defined stable pore structure, high mechanical stability, and thermal
and solvent resistance [5]. The main categories of inorganic membranes are:
• Metal membranes are categorized as dense or porous; most are characterized by a
gradient composite structure of the metal, metal oxide, or metal alloy, the most used
metals are Pd, Ag, their alloys, and steel. The unsupported membranes are made with
pure metal, while the supported membranes are made by coating with a metal or metal
oxide on the primary structure which is a porous metal [24]. Metal membranes are used
for gas separation, and food, drug, and beverage applications.
• Ceramic membranes are based on alumina, silica, or titanium oxide; they are inert and
stable at high temperatures and possess high permeability and moderate selectivity. They
are particularly suitable for food, biotechnology, and pharmaceutical applications [5],
silica and silica, and functionalized ceramic membranes are used for hydrogen
production and separation [25]. Among the negative aspects related to their use, there are
membrane sealing problems in high-temperature modules, cracking problems related to
temperature gradients, and low chemical stability of perovskite-type materials [5].
• Zeolite membranes are based on microporous crystalline alumina silicate, usually
obtained by direct growth on a porous ceramic or metal support. The synthesis is usually
carried out by hydrothermal treatments in the presence of an organic structure-directing
agent, which allows for controlling the shape and size of the pores [26]. The molecular
sieving action, the large surface area, and the controllable interaction host-sorbate are
considered the main advantages of using zeolite membranes, moreover, the possibility to
combine catalytic activity and separation capability is an attractive feature. Zeolite
membranes are used as catalysts and sensors for the separation of gas and/or liquids [27].
The main drawbacks of using zeolite membranes are the low gas flux compared to the
other inorganic membranes and the low thermal stability of the zeolite layer, which can
expand with the temperature [5].
• Carbon membranes are composed of microporous, amorphous high-carbon materials,
can be produced by thermal treatment of a wide variety of polymer precursors, and can
be supported (flat or tube) and unsupported (flat, capillary, or hollow fiber). The hollow
fiber present a high separation performance, high packing density, and low cost,
however, the brittleness makes it difficult to handle, so supported carbon membranes are
preferable [28]. The supported membranes are fabricated by the carbonization of a
polymeric precursor layer on resistant support. Carbon membranes can be used in gas
separation for CO2, N2, and H2 removal, however, the selectivity strongly depends on the
precursor used for the fabrication. Although the use of carbon membranes is very
promising, it still appears to be immature; the problems of fragility and the optimization
of preparation methods constitute a limit to their use.
1.3 Membrane bioreactors

A membrane bioreactor (MBR) can be defined as a space in which a biochemical transfor-
mation and a membrane separation process occur [29]. In MBR, the membrane can be
used for different purposes, such as adding a reactant or for selectively removing one of the
reaction products [30]. Moreover, membranes can be utilized to retain the biocatalyst or act
as the support for the biocatalyst, or the separation of enzymes by size exclusion [31]. MBR
processes are characterized by several advantages, including small footprint, lower sludge
production, low maintenance, consistency in effluent water quality independent of sludge

properties in the bioreactor, and higher removal of organic matters, nutrients, and persis-
tent organic pollutants in comparison to conventional activated sludge processes [29].
However, membrane fouling is one of the most significant disadvantages of an MBR, since
it reduces both water quality and quantity and increases the operating costs by 60%, which
is mainly consumed by the air scouring process used for membrane-fouling mitigation. In
the last decades, MBRs have been used for different applications, including (i) food and bio-
fuel production, (ii) amino acids, antibiotics, proteins, and fine chemicals manufacturing,
(iii) removal of pollutants, (iv) wastewater treatment [30]. In any case, the main application
of MBRs in the treatment of industrial, municipal, and domestic wastewater. In fact, only in
Europe, more than 400 full industrial-scale MBRs have been built, and with a perspective to
have more be built. In literature different configurations of MBRs are present, all having the
same main objective of maximizing the selective separation of the biocatalyst (microorgan-
isms, or enzymes) from the substrate or products, so resulting in maximum efficiency of
the bioreactor. Depending on the configuration, enzymes can be free to move on the reten-
tate side (reaction media) or immobilized on the surface of a membrane, or fixed within the
porous membrane support. In this respect, MBRs can be divided into two main categories:
(i) a traditional stirred tank reactor coupled to a membrane separation unit, and (ii) bioca-
talysts such as enzymes, microorganisms, and antibodies are immobilized on membranes.
Moreover, MBRs can be subdivided into two reactors generations: the first one named
side-stream MBRs (sMBRs), and the second one named immersed MBRs (iMBR)s. In the for-
mer, the membrane module is located outside the reactor (Fig. 16A), to reduce cake forma-
tion on its membrane and is suitable for applications in biotechnology. In this configuration,
the sludge from the MBR is pumped into the membrane module, where the permeate forms
via a pressure-driven filtration process. The concentrated sludge stream from the membrane
module will then return to the bioreactor.
FIGURE 1–6 Basic MBR configurations: (A) side-stream or sMBR and (B) immersed MBR or iMBR [30].
In the latter (Fig. 16B), membranes are submerged inside the reaction media, a circula-
tion pump is required, and aeration will create a crossflow. However, trans-membrane pres-
sure still needs to be created. This configuration was developed in the late 1980s in Japan to
significantly lower the energy demand of the MBR process for wastewater treatment.
However, in this configuration fouling can happen if no preventive measure (e.g., cleaning
the membrane surface by aeration) is considered.
One more possibility for dividing MBRs is based on the aeration strategy being utilized
in the unit. In this respect, two main categories of MBRs can be found: Aerobic Membrane
Bioreactors (AMBRs) and Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors (AnMBRs). Inside an AMBR,
aeration has the two main purposes of (i) supplying O2 to microorganisms, and (ii) keeping
the surfaces of membranes clean through a scouring process. When an immersed configu-
ration is used, a diffuser is placed at the bottom of the bioreactor, so allowing the right aer-
ation. While coarser bubbles help with the better scouring of the membrane surface, finer
bubbles will create smaller resistance for O2 to be transferred from air bubbles to H2O. One
important aspect regarding the scouring of the membranes is that this phenomenon is
mainly done in the immersed configuration, but it is also present in the side-stream cross-
flow configuration. When an anaerobic process is used, and depending on the process, the
membrane can be cleaned by other gases, including N2, Ar, or recovered CH4 from the
reaction zone.
1.4 Combination of membranes and catalytic reactions

A membrane reactor, shown in Fig. 11, is a device that coupling a membrane separation or
distribution process and a chemical reaction in a single unit can allow a high degree of pro-
cess intensification [32]. In the last years, several experimental and modeling research papers
have evidenced the superior performance of MRs for a wide range of applications and vari-
ous operating conditions [33]. One of the main advantages of MRs is the possibility to per-
form reactions under milder operating conditions, obtaining higher product selectivities [34].
Among the high literature production in this field, the main part of research papers studies
in recent years has investigated different aspects of MRs for various reaction systems, ranging
from the production of hydrogen as well as chemicals and pharmaceuticals to wastewater
treatment and CO2 abatement [3039]. Other typical catalytic processes which have been
integrated with membranes include photocatalysis, catalytic ozonation, electrochemical oxi-
dation, and Fenton or Fenton-like processes [40,41]. Particularly important in the last years
have been gained by photocatalytic membrane reactors (PMR), which through the use of
immobilized photocatalysts play an important role in process intensification strategies; this
approach offers a simple solution to the typical catalyst recovery problem of photocatalytic
processes and, by simultaneous filtration and photocatalysis of the aqueous streams, facili-
tates clean water production in a single unit [42]. A typical classification of PMRs distin-
guishes between the catalyst being suspended in solution and the catalyst being immobilized
on the membrane (IPMR), as shown in [42] (Fig. 17).
FIGURE 1–7 Photocatalytic membrane reactor configurations A and B suspended in solution photocatalytic
membrane reactors (SPMR), (A): Membrane module inside the reactor; (B): Membrane module outside the reactor;
(CE) immobilized in a membrane photocatalytic membrane reactors (IPMR) (C): a membrane with support
function; (D) (dead-end configuration) and (E) (cross-flow configuration) of a membrane with simultaneous support
and filtration function [42].
Among the different types of MRs, Catalytic Membrane Reactors (CMRs) are a good
choice to develop efficient and safe catalytic reactions [43,44]. CMRs are defined as devices
with catalytic perm-selective membranes or made with an ordinary membrane with a cata-
lyst deposited in or on it, and membranes can be of either polymeric or inorganic nature.
The use of inorganic membranes is generally preferred in CMRs since harsh conditions,
which include high temperature, high pressure, and the existence of corrosive gases or solu-
tions (including both basic and acidic solutions), may occur. In these hard conditions, inor-
ganic membranes, which are typically ceramic membranes (e.g., metal oxides), show higher
(i) chemical and thermal stability, (ii) fouling resistance, (iii) mechanical strength, and (iv)
lifetime compared with polymeric membranes [45]. A possible scheme of an inorganic mem-
brane reactor (in this case, a fluidized bed membrane reactor for hydrogen production) is
shown in Fig. 18.
The use of catalytic membranes can also allow a high process intensification devoted to a
consistent reduction in equipment/energy cost, as well as to enhancing process efficiency.
One example is the possibility to obtain in CMRs product separation degrees higher than
that permitted by thermodynamic equilibrium limitations in several reactions (e.g., esterifica-
tion, acetalization, hydrogenation/dehydrogenation, and water-gas shift reaction). In such a
way, higher conversions can be obtained. One more example is the enhancement of reac-
tions in which there is a problem of selectivities (as in the case of several consecutive
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II
THE NATURE OF POLITICAL CORRUPTION
In the whole vocabulary of politics it would be difficult to point out any

single term that is more frequently employed than the word
“corruption.” Party orators and writers, journalists, “muck rakers,” and
reformers all use it with the utmost freedom, and it occurs not
uncommonly in the less ephemeral pages of political philosophers
and historians. Transactions and conditions of very different kinds
are stigmatised in this way, in many cases doubtless with entire
justice; but apparently there is little disposition to inquire into the
essential nature of corruption itself and to discriminate in the use of
the word.
Detailed definitions of corrupt practices and bribery are, of course,
to be found in every highly developed legal code, but these are
scarcely broad enough to cover the whole concept as seen from the
viewpoint of political science or ethics. The sanctions of positive law
are applied only to those more flagrant practices which past
experience has shown to be so pernicious that sentiment has
crystallised into statutory prohibitions and adverse judicial decisions.
Even within this comparatively limited circle clearness and precision
are but imperfectly attained. Popular disgust is frequently expressed
at the ineptitude of the law’s definitions and the deviousness of the
law’s procedure, as a result of which prosecutions of notoriously
delinquent officials, politicians, and contractors so often and so
ignominiously fail in the courts. If once we step outside the circle of
legality, however, we find extremely confused, conflicting, and even
unfair states of moral opinion regarding corruption. Public anger at
some exposed villainy of this sort is apt to be both blind and
exacting. Reform movements directed against corrupt abuses are no
more free than are regular political organisations from partisan
misrepresentation and partisan passion. With all their faults,
however, it is largely from such forces and movements that we must
expect not only higher standards of public morality, but also a clearer
and more comprehensive legislative and judicial treatment of corrupt
practices in the future. For this reason it would seem to be desirable,
if possible, to formulate some fairly definite concept of corruption,
broader than the purely legal view of the subject and applicable in a
general way to the protean forms which evil of this sort assumes in
practice.
Certain verbal difficulties must first be cleared away. Chief among
these, perhaps, is the extreme levity with which the word is bandied
about. One word, indeed, is not sufficient, and a number of slang
equivalents and other variants must needs be pressed into service:
graft, boodle, rake-off, booty, loot, spoils, and so on. With all due
recognition of recent achievements in the way of gathering and
presenting evidence, it is lamentably apparent that charges of
corruption are still very frequently brought forward, by party men and
reformers alike, on slight grounds or no grounds at all, and also that
in many of these cases no intention exists of pushing either
accusation or defence to a point where a thorough threshing-out of
the matter at issue is possible. In “practical politics” insinuations of
the blackest character are made jestingly, and they are ignored or
passed off with a shrug or a smile, provided only that they be not of
too pointed or too personal a character. Very serious evils may follow
reckless mudslinging of this sort. Even if the charges are looked
upon as the natural and harmless exuberances of our current
political warfare, their constant repetition tends to blur the whole
popular conception of corruption. Insensibly the conviction gains
ground that practices which are asserted to be so common can
scarcely be wholly bad, since public life goes on without apparent
change and private prosperity seems unaffected. If, on the other
hand, the current accusations of corruption are to be taken at
anything like their face value, it becomes difficult to avoid the
pessimism that sees nothing but rottenness in our social
arrangements and despairs of all constructive reform with present
materials.
A second verbal point that demands attention is the metaphorical
character of the word corruption. Even when it is distinctly qualified
as political or business or social corruption, the suggestion is subtly
conveyed of organic corruption and of everything vile and repugnant
to the physical senses which the latter implies. It need not be
charged that such implications are purposely cultivated: indeed they
are so obvious and common that their use by this time has become a
matter of habit. Witness in current writing the frequent juxtaposition
of the word corruption, used with reference to social phenomena,
with such words as slime, filth, sewage, stench, tainted, rottenness,
gangrene, pollution, and the frequent comparison of those who are
supposed to profit by such corruption to vultures, hyenas, jackals,
and so on. Side by side with the levity already criticised we
accordingly find a usage which, however exaggerated and rhetorical
it may be, appears to indicate a strong popular feeling against what
are deemed to be corrupt practices.
Escape from such confusion can hardly come from the accepted
formulas of the dictionaries. Their descriptions or periphrases of
corruption are in general much too broad for use in exact discussion.
Bribery, indeed, is defined with sufficient sharpness by the Century
Dictionary as
“a gift or gratuity bestowed for the purpose of influencing the action
or conduct of the receiver; especially money or any valuable
consideration given or promised for the betrayal of a trust or the
corrupt performance of an allotted duty, as to a fiduciary agent, a
judge, legislator or other public officer, a witness, a voter, etc.”
Corruption, however, is by no means synonymous with bribery. The
latter is narrower, more direct, less subtle. There can be no bribe-
taker without a bribe-giver, but corruption can and frequently does
exist even when there are no personal tempters or guilty
confederates. A legislator may be approached by a person
interested in a certain corporation and may be promised a definite
reward for his favourable vote on a measure clearly harmful to the
public interest but calculated to benefit the corporation concerned. If
the bargain be consummated it is unquestionably a case of bribery,
and the action involved is also corrupt. But, if current reports are to
be believed, it sometimes happens that legislators, acting wholly on
their own initiative and regardless of their duty to the state, vote
favourably or unfavourably on pending bills, endeavouring at the
same time to profit financially by their action, or by their knowledge
of the resultant action of the body to which they belong, by
speculation in the open market. In the latter instance they have not
been approached by a personal tempter, and the brokers whom they
employ to buy or sell may be ignorant of the motives or even of the
identity of their patrons. Clearly this is not bribery, but equally clearly
it is corrupt. The distinction is perhaps sufficiently important to justify
the coinage of the term “auto-corruption” to cover cases of the latter
sort.[15] Corruption in the widest sense of the term would then
include both bribery and auto-corruption, and may be defined as the
intentional misperformance or neglect of a recognised duty, or the
unwarranted exercise of power,[16] with the motive of gaining some
advantage more or less directly personal.
It will be observed that none of the terms of the foregoing definition
necessarily confines corruption to the field of politics. This is
intentional. Corruption is quite as possible elsewhere as in the state.
That it has so frequently been discussed as peculiarly political is by
no means proof that government is subject to it in a greater degree
than other social organisations. One might rather conclude that the
earlier discovery and more vigorous denunciation of corruption as a
political evil showed greater purgative virtue in the state than in other
spheres of human activity. For surely the day is gone by when the
clamour of reformers was all for a “business administration” of public
affairs. Since that era business has had to look sharply to its own
morals—in insurance, in public utilities, in railroads, in corporate
finance, and elsewhere. Revelations in these fields have made it
plain that much of the impetus to wrong-doing in the political sphere
comes originally from business interests. This is not to be taken as in
any sense exculpating the public officials concerned; it simply
indicates the guilt of the business man as particeps criminis with the
politician. Moreover business can and does suffer from forms of
corruption which are peculiar to itself and which in no way involve
political turpitude. Such offences range all the way from the sale by a
clerk of business secrets to a rival concern, and the receipt of
presents or gratuitous entertainment from wholesalers by the buyers
for retail firms, up to the juggling of financial reports by directors, the
mismanagement of physical property by insiders who wish to buy out
small stockholders, and the investment of insurance or other trust
funds to the private advantage of managerial officers.
Besides business and politics, other spheres of social activity are
subject to corrupt influences. Indeed wherever and whenever there
is duty to be shirked or improperly performed for motives of more or
less immediate advantage evil of this sort may enter in. This is the
case with the church, the family, with educational associations,
clubs, and so on throughout the whole list of social organisations. To
ingratiate himself with wealthy or influential parishioners, for
example, a minister may suppress convictions which his duty to God
and religion requires him to express. A large proportion of the cases
of divorce, marital infidelity, and childless unions, reflect the
operation of corrupt influences upon our family life. In the struggle for
endowments and bequests colleges and universities have at times
forgotten some of their high ideals. If corrupt motives play a smaller
part in the social organisations just mentioned than in politics or
business it is perhaps not so much due to the finer fibre of
churchmen, professors, and the like, as to the subjection of the more
grossly gainful to other motives in clerical, educational, and similar
circles.
While the possibility of corruption is thus seen to be extremely
broad, our present concern is chiefly with political corruption. To
adjust the definition hazarded above to cover the latter case alone it
is necessary only to qualify the word “duty” by the phrase “to the
state.” Further discussion of the various terms of the definition, thus
amended, would seem advisable.
I. To begin with, corruption is intentional. The political duty involved

is perceived, but it is neglected or misperformed for reasons
narrower than those which the state intends. Failure to meet a
recognised duty is not necessarily corrupt; it may be due to simple
inefficiency. The corrupt official must know the better and choose the
worse; the inefficient official does not know any better. In either case
the external circumstances may appear to be closely similar, and the
immediate results may be equally harmful. No doubt what is often
denounced in the United States as corruption is mere official
stupidity, particularly in those spheres of administration still filled by
amateurs and dominated by the “rotation of office” theory. Thus a
purchasing official unfamiliar with his duties may prove the source of
large profits to unscrupulous dealers. So far as the official himself is
concerned no private advantage may be sought or gained, but the
public interest suffers just the same. In another case the official
understands the situation thoroughly and takes advantage of it by
compelling the dealers to divide with him the amount by which the
government is being defrauded, or he may go into business with the
aid of office boys or relatives and sell to himself as purchasing agent.
The latter are clear cases of bribery and auto-corruption respectively,
but so far as immediate results are concerned the state is no worse
off than with the official who was merely ignorant or careless. To one
not in full possession of the underlying facts all three cases may
appear very similar.
Successful corruption, however, tends to become insatiable, and
in the long run the state may suffer far more from it and from the
spread of the bad moral example which it involves than it can easily
suffer from simple inefficiency. On the other hand inefficiency also
may spread by imitation, although perhaps more slowly, since it is
not immediately profitable, until the whole service of government is
weakened. Moreover inefficiency may develop by a very natural
process into thoroughgoing corruption. If not too stupid, the
incapable official may come to see the advantages which others are
deriving from his incapacity and may endeavour to participate in
them. Because of his failure to obtain promotion so rapidly as his
more efficient fellow-servants, he may be peculiarly liable to the
temptation to get on by crooked courses. Practically, therefore,
inefficiency and corruption are apt to be very closely connected—a
fact which civil service reformers have long recognised. It would also
seem that the two are very closely connected in their essential
nature, and only a very qualified assent can be given to the doctrine
that inefficiency, as commonly understood, is morally blameless. To
be so considered the incapable person must be entirely unaware of
his inability to measure up to the full requirement of duty. In any
other event he is consciously and intentionally ministering to a
personal interest, be it love of ease or desire to retain an income
which he does not earn, to the neglect of the public duties with which
he is intrusted. Now, according to the definition presented above, this
attitude is unquestionably corrupt. It is, however, so common on the
part of both officeholders and citizens that its corruptness is seldom
recognised.
II. Political duty must exist or there is no possibility of being

corruptly unfaithful to it. This statement may seem a truism, but the
logical consequences to be drawn from it are of major importance.
Among other things it follows that the more widely political duties are
diffused the more widespread are the possibilities of corruption. A
government which does not rest upon popular suffrage may be a
very bad sort of government in many ways, but it will not suffer from
vote-buying. To carry this thought out fully let us assume an absolute
despotism in which the arbitrary will of the ruler is the sole source of
power.[17] In such a case it is manifestly impossible to speak of
corruption. By hypothesis the despot owes no duty to the state or to
his subjects. Philosophers who defend absolute government
naturally lay great stress on the monarch’s duty to God, but this
argument may be read out of court on the basis of Mencius’s dictum
that Heaven is merely a silent partner in the state. The case is not
materially altered when responsibility under natural law is insisted
upon instead of to the Deity. Now since an absolute despot is bound
to no tangible duty, he cannot be corrupt in any way. If in the conduct
of his government he takes account of nothing but the grossest of his
physical lusts he is nevertheless not unfaithful to the principles on
which that government rests. Viewed from a higher conception of the
state his rule may be unspeakably bad, but the accusation of
corruption does not and cannot hold against it.
Conversely corruption necessarily finds its richest field in highly
organised political communities which have developed most fully the
idea of duty and which have intrusted its performance to the largest
number of officials and citizens. The modern movement toward
democracy and responsible government, beneficent as its results in
general have been, has unquestionably opened up greater
opportunities for evil of this sort than were ever dreamed of in the
ancient and mediæval world. Economic evolution has co-operated
with political evolution in the process. There is a direct and well-
recognised relationship between popular institutions and the growth
of wealth. It is no mere coincidence that those countries which have
the most liberal governments are also to-day the richest countries of
the world. With their growth in wealth, particularly where wealth is
distributed very unequally, materialistic views of life have gained
ground rapidly. Thus while the liberal development in politics has
opened up wide new areas to the possibility of corruption, the
corresponding development in the economic world has strengthened
the forces of temptation.
Viewed in this light it must be admitted that our representative
democracy with its great international obligations, its increasing
range of governmental functions, its enormous and unequally
distributed wealth and its intense materialism, is peculiarly subject to
corrupt influence. This does not necessarily mean that the republic is
destined to be overwhelmed by selfishness. It does mean, however,
that we cannot rest secure upon the moral achievements of our
ancestors and the institutions which they have transmitted to us. We
must develop a more robust virtue, capable of resisting the greater
pressure that is brought to bear upon it.
But even if it be conceded that there is a greater measure of
successful temptation among us than in the European nations which
twit us with corruption as our national vice, it does not follow that we
are inferior in political morality to these, our self-appointed moral
censors. Reverting to the illustration of vote-buying, it is evident that
we could stop this particular form of corruption at once by the simple
and obvious, although practically impossible, measure of abolishing
popular suffrage. Assuming, for the sake of the argument, that this
could be accomplished, we might readily find ourselves burdened
with greater political evils than venal voting—for instance, the
development of an arrogant oligarchy and the growth either of a
sodden indifferentism or of a violent revolutionary spirit among the
masses. A large percentage of Prussian citizens of the poorer
classes sullenly refrain from voting, nor are they in the habit of
selling their votes. Presumably some of them would be venal if they
had the opportunity, but the plutocratic three-class election system
makes their political influence so minimal that their ballots are not
worth either the casting or the buying. Neither do Prussian municipal
officials engage in boodling, but the ascription of superior virtue to
them on this account must be tempered by a knowledge of the fact
that the local government of the country is kept closely in leading
strings by the state. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is none the less
true that political corruption implies the existence of political virtue; it
implies trust in the performance of duty, widespread obligation to
perform it, and confidence that in the great majority of cases it will be
performed in spite of the derelictions that such conditions
occasionally entail. If monarchies are less corrupt than democracies,
it is also true that monarchies do not repose so much faith in the
fundamental honesty of their citizens as do democracies. At least
they do not put it to such severe political tests.
III. In attempting to define corruption, emphasis was laid upon the

condition that the duty misperformed or neglected for personal
reasons must be recognised. The latter word needs further
elucidation. Political duties are defined at great length, of course, in
constitutions, laws, and charters. Yet with all our care in providing
laws to govern our governors it cannot be maintained that political
duty is always so clear as to be easily recognisable. It may indeed
be the case that we have at times clouded the situation by the very
number and complexity of our legislative acts. Able lawyers
frequently differ, for instance, in their views regarding the powers and
limitations affecting the action of a mayor under a city charter in a
given case. Again, the amount of work required of limited bodies of
men is sometimes so great that its full performance is physically
impossible, even if we assume perfect comprehension and perfect
efficiency on their part. Thus our municipal police forces, it is often
asserted, are quite insufficient to execute all the laws and ordinances
which it is their duty to enforce. The discretion which they must
therefore exercise is an extremely dangerous one, and the
continuance of its exercise, suggesting the possibility of suppressing
this or that law for personal reasons, is very apt to be provocative of
corrupt manipulation.
Apart from the difficulty of clearly perceiving duty, owing to the
number and complexity of our legal requirements, certain degrees of
difficulty, varying with the nature of the political service required,
deserve consideration. A public official whose work is purely
administrative and ministerial would supposedly have a relatively
clear path before him. Deflection from it should be easily
recognisable and punishable. Thus the making of inspections or the
granting of permits by authorised officials would seem to be too open
for corrupt influences to tamper with. Yet even here the complexities
and volume of the business presented and the material interests
involved lead to many dishonest practices, as shown in the granting
of liquor licenses and building permits, the inspection of life-saving
devices, and so on. Judicial authorities have statutes and precedents
to guide them, but every new case presents peculiar circumstances
which may furnish opportunity or concealment for a sinister
deflection. When we come to superior executive officers who are
intrusted with large discretionary powers, and to legislators whose
main function is the determination of policy, it is evident that the path
of duty is frequently indefinite. To officials so situated personal
advantages may offer themselves on both sides of a given question.
Amid so complicated a play of motives as must assail these
authorities, it becomes at times a matter of almost infinite difficulty to
distinguish and disentangle those more or less remotely personal
and venal and to give proper weight to those only that make for the
welfare of the state.
In discussing the question of the clearness with which duty
presents itself we have thus far assumed that relatively exact
positive norms are available. The question is greatly complicated,
however, by the reflection that we must deal not only with the law but
also with the prophets. What of those who, like the socialists, dream
of a future state to which they owe allegiance rather than to the
present state? Or of those whose elevation to power, as not
infrequently happens under representative government, is due to a
certain class in the community, the ideals of which they feel bound to
support, be they levelling or aristocratic? Assuming that officials or
voters of this kind seek no personal advantage whatever, the
accusation of corruption would not hold against them, although those
injured by their action would most certainly make such charges.
On the other hand advanced reformers do not hesitate to charge
with corruption many existing social institutions of apparent solidity.
Periods of confusion in constitutional arrangements, as Professor H.
J. Ford has pointed out,[18] are apt to be corrupt, or at least filled with
charges of corruption. Doubtless the same observation would hold
true for periods of class feeling or moral unsettlement, which, after
all, are only the precursors of constitutional reform. At times when all
kinds of conflicting views of duty are current, it is of course easy for
different individuals and classes to form extremely divergent views of
the morality or immorality of given acts or institutions. Thus, among
us, property of various sorts and property in general, government in
certain forms or in all forms, marriage, the church, medicine, and
law, and those who represent them, are all denounced by small or
large groups as graft and grafters. And indeed one need not be a
thoroughgoing radical to observe that in some instances narrow and
selfish interests have crept into these institutions, warped their
highest ideals and crippled their efficiency. There seems to be little
justification, however, for the employment of the word corruption in
such sweeping fashion. Those who so employ it cannot pretend that
any general consensus of moral opinion supports their usage. No
doubt many propositions for social change which are now
considered extremely radical will gradually gain converts and will
ultimately be enacted into law; but not all reforms can appeal
unerringly to the future for justification. Institutions hotly assailed in
times past have not infrequently outlived their detractors and
developed new possibilities of social utility. The formation of modern
nationality itself wore the appearance of corruption to many
contemporary observers. With all due respect for unfledged reforms,
we may fitly remind their advocates that the force of a hard and
stinging word like corruption is materially weakened by employing it
in senses familiar only to the members of a small circle. Such
reckless usage is similar to that of the party politicians criticised
above, and it is similarly adapted to produce either a callous levity or
a sour distrust of social integrity which in the end must react
unfavourably upon every constructive effort for social betterment.
IV. The motive of a corrupt act must be some advantage more or

less directly personal. The grosser the nature of the advantage
sought and the more directly selfish the purpose, the worse from the
moral point of view is the transaction. Thus in the case of venal
voters or boodling aldermen we have direct transfers of money or its
equivalent, to be employed later, it may be, solely to the advantage
of the men who sell themselves. Or still more reprehensible, high
police officials or even mayors of cities may be in receipt of sums
which they know were paid originally by criminals or prostitutes for
license to disobey the law. Perhaps we are too prone to think of all
political corruption as consisting essentially of such gross cases and
sordid transactions. In one way it is unfortunate that this is not the
case, for, if it were, the task of defining and uprooting the evil by law
would be comparatively easy. As a matter of fact we have to deal
with every possible nuance of corruption, shading off from the most
palpably illegal and immoral acts to apparently harmless transactions
that are of everyday occurrence even in circles that would hotly deny
the least imputation of wrong-doing.
Let us consider first the various gradations of corrupt action with
reference to the advantages offered and sought. There are crassly
venal persons, of course, whose itching palms are held open to
receive cash bribes, but after all these are the small and stupid
minority of the army of corruptionists. Many who would scorn a direct
bribe are, however, quite willing to accept considerations more
tactfully offered but almost as purely material in character—shares of
stock, railroad passes, salaried positions, etc. In pointing out the
distinction between bribery and corruption, the large possibilities of
“auto-corruption” have been touched upon. The absence of a
personal tempter seems very often to veil the real nature of a corrupt
act, and contemporary usage completes the illusion of innocence.
Tax-dodging is a case in point. Here the citizen is seeking, not a
bribe, of course, but merely to cut down as far as possible an
inevitable deduction from his income. He may depend upon his
political influence, his friendship with assessors, his contributions to
campaign funds, or upon the misrepresentation of facts in obtaining
the reduction, but he would refuse indignantly to offer a cash bribe to
secure action which he knew would be disadvantageous to the
government. He might refuse with equal heat to accept a cash bribe
to secure his continued allegiance to a party or his continued support
of particular politicians. It hardly occurs to him that in a sense he is
bribing himself with a part of his own income. Of course this case
leaves open the question of the justice of the tax and of the failure of
the state to provide suitable technical safeguards to prevent evasion.
Unjust or ill-constructed tax laws do not, indeed, justify corrupt action
on the part of individuals, but they do transfer part of the moral guilt
to the state. Other instances of veiled corruption readily suggest
themselves—the intrigues of banks to secure the deposit of public
funds, the devices employed to escape tenement-house, sanitary, or
life-saving inspections, the appropriation by officials of government
supplies or services as “perquisites” of office, and so on.[19]
Besides material inducements almost every object of human
desire may tempt to corrupt action. Social position, personal
reputation, office, power, the favour of women, the gratification of
revenge—all these have been artfully adapted by corruptionists to
bear with the greatest weight upon the tempted individual. Far more
often, however, temptations of this kind originate within. They are the
more dangerous because they prevail with men of much higher type
than venal voters or boodling aldermen. But it will be objected that
these are not necessarily objects of corrupt desire; that on the
contrary they are currently recognised as part of the necessary
driving power of political and other human activities, and praised as
such by contemporaries and historians alike. The point is well taken
in so far as it is maintained that such rewards are not necessarily
sought by corrupt means. So far as that is concerned, the money
which a corrupt legislator accepts is not bad in itself, nor need it be
put by him to other than very creditable uses. The major evil lies in
the deflection from duty which the money bought, in the resultant
deterioration of character and in the contagion of bad example.
Precisely the same thing may be said of the so-called higher objects
of desire to gain which men sell their political honour. This distinction
goes far toward disposing of the objection that such motives are not
corrupt because they are currently recognised as necessary and
beneficial in political life. So far as their effect is the reinforcement of
the influences which make for the performance of public duty there is
no reason why they should not be regarded as good. To regard them
in the same way when they have a directly contrary moral effect is a
pernicious perversion of a true idea.
Nevertheless the fact must be faced that the public conscience is
often deceived on this point; and that as a consequence practices
are tolerated which will not bear the most cursory moral inspection.
Sometimes these practices become so common that all
consciousness of wrong-doing is lost. On this ground it might be
maintained with reason that they are not corrupt according to the
conventional morality of the time. It is this condition of affairs which
makes the subtler aspects of corruption so much more dangerous
and so much less easy to cope with than common bribery. Yet even
here the outlook is hopeful. Corruption in its more insidious forms is
not the vice of low intellects. Hence in many cases education of the
public conscience will either suffice to banish these forms of evil or
may be depended upon to find the legal means of destroying them.
Our own recent experience with the abolition of railroad passes is a
case in point, although passes can hardly be considered an
extremely subtle means of corruption.
Corruptionists usually offer rewards of one kind or another to those
whom they wish to make their tools. What if the same end is
compassed by means of threats or injuries? Obviously the latter may
be far more potent in a given case than the most alluring promises.
Sometimes the two are employed together, enormous bribes being
offered for compliance, and political, social, or financial ruin
threatened for recalcitrance. Coercion of the latter sort may be used
either to procure corrupt action or to check honest action. It is related
of Governor Folk that shortly after he embarked upon his relentless
prosecution of the St. Louis boodlers, the latter combined and
employed detectives to delve into every act of his life from the time
of his boyhood in Tennessee up to his election as Circuit Attorney.
Absolutely nothing was developed that could be used against him.
The incident is suggestive, however, of what may have happened in
the case of other men who desired to be honest politically but were
handicapped by the fear of some forgotten scandal, perhaps of a
purely personal character, in their past lives. Thus the strength of the
moral condemnation visited by our society upon offences of a certain
sort may become the most potent weapon in the hands of an
unscrupulous boss or clique. The question remains whether the
neglect or misperformance of duty procured by threats or injuries
comes properly under the definition of corruption. The case is similar
to admitted corruption in that both involve the idea of personal
advantage. Morally, however, it would seem more reprehensible to
seek or accept something desirable as the price of disregarding
public duty than to disregard it under the threat of deprivation of
some advantage already secured by honest effort. In the latter case
the individual who is coerced may deserve some sympathy, but the
individual who uses coercion adds a very ugly form of blackmail to
the general guilt of his act. Whatever answer be given to the
question of definition raised above, it is worth noting that in speaking
of corresponding virtues a distinction is made. Honesty in politics is
insisted upon, but so also is courage. “It is, of course, not enough,”
writes President Roosevelt, “that a public official should be honest.
No amount of honesty will avail if he is not also brave.... The
weakling and the coward cannot be saved by honesty alone.”[20] To
this it might be added that under existing conditions courage in the
sense of power to attack or withstand, must be coupled with an
almost perfectly clean record in every way to be available as a
political asset of any value in the fight against corruption.
V. Just as the advantages sought by corrupt action may shade off

from the more to the less material, so also the personal interest
involved is susceptible of numerous gradations from egoism to
altruism. It may be entirely selfish, as in the case of a bribe credited
directly to the bank account of the bribe-taker. It may be extended to
include the welfare of relatives—a form of corruption so common as
to have acquired a name of its own. It may be broader still,
appearing as favouritism to friends. Finally, it may be so extended
that the individual interest is merged in the interest of certain groups,
such as the party, the church, the labour union, the secret society,
and so on. The state is by no means the only sufferer by this
process, any more than it is the only social group afflicted by corrupt
practices. An official sentimentally mindful of the needs of Mother
Church may cheerfully consent to burden the public treasury with a
large part of the cost of maintaining an orphan asylum mismanaged
by ecclesiastical officials. Political influence may be brought to bear
upon Rome to secure the creation of a new American cardinal
acceptable to certain influential classes in this country. Desire to
placate the labour vote has paralysed the employment of the police
power by governors or mayors to put down violence during strikes.
And labour leaders, seduced by promises of office, have consented
to misrepresent and betray their followers. Complementary
illustrations of this sort might be cited indefinitely.
It is not maintained that the larger part of the interrelations of
social groups is tinged with corruption. Directly the contrary is more
nearly true. Thus the interests of the state and of the family are so
largely coincident that the latter is frequently spoken of as the unit of
the former. Nevertheless family interests may be cultivated very
greatly to the detriment of political life. Many flagrant examples of
nepotism and the all too prevalent neglect of the duties of citizenship
to cultivate those of the family circle are cases in point. It is no mere
coincidence that one of the most soddenly corrupt municipalities in
the United States is peculiarly distinguished as the “City of Homes.”
Again, a business man may be vastly more efficient as citizen or
public official because of his experience in business, but, on the
other hand, he may make use of this experience to plunder the state,
or he may allow himself to become so thoroughly engrossed in
money-making that others plunder it with impunity. Knowledge
gained by social intercourse with parents may enable the teacher to
perform his work with far greater discrimination as to the individual
peculiarities and needs of the children under his tuition, but it may
also tempt him to gross favouritism and toadyism.
In discussing cases of corrupt action procured by inducements not
directly material in character it was pointed out that current moral
opinion does not clearly recognise the evil involved. Similarly it may
be indicated that many of the less somber nuances of corruption
resulting from the selfish interrelations of social groups hardly
deserve condemnation, because they are not commonly recognised
as deflections from duty. This may be conceded so far as the present
conditions of morals is concerned; but under any sharper analysis
than is currently employed the element of corruption contained in
such actions is manifest. The difficulty of the situation is enhanced
by the fact that it is extremely hard to separate and define duty and
self-interest in many of the relations of social and individual life.
Nevertheless the effort must be made. We must distinguish and
define economic interest, family interest, public interest. We have for
our guidance the great general principle: “Render to Cæsar the
things that are Cæsar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.” It is
no valid plea in avoidance that it is hard to distinguish the things that
are Cæsar’s and the things that are God’s. Rather would it seem to
be enjoined upon a robust morality incessantly to search the heart
regarding all the details that arise in following the commandment.
The most perplexing questions that arise in this interrogation of
duty spring from the conflict between fundamental and general moral
ideas and the customs of various social groups. It is considered
entirely allowable and laudable, for instance, that a father should
encourage his son to succeed him in business, even if the business
be not his but that of a corporation in which he is simply an official.
Many of the means employed to this end—education, travel,
apprenticeship, and so on—are beyond reproach. Others involve
gross favouritism and disregard of the merits of employees not
connected with the family. The most noteworthy point involved in this
illustration is that a procedure which passes without question in
business and family circles is recognised as reprehensible in politics.
From this discrepance in social judgments it follows, however, that
the man who has made a success in politics may find it very difficult
to see anything but the far-fetched morality of the “unco-guid” in the
proposition that he may not provide places in the public service for
his relatives and dependents, just as the man who has been
successful as a merchant or manufacturer is in the habit of doing in
his store or factory.
It would be possible to point out many similar divergences
between the fatherly and motherly indulgence of family life, the
charity, long-suffering, and forgiveness of Christian faith, the easy
tolerance of social life on the one hand, and, on the other, the ideal
of justice, cold and impassive, which we associate with the state. In
her admirable discussion of “Friendship and Politics,”[21] Mrs.
Simkhovitch has given us what is, on the whole, a very sympathetic
picture of the poor man who would scorn to sell his vote outright but
who delivers it blindly to the “big hearted” ward leader, whose kindly
interest and protection he so constantly needs to secure work and
avoid oppression. It is hardly fair to characterise his attitude in
slightly ironic phrase as dominated by the principle of the
“sacredness of the job.” Hard, continuous labour and the support of a
family under such conditions are virtues of no small proportions. In
large part, as Mrs. Simkhovitch has pointed out, devotion to the ward
leader may be much less the expression of selfishness than of the
traditional loyalty of a race, class, or neighbourhood. Such loyalty,
within limits, must also be accounted a virtue. Finally, in attempting
to judge the case, we must inquire into the opportunities which
voters of this sort have had for acquiring high ideals of civic conduct.
Are the best attainable results secured by our systems of education,
poor relief, correction, and taxation? Need nothing further be done to
prevent child labour, to furnish better housing conditions and to
safeguard the public health?
If we concede the necessity of social reform in these or any other
directions, we impliedly recognise either the failure of society to live
up to its own ideals or the necessity of new and higher ideals of
social conduct. And this recognition involves the assumption of part
of the moral guilt of existing corruption by society itself. Mr. G. W.
Alger has noted the current dissatisfaction with the ideal of pure cold
justice.[22] He also insists, correctly enough, that justice is the rock
upon which alone generosity can safely build. The two ideals should
not, however, be dealt with as fundamentally incompatible. Not since
the time when Thomas Aquinas first recognised the caritative
function of the state has such a view been tenable. More and more
the state has endeavoured in modern times to live up to this duty of
protecting the poor and weak. Its fuller realisation will mean the
disappearance of many of the existing causes of corruption.
One aspect of corruption for motives not entirely personal must be
dealt with separately, both because of the moral casuistry involved
and because of its practical importance. This is the acceptance and
use for party purposes of money paid to bosses or other leaders for
the corrupt use of their political power. While the personal interest of
the politician as a member of the party organisation is usually
involved to some extent in such transactions, the purely selfish
element may be extremely attenuated. Thus Floquet, accused of
having accepted money for his favourable vote as member of the
French Chamber of Deputies on the Panama canal scheme,
defended himself on the ground that every centime of the sum paid
him had been used for the benefit, not of himself, but of the party to
which he belonged.[23] Thurlow Weed is alleged to have used his
political control of the New York state legislature in 1860 to secure
the granting of several franchises for street railways in New York city
to a gang of lobbyists, and to have spent the four to six hundred
thousand dollars of “campaign contributions” obtained in this manner
to back the candidacy of Seward for the presidential nomination at
the Chicago convention of the Republican party. In such cases not a
cent of the corruption fund may stick to the hand of the party chief
receiving it. Indeed it is not inconceivable that his devotion to party
ends or to a party leader might induce him to pursue a corrupt
course of conduct even though he foresaw his own ruin, politically or
otherwise, as the certain result of his action.
Cases of the foregoing sort force us to a recognition of the fact
that when political passion has reached its climax, as at the end of a
hard fought campaign involving great principles, all considerations
besides party success are apt to sink into nothingness. Properly
considered, of course, the party organisation is a social institution
subordinate to the state, but it differs materially in one way from
other social groups of the same rank, such as business associations,
the church, the family, etc. The latter accept their subordination more
or less passively, but the party avowedly seeks to gain control of the
government. Of course it professes its intention to conduct public
business honestly and for the benefit of the whole people, but fine
distinctions such as these are apt, in the heat of the conflict, to be
lost sight of by practical politicians. Not unnaturally they identify the
interests of the state with the interests of their party, and the
acceptance of dishonest money, with the possible danger which
such an act involves, may easily seem to them a patriotic duty rather
than a heinous offence. In all their corrupt bargaining they are
conscious of a certain devotion to ideal ends. They may sell
franchises, but they would refuse to betray a candidate. They may
allow a local gang whose support is essential to loot a city
government, but they would not abandon a fundamental party
principle. On the contrary they would defend their conduct as
designed to secure the triumph of a great right by the commission of
a small wrong.
This argument is perhaps the most subtle that can be offered, and
the form of corruption for which it finds a quasi-justification is
assuredly the most dangerous with which we are confronted to-day.
It will be observed, however, that the foregoing illustrations involve a
higher range of motives than can be ascribed to our ordinary political
bosses. Doubtless there have been exceptional cases of party
leaders who, for minor but corrupt governmental favours, have

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Current Trends and Future

Developments on (Bio-) Membranes:

For Information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Susan Dennis

Luca Ansaloni SINTEF Industry, Oslo, Norway

Pietro Argurio Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Angelo Basile Hydrogenia, Genova, Italy; Unit of Chemical-Physics

Slamet Budijanto Department of Food Science and Technology,

Loredana De Bartolo CNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute

Kiwinta Diaussie Department of Food Science and Technology,

Alberto Figoli Institute on Membrane Technology (CNR-ITM), Rende,

Francesco Galiano Institute on Membrane Technology (CNR-ITM), Rende,

Fausto Gallucci Sustainable Process Engineering, Chemical Engineering and

Ellen Gapp Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT) at Karlsruhe

Hua Huang Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

Cristina Lavorato Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Marco Martino Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno,

Eugenio Meloni Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno,

Pierre Millet Paris-Saclay University, ICMMO (UMR 8182), Orsay, France

Raffaele Molinari Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Sabrina Morelli CNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute on

Vincenzo Palma Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno,

Thijs A. Peters SINTEF Industry, Oslo, Norway

Peter Pfeifer Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT) at Karlsruhe

Antonella PiscioneriCNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute

Carmella Rosabel Department of Food Science and Technology,

Simona Salerno CNR-ITM, National Research Council of Italy, Institute on

Sergio Santoro Department of Environmental Engineering, University of

Azis Boing Sitanggang Department of Food Science and Technology,

Jianhua Tong Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

Hilde J. Venvik Department of Chemical Engineering, Norwegian University

Zeyu Zhao Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

Minda Zou Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson

List of contributors xiii

1.1 Introduction and principles 1

2. Protonic electrocatalytic membrane reactors 21

2.2.4 Cathode materials 27

3. Packed bed membrane reactors 59

4. Fluidized bed membrane reactors 77

4.3 Conclusions and future trends 90

5. Microstructured membrane reactors for

6. Pervaporation membrane reactor 127

6.1 Introduction 127

6.3.5 Bio-alcohol production (pervaporation bioreactors) 141

7. Polymeric membrane reactors 151

7.1 Introduction 151

8. Current trends in enzymatic membrane reactor 195

8.1 Introduction 195

9. Membrane reactors in bioartificial organs 227

9.1 Introduction 227

10. Photocatalytic membrane reactors 251

10.1 Introduction 251

10.4 Applications of photocatalytic membrane reactors 268

11. Electrochemical membrane reactors 285

11.1 Introduction 285

11.6.1 Water electrolysis 304

12. Modeling of membrane reactors 315

12.1 Introduction 315

13. Techno-economic analysis of membrane reactors 337

13.1 Introduction 337

1.1 Introduction and principles

Current Trends and Future Developments on (Bio-)Membranes. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823659-8.00008-3

FIGURE 1–1 Conceptual scheme of a membrane reactor system [4].