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G lutathione in the N ervous
System
Glutathione in the Nervous
System
Edited by
Christopher A. Shavi^
Departments o f Ophthalmology
and Physiology and Neuroscience Program
University o f British Columbia, Vancouver
British Columbia, Canada
CRC Press
Taylor 8i Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York
This book was set in Tunes Roman. Composition and editorial services by TechBooks. Cover design by
Norm Myers.
A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
0 T h e paper in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1984 (Permanence
of Paper).
tx
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
When the great innovation appears, it w ill almost certainly be in a muddled, incomplete
form . To the discoverer him self it w ill be only half-uruierstood; to everyone else it w ill be
a mystery. For any speculation which does not a tfirst glance look crazy, there is no hope.
— Freem an J. Dyson*
We all agree that your theory is crazy. The question which divides us is whether it is crazy
erwugh to have a chance o f being correct.
— N iels B ohrt
The history of the study of glutathione in the nervous system owes something to
serendipity. In his classic study of the effects of GSH on feeding behavior in Hydra,
W. F. Loomis (1955) noted that his work originated following a chance remark by a
colleague.
My own interest in glutathione arose from an apparently anomalous experimental
result. We had been studying the developmental profiles of various neurotransmitter
receptor populations in the sensory cortex. Quite early on, we had observed that
the adult receptor distribution was radically different from that in early postnatal
development. Seemingly, stimulation by a trophic factor or neurotransmitter was the
causal agent in this redistribution of receptor location. It then followed that raising
the cortical slices in culture, thus isolating them from all such influences, should
prevent the receptor redistribution from occurring. To our consternation, however, the
receptor redistribution proceeded normally in the supposedly inadequate environment
of the culture medium. The surprises were not to end there, as further work on the
dozens of media ingredients revealed that the necessary stimulation was likely being
provided by the presumably innocuous molecule glutathione, usually added to the
media simply as an antioxidant. These results suggested that in addition to its well-
known antioxidant role, GSH was acting as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in
some neural pathways.
This early working hypothesis was distinctly unpopular with some peer review
committees, which voiced various criticisms. Chief amongst these was the claim
that GSH’s ubiquity precluded a selective neurotransmitter role; a second was that
its known action as antioxidant was evidence against other more neurally specific
actions. In the absence of any hard data for rebuttal at the time, we had to console
ourselves with quotations such as those at the beginning of this preface.
A part of both criticisms is correct: GSH is ubiquitous and is an important antiox
idant everywhere in the body, including the nervous system. The antioxidant-free-
radical scavenger action of GSH is one of its essential roles, the failure of which
may play a large part in the events leading to various neurological disorders. One
role, however, does not necessarily preclude another. Much of what the reader will
find in the following chapters touches upon these additional roles of GSH, including
possible neurotransmitter action, redox modulation of ionotropic receptor function,
and neuroprotection against the excitotoxic actions of glutamate.
I believe that the multiple roles of GSH, potential and demonstrated, make it one of
the most fascinating molecules yet described in the literature of the nervous system.
My sense is that ongoing and future studies of GSH in the nervous system will soon
put us on the threshold of novel insights into normal and abnormal synaptic function.
This statement makes me guilty of hyperbole, but one characteristic that marks those
who study GSH in the nervous system is a fierce enthusiasm for this molecule.
The goal of Glutathione in the Nervous System is to capture some of this enthusiasm
by focusing the reader’s attention on three major areas: (i) the origin and localization
of GSH in the nervous system, (ii) the multiple effects of GSH on neural health and
activity, and (iii) the potential for alterations in GSH status to lead to neurological
damage of the type observed in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and
other neurological disorders. The reader will note significant points of disagreement
between authors in several of the sections. This is to be expected at an early stage of
a still embryonic field where almost any direction leads to unknown territory.
This book could not have been completed without the efforts of many individuals.
To all the contributors, I offer my gratitude for your outstanding chapters. Dr. Ole P.
Hjelle, Dr. Ole P. Ottersen, and colleagues kindly allowed me to use part of one of
their beautiful electron micrographs for the book cover. 1 am grateful also to Dr. Fred
Hollinger and Dr. Howard Lenhoff, who offered timely and critical advice at various
stages of this project, and to Dr. Richard O’Grady, Ms. Laura Haefner and colleagues
at Taylor and Francis and Mr. Andrew Wilson and colleagues at TechBooks for their
support and help. I thank my colleagues Ms. Jill McEachem, Dr. Bryce Pasqualotto,
Dr. Jaswinder Bains, Dr. Ken Curry, and Dr. Marge Langmuir for their insightful
conunents on the present book and on glutathione-related topics. Dr. Ken Curry,
Mr. Craig Martin, and Mr. Raman Mahabir helped to prepare the original cover
design. Finally, 1 thank the members of the Department of Anatomy, UBC: 1 could
not have asked for better hosts or colleagues.
C.A.S.
Deep Cove, B ritish C olum bia
M ay 1997
PARTI
1
Multiple Roles of Glutathione
in the Nervous System
C h risto p h e r A . S h aw
Introduction
Basic GSH Chemistry and Reactions
• A ntioxidant and Free-R adical Scavenger
■ Interactions w ith O th er A ntioxidants
• G S H ’s R ole in C ancer
GSH Modulation of Receptor Function
■ R edox R eactions at Ionotropic R eceptors
■ S econd-M essenger A ctivation by G SH
• GSH as a Cascading Neuromodulator
GSH as a Neurotransmitter in the CNS
Implications for Multiple Roles of GSH in Normal S3maptic Function
GSH in Neurological Disease
Summary
References
ABBREVIATIONS
PD Parkinson’s disease
ROS reactive oxygen species
SOD superoxide dismutase
O p superoxide radical.
1. INTRODUCTION
Redox action:
Neuroprotection against EAA excitotoxicity [e.g., stroke (Ortolan! et al. 1995), ischemia (Sirsjo et al.
1996), epilepsy (Niketic et al. 1992)]
Modulation of ionotropic receptor action (O gita et al. 1995)
O ther actlorts:
Control of free radicals produced by radiation or chemotherapy (Bump and Brown 1990).
in the processes underlying memory (Werman, Carien, and Kosower 1971; Kosower
and Werman 1971; Kosower 1972). Much of whatever interest attended these origi
nal data remained dormant until relatively recently. Many of the original ideas were
quite prescient; Kosower’s 1972 model of memory, based on the bistable nature of
glutathione, was well considered and plausible; perhaps it is time to revisit this model
from an experimental perspective.
In this ch ^ter, I will attempt to describe some of the actions of glutathione in the
nervous system. Some of the more conventional aspects of GSH action, e.g., as a
free-radical scavenger, will be dealt with in a somewhat cursory manner, inasmuch
as they are discussed at length in some of the following chapters. I have, however,
attempted to provide adequate references for those wishing to And more information.
A Anal caveat: Much of the following discussion in this chapter and those that come
after is highly speculaAve—in my view, appropriately so, as suits a new, wide open,
and exciting held. Many of these ideas will not survive the rigors of experimental
testing; those that do may change our thinking about fundamental processes in the
nervous system.
Much has been written on all aspects of the synthesis and degradaAon of GSH and
on its many reactions in biological systems. For a comprehensive perspective on
6 HISTORY. EVOLUTION. AND LOCAUZATION OF GLUTATHIONE
y-giutamyi transpeptidase
dipeptidases
giycine ♦ cyataina * cyateinyigtycins + giutamate ------
FIG . 1. Pathway for G SH synthesis and degradation. (For more detaiis, see M eister 1 9 8 9,1 9 9 1 .)
this molecule the reader is referred to various reviews on GSH chemistry (Kosower
and Kosower 1978; Meister 1989; 1991; Deneke and Fanburg 1989; Lomaestro and
Malone 1995; Anderson 1997; see also several of the following chapters in this
volume, notably those by Cooper, chtyiter S, and Curry, chapter 10).
Glutathione is synthesized and degraded in many cell types by a series of enzymatic
reactions illustrated in Fig. 1 (Meister 1989). As noted above, glutathione exists in
both the reduced form (GSH) and the oxidized disulfide form (GSSG), the former
by far the larger fraction. GSH and GSSG are interconvertible, as shown in Fig. 2.
The ratio of GSH to GSSG is termed the GSH status and is a major determinant
of cell health and viability (Kosower and Kosower 1978). As noted by these latter
authors, the GSH status is not static, but rather reflects a dynamic system that responds
to alterations in the cellular environment. Changes in GSH status have important
biological consequences. For example, in most ceils, including those of the nervous
system, GSH constitutes approximately 98% of total glutathione (Slivka, Spina, and
Cohen 1987); changes in this ratio can affect any or all of the cellular functions
of GSH shown in Tables 1 and 2. In regard to this last point, GSH is crucial for the
control of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria, which arise as a by-product
of oxidative metabolism. Mitochrondria import GSH from the cytoplasm (Meister
1989); alterations in mitochrondrial GSH are implicated in neuronal cell death in
various neurological disorders (for references, see Benzi and Moretti, chapter 11, and
Bains and Shaw, chapter 17, this volume).
H ,0
GSH peroxidase
G SH ; GSSG
GSSG reductase
Free radicals are atoms or molecules capable of independent existence that contain
one or more unpaired electrons. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) include radicals and
nonradicals centered on oxygen. Examples of the former are the superoxide radical
(Oj“ ) and the highly damaging hydroxyl radical (»OH); the latter include oxygen
derivatives such as singlet oxygen and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Free radicals and
ROS are produced by biological processes such as electron transfer reactions during
oxidative metabolism in mitochondria and by external events such as radiation. Bio
logical systems have evolved a number of antioxidant defenses to protect themselves
from the effects of free radicals. These include those defenses designed to prevent the
generation of free radicals as well as those whose role is to scavenge free radicals that
may be generated. In the first category are various special proteins as well as enzymes
such as catalase and glutathione peroxidase. Free-radical scavengers include the en
zyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione, ascorbic acid (vitamin C),
and or-tocopherol (a member of the vitamin E family). ROS and antioxidant defenses
are normally in balance. Increases in the former or decreases in the latter change the
balance to favor ROS action, and oxidative stress results (Halliwell 1992a,b, 1996;
Cheeseman and Slater 1993; Evans 1993). Consequences of oxidative stress for neu
rons, in particular in various neuronal disorders, will be dealt with at length in various
of the following chapters (e.g.. Cooper, chapter 5; Zaman and Ratan, chapter 6; see
also Part HI).
GSH can participate as an antioxidant either indirectly or directly. In the first case,
glutathione serves as a substrate for GSH peroxidase to reduce hydrogen peroxide to
produce GSSG and water:
GSH-Px
2GSH + H2O2 GSSG + 2H2O
GSH-I-R* RH-l-GS*
2GS» GSSG
This may be one of the most important reactions involving GSH in the nervous system,
as the hydroxyl radical is one of the most damaging (Cheeseman and Slater 1993),
producing its effects via a cascade of self-perpetuating free radicals. Free radicals
can attack all major groups of biological molecules, but lipids appear to be the most
vulnerable to direct and indirect damage as a consequence of lipid peroxidation. For
a variety of reasons, neurons may be particularly vulnerable to free-radical damage
8 HISTORY, EVOLUTION. AND LOCALIZATION OF GLUTATHIONE
(Evans 1993; Olanow 1992; Halliwell 1992a,b; 1996). To complete the cycle, the
enzyme glutathione reductase reconverts GSSG to GSH (Fig. 2).
The second type of reaction mediated by GSH is a thiol-disuliide interchange;
a third type involves two-electron oxidation. The former may be involved in GSH
actions on ionotropic receptor function (see Part 3). Readers interested in more details
of these reactions are referred to the classic review by Kosower and Kosower (1978).
GSH works in synergy with the antioxidants ascorbic acid and a-tocopherol and plays
a crucial role in reactions mediated by SOD. GSH regulates, at least in part, ascorbic
acid levels (Meister 1992):
A decrease in GSH leads to decreased ascorbic acid levels. However, ascorbate can
partially compensate for diminution of GSH (Martensson and Meister 1991; see also
references in Meister 1991, 1992).
The interrelationship with SOD may be of particular interest for understanding the
origin of several neurological disorders: SOD is involved in the reduction (by a dis-
mutation reaction) of the superoxide radical, the latter produced by various reactions
involving oxygen. Of particular importance for the nervous system, the superoxide
radical can be produced by reactions involving oxygen and neurotransmitters such
as adrenaline and dopamine (Halliwell 1996) as well as those involving cytosolic
calcium (Olanow 1992). SOD converts the superoxide radical to hydrogen peroxide,
which usually breaks down harmlessly to produce water and molecular oxygen. A
noncatalyzed reaction of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide can generate hydroxyl
radicals. Similarly, a reaction with H2O2 catalyzed by a transition metal (e.g., Fe^'*',
Cu^'*') can also generate the hydroxyl radical. An example is the Fenton reaction:
These reactions (see Halliwell 1992a) may be critical components of oxidative stress
and neurological damage in cases where iron is released (e.g., stroke, ischemia, head
trauma) (Willmore and Triggs 1991; see also Halliwell 1992a). It may also be note
worthy that almninum, sometimes associated with Alzheimer’s disease, can form
complexes with the superoxide radical or can lead to iron release (see Bains and
Shaw, chapter 17, this volume).
MULTIPLE ROLES OF GLUTATHIONE 9
As described in the previous section, GSH can neutralize the »OH radical, thus
providing an essential level of defense against oxidative stress produced by such
reactions.
GSH appears to have biphasic effects on cancer. First, GSH may prevent the devel
opment of some cancers (Flagg et al. 1993). On the other hand, just as the GSH
ratio is crucial for the well-being of normal cells, so too it protects cancer cells from
the effects of oxidative stress. In the latter case, oxidative stress may arise from the
generation of free radicals as products of chemo- or radiation therapy (Meister 1989,
1991,1992). Normal GSH levels thus have the potential to compromise anticancer
treatments. One strategy to prevent this has been to lower GSH levels by blocking
synthesis. Buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), an inhibitor of y-glutamylcysteine syn
thetase (Meister 1991; Anderson 1997) lowers GSH levels and has been reported
to enhance the efficacy of cancer treatments. Such treatment appears to have been
successfully used in various clinical settings (Meister 1989,1991).
Given the multiple roles of GSH in normal cells (Table 1), it is difficult to imagine
that BSO treatment, effective as it may be for enhancing cancer treatment, would
not have deleterious effects on other cell populations [e.g., the lens, where it in
duces cataract in development (Meister 1991)], and perhaps especially for neural
cells (Meister 1991; Jain et al. 1991) (see Table 2). As will be detailed in section 5 of
this chapter and in the chapters on GSH in neurological disease (Part III), changes in
GSH status may be a factor in the genesis of various disorders. If correct, prolonged
alterations in GSH levels by BSO may turn out to have decidedly contrary effects,
raising the prospect that successful treatment of cancer may come at the expense of
later neural function and survival. To the best of my knowledge, no epidemiological
studies have examined this issue, although one article published in a clinical journal
(Holt 1993) has reported that an increased GSSG-total glutathione ratio following
GSSG injections during cancer treatment led to a temporary form of epilepsy. As
cited below, GSH can serve as neuroprotectant (see Cooper, chapter S; Zaman and
Ratan, chapter 6); GSH may further serve to diminish some neurotoxic side effects
of anticancer drugs such as cisplatin (Cascinu et al. 1995). While clearly preliminary,
such data suggest that concerns for long-term effects of GSH depletion on the central
nervous system need to be seriously considered (see also Kosower and Kosower 1978
and Meister and Larsson 1989 for a description of developmental disorders associated
with alterations in GSH synthesis).
A number of factors are able to affect the function of the various brain receptor
populations. Included in these are well-known phenomena such as homologous and
heterologous receptor regulation, both of which may depend on phosphorylation-
10 HISTORY, EVOLUTION, AND LOCAUZATION OF GLUTATHIONE
Almost nothing is known about the potential for GSH to stimulate second-messenger
activity in neural cells. Our own work on GSH receptors in cultured cortical astrocytes
MULTIPLE ROLES OF GLUTATHIONE II
has shown a large increase in IP3 activity following exposure of cortical astrocytes
to GSH (Guo, McIntosh, and Shaw 1992). These data suggest that GSH can activate
a population of metabotropic receptors, leading to alterations in second-messenger
levels. An earlier study in starfish showed GSH-stimulated activation of adenylate
cyclase (Gentleman and Mansour 1974). Whether adenylate cyclase, cAMP, cGMP,
or other second messengers are activated by GSH in the nervous system is not known.
This area is certain to be a fruitful avenue for future research.
As summarized above, GSH may act to alter the redox state of various neurotrans
mitter receptors to affect receptor-mediated membrane currents. GSH activation may
also stimulate second-messenger activity, potentially with consequences for activa
tion of other receptor populations which share common second messengers. I will
discuss in the section that follows the evidence that GSH may itself be an excitatory
neurotransmitter acting on its own class of ionotropic receptors (Shaw, Pasqualotto
and Curry 1996; see also Pasqualotto, Curry, and Shaw, chapter 9, this volume). In
this section, however, I want to consider briefly the possibility that the sequential
degradation of the tripeptide into its component amino acids (see Fig. 1) can yield
a succession of molecules that may individually, and perhaps synchonously, affect
neural activity.
The glutathione tripeptide consists of L-glutamate, L-cysteine, and glycine. Of
these, the effects of glutamate are well characterized and have been shown to activate
the ionotropic AMPA, NMDA, and kainate receptor populations (for a complete
discussion of these points with corresponding references, see Ogita et al., chapter 7,
this volume) as well as the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) (Prezeau et al.
1994). Cysteine appears to act at the NMDA receptor (Olney et al. 1990; Pace et al.
1992), since its depolarizing actions can be mostly blocked by the NMDA competitive
and noncompetitive antagonists, AP5 and MK 801, respectively (see also Pasqualotto,
Curry, and Shaw, chapter 9, this volume). Glycine has multiple roles in the nervous
sytem; in spinal cord and other regions, glycine acts at strychnine-sensitive ionotropic
glycine receptors to activate an inhibitory chloride current (see Aprison and Werman
1965 for references; Kuhse, Betz, and Kirsch 1995). In cortex and hippocampus and
elsewhere in the CNS, glycine binds to a modulatory site of the NMDA receptor
complex (Johnson and Ascher, 1987).
In addition, two of the three dipeptide combinations of GSH are themselves neu-
rally active (glutamylcysteine, cysteinylglycine), apparently by activation of the GSH
receptor (see following section and Pasqualotto, Curry, and Shaw, chrqrter 9, this vol
ume).
One possible effect of the degradation of GSH into its component amino acids would
be the sequential activation of GSH receptors by GSH and the dipeptides of GSH,
glutamate receptor subtypes by glutamate and cysteine, and finally NMDA receptors
by all of the three amino acids. The outcome might be a prolonged depolarization
12 HISTORY. EVOLUTION, AND LOCALIZATION OF GLUTATHIONE
acting to enhance neural activity in some circumstances. Such circumstances may fa
vor the conditions underlying some forms of activity-dependent neural modifications.
It must be stressed, however, that such a mechanism has not been demonstrated at
a synaptic level by electrophysiological methods. Partially, this may be due to the fact
that most studies tend to focus on the early temporal events after synaptic stimulation.
Further, some stimulation paradigms may employ agonists of glutamate to substitute
for glutamate’s excitatory neurotransmitter role.
This last point notwithstanding, several important issues would have to be resolved
before the above scheme might be accepted as plausible. The first of these is that
it is not clear if GSH is broken down in the extracellular space by the action of the
degradative enzymes (e.g., the action o f acetylcholine esterase on acetylcholine) or is
taken up intact into target cells (e.g., as for noradrenaline). The former would clearly
be required for the multistaged mechanism proposed above. The second point is that
GSH and glutamatergic receptors would have to be colocalized at the same, or at least
closely adjacent synapses. Hjelle et al. present evidence for such an arrangement of
adjacent GSH-positive and GSH-negative synapses in spinal motor neurons in chapter
4 of this volume. Notably, the GSH-positive terminal was also glutamate-positive.
The above remains speculation, but perhaps also the subject of potentially far-
reaching and novel discoveries about synaptic function in the brain.
4. A specific mechanism will exist for removing the putative neurotransmitter from
the site of action.
Although many substances have been proposed as neurotransmitters in the central
nervous system, it has proven difficult to satisfy these criteria for most of them. This
doesn’t mean that they are not neurotransmitters, merely that the minimum conditions
have not been satisfied. After all these years, glycine remains the most rigorously
characterized neurotransmitter in any neural pathway (Aprison and Werman 1965).
Where does the work on GSH place it in regard to possible neurotransmitter status?
Taking the above criteria in order:
1. GSH is found in neurons and glia (see Hjelle et al., chapter 4, for citations;
see also Yudkoff et al. 1990; Philbert et al. 1991), Pow and Crook (1995); GSH is
synthesized in neural cells, at least in astrocytes (Yudkoff et al. 1990). This does
not, of course, imply that GSH is synthesized by the same cells that might use it as
neurotransmitter, but perhaps this is a false criterion. Much GSH synthesis in the body
is in hepatocytes; transport into CNS is via several blood-brain-barrier transporters
(see Kannan et al. 1992, 1995; also chapter 3, this volume). Similarly, inside the
nervous system, GSH might be made in glia and transported to neurons for use. Neither
mode of acquisition would necessarily preclude a role in synaptic transmission if GSH
were shown to be present in synaptic terminals. The latter, as cited above, appears
to be the case with the demonstration of GSH in terminals of various neurons (see
Hjelle, Chaudhry, and Ottersen 1994; Hjelle et al., chapter 4, this volume).
2. As cited above, GSH can be found in synaptic terminals. Zangerle et al. (1992)
have shown that GSH and cysteine (Keller et al. 1989) are released from rat cortical
and hippocampal slices in a calcium-dependent manner, although from which cells
is not known.
3. GSH application to cortical cells in vitro elicits a depolarizing held potential
which appears to be sodium-dependent (Shaw et al. 1996; see also Pasqualotto, Curry,
and Shaw, chapter 9, this volume). Figure 3 illustrates GSH responses in this prepa
ration. The response is independent of other known excitatory ionotropic receptor
populations, as neither AMPA nor NMDA antagonists block the GSH response. The
GSH response is not the same as that of cysteine, which acts through the NMDA
receptor (Olney et al. 1990; Pace et al. 1992; Pasqualotto et al., chapter 9, this vol
ume). At a pharmacological level, radiolabeled GSH binds to a population of binding
sites distinct from those of the glutamatergic excitatory amino acid receptors: Other
than cysteine, neither glutamate nor NMDA has any significant competitive effect
on [^H]GSH binding; AMPA antagonists have limited effects, but only at high con
centrations (see Pasqualotto et al., chapter 9, this volume). In contrast, GSH is able
to compete with relatively high affinity for agonists and antagonists of NMDA re
ceptors (Ogita et al., chapter 7, this volume), suggesting that GSH might act on its
own receptors as well as some glutamatergic receptor subtypes (see also Jànaky et
al., chapter 8, this volume). These data are intriguing, but hardly conclusive for GSH
neurotransmitter status for two main reasons. First, single-cell recording is required
14 HISTORY. EVOLUTION, AND LOCALIZATION OF GLUTATHIONE
FIG . 3. G SH neural response in a cortical slice. Field potential recording in a cortical wedge
preparation following application of GSH or AMPA. For details see Pasqualotto et a l., chapter
9, this volume, or Shaw et al. (1996). G SH application gives rise to a depolarizing potential
that cannot be blocked by AMPA or NMDA antagonists (not shown). Different concentrations of
G SH are shown, as is a response to AMPA for comparison. Numbers above each trace indicate
m icrom olar concentrations. Each tick m ark on the x-axis equals 1 min.
to demonstrate that GSH can elicit membrane currents with a time course consistent
with neurotransmission. Such recording has not been achieved for adult neurons, al
though such experiments are in progress in our laboratory. Second, it is not clear in
what pathway GSH might be a neurotransmitter. Receptor autoradiography, however,
offers several potential neural circuits, including regions of neocortex, hippocampus,
and retina (Fig. 4). In particular, GSH receptors appear to be densely packed into layer
4 in the visual cortex, perhaps indicating a role in geniculostriate neurotransmission
(Fig. 5 A). Complementary data for this suggestion come from transport experiments
in which GSH can be shown to be retrogradely transported to the lateral geniculate
nucleus following injection into the visual cortex (Fig. S C). A crucial demonstra
tion of GSH neurotransmission in these circuits, however, would require that both
GSH-induced action on potential target cells and responses to electrical stimulation
of afferent pathways be blockable by GSH receptor antagonists. No such compounds
yet exist, so such experiments cannot be performed at present.
4. Mechanisms for GSH removal from synaptic regions have not been demon
strated; it is not even clear if the GSH degradative dipeptidases are present in postsyn-
aptic membranes or if uptake mechanisms exist.
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parantuneet, arvet tuskin näkyvätkään.
VANKINA KAUKASIASSA
I
— On.
Aro loppui, ja nyt kulki tie kahden vuoren välisessä solassa. Žilin
virkkoi toverilleen:
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sotamiessaattuetta kohti ja aikoi paeta, mutta vastaan pyyhälsikin
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valmiina.
Žilin ei ollut ruumiiltaan roteva, mutta hän oli uljas ja sisukas. Hän
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»Minä survon hänet hevosen jalkoihin tai silvon kappaleiksi
sapelillani.»
Mutta ennenkuin hän vielä ehti perille, koetettiin häntä takaa
ampua. Laukaus sattui hevoseen, joka kaatui hänen allaan. Se
suistui päistikkaa maahan, ja sen lysähtäessä kumoon jäi Žilinin
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Žilin ei saanut koko yönä unta silmiinsä. Yöt olivat lyhyet. Valojuova
tunkeutui seinänraosta vajaan — aamu siis valkeni. Žilin nousi ylös
ja paremmin nähdäkseen kaiversi rakoa suuremmaksi.
Raosta näkyi tie, joka kulki vuoren juurta pitkin; oikealla oli
tatarilaismaja, ja sen vieressä kasvoi kaksi puuta. Musta koira loikoi
tiellä, ja vuohi vuonineen tepasteli pihalla hännäntynkäänsä
heilutellen. Vuoren rinnettä nousi nuori tatarilaisvaimo. Kirjava paita
oli vyötäisiltä sidottu, hänellä oli jalassa housut ja saappaat. Pää oli
kauhtanan peitossa, ja pään päällä hän kantoi vettä metallisessa
vesiruukussa. Lanteet notkahtelivat hänen käydessään — ja hän
talutti kädestä paitasillaan tepsuttelevaa keropäistä poikavekaraa.
Vaimo astui vesiastioineen tupaan, josta tuli ulos eilinen
punapartainen tatari, yllään silkkinen pusero; miehen vyöstä riippui
hopeainen väkipuukko, jalassa hänellä oli paljaat matalat kengät ja
päässä korkea, musta, taaksepäin kallistuva lammasnahkalakki. Hän
venytteli jäseniään ja siveli punaista partaansa siinä seisoessaan.
Hetkisen kuluttua hän virkkoi jotakin rengilleen ja poistui.
Mutta Žilinin oli kova jano, kieli oli ihan tarttua kiinni kitalakeen.
»Tulisivat edes katsomaan», toivoi hän. Samassa hän kuuli ovea
avattavan. Punapartainen tatari astui vajaan päin, seurassaan toinen
lyhyempi, mustaverinen mies, jolla oli kirkkaat, tummat silmät ja
parta lyhyeksi ajeltu. Suu tällä seuralaisella oli iloisessa hymyssä ja
kasvoilla väikkyi hilpeä hyvätuulisuus. Tämä tummaverinen oli vielä
uljaammassa asussa: puseropaita oli sinistä silkkiä ja reunuksilla
koristettu. Vyöllä riippui suuri hopeainen väkipuukko ja jalassa oli
punaiset, hopeasuiset sahviaanikengät. Näiden ohuiden kenkien
päällä oli vielä toiset paksummat kengät. Päässä oli korkea valkea
lammasnahkalakki.
— Kolmetuhatta ruplaa.
Žilin vastasi: