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The Industrial Electronics Handbook
SECOND EDITION
FUNDAMENTALS OF
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
FUNDAMENTALS OF
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
Edited by
Bogdan M. Wilamowski
J. David Irwin
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
TK7881.F86 2010
621.381--dc22 2010019980
Preface....................................................................................................................... xi
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. xiii
Editorial Board ......................................................................................................... xv
Editors .................................................................................................................... xvii
Contributors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxi
PART II Devices
8 Semiconductor Diode ..................................................................................... 8-1
Bogdan M. Wilamowski
9 Bipolar Junction Transistor ........................................................................... 9-1
Bogdan M. Wilamowski and Guofu Niu
vii
PART V Electromagnetics
29 Electromagnetic Fields I ............................................................................... 29-1
Sadasiva M. Rao, Tyler N. Killian, and Michael E. Baginski
30 Propagating Electromagnetic Fields ............................................................. 30-1
Michael E. Baginski, Sadasiva M. Rao, and Tyler N. Killian
31 Transmission Line Time-Domain Analysis and Signal Integrity ................ 31-1
Edward Wheeler, Jianjian Song, and David R. Voltmer
Index ................................................................................................................. Index-1
The field of industrial electronics covers a plethora of problems that must be solved in industrial practice.
Electronic systems control many processes that begin with the control of relatively simple devices like
electric motors, through more complicated devices such as robots, to the control of entire fabrication
processes. An industrial electronics engineer deals with many physical phenomena as well as the sensors
that are used to measure them. Thus, the knowledge required by this type of engineer is not only tra-
ditional electronics but also specialized electronics, for example, that required for high-power applica-
tions. The importance of electronic circuits extends well beyond their use as a final product in that they
are also important building blocks in large systems, and thus the industrial electronics engineer must
also possess knowledge of the areas of control and mechatronics. Since most fabrication processes are
relatively complex, there is an inherent requirement for the use of communication systems that not only
link the various elements of the industrial process but are also tailor-made for the specific industrial
environment. Finally, the efficient control and supervision of factories require the application of intelli-
gent systems in a hierarchical structure to address the needs of all components employed in the produc-
tion process. This is accomplished through the use of intelligent systems such as neural networks, fuzzy
systems, and evolutionary methods. The Industrial Electronics Handbook addresses all these issues and
does so in five books outlined as follows:
1. Fundamentals of Industrial Electronics
2. Power Electronics and Motor Drives
3. Control and Mechatronics
4. Industrial Communication Systems
5. Intelligent Systems
The editors have gone to great lengths to ensure that this handbook is as current and up to date as pos-
sible. Thus, this book closely follows the current research and trends in applications that can be found
in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. This journal is not only one of the largest engineering
publications of its type in the world, but also one of the most respected. In all technical categories in
which this journal is evaluated, its worldwide ranking is either number 1 or number 2 depending on
category. As a result, we believe that this handbook, which is written by the world’s leading researchers
in the field, presents the global trends in the ubiquitous area commonly known as industrial electronics.
Fundamentals of Industrial Electronics deals with the fundamental areas that form the basis for
the field of industrial electronics. Because of the breadth of this field, the knowledge required spans a
wide spectrum of technology, which includes analog and digital circuits, electronics, electromagnetic
machines, and signal processing. The knowledge gained here is then applied in Power Electronics and
Motor Drives, Control and Mechatronics, Industrial Communication Systems, and Intelligent Systems,
and in total form the Industrial Electronics Handbook.
xi
The editors wish to express their heartfelt thanks to their wives Barbara Wilamowski and Edie Irwin for
their help and support during the execution of this project.
xiii
Victor P. Nelson
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
xv
xvii
IEEE Undergraduate Teaching Award. In 2000, he received an IEEE Third Millennium Medal and
the IEEE Richard M. Emberson Award. In 2001, he received the American Society for Engineering
Education’s (ASEE) ECE Distinguished Educator Award. Dr. Irwin was made an honorary profes-
sor, Institute for Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China, in 2004. In 2005, he
received the IEEE Education Society’s Meritorious Service Award, and in 2006, he received the IEEE
Educational Activities Board Vice President’s Recognition Award. He received the Diplome of Honor
from the University of Patras, Greece, in 2007, and in 2008 he was awarded the IEEE IES Technical
Committee on Factory Automation’s Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2010, he was awarded the elec-
trical and computer engineering department head’s Robert M. Janowiak Outstanding Leadership and
Service Award. In addition, he is a member of the following honor societies: Sigma Xi, Phi Kappa Phi,
Tau Beta Pi, Eta Kappa Nu, Pi Mu Epsilon, and Omicron Delta Kappa.
xxi
I-1
1.1 Introduction
Direct current (DC) circuit analysis is the study of circuits with a constant voltage or current source. The
most popular example of a DC circuit is a battery and a light bulb. A DC circuit contains an active circuit
element (i.e., battery) capable of generating electric energy. These electric sources convert nonelectric
energy to electric energy (i.e., a voltage or current). Independent electric sources produce a constant
voltage or current in the circuit regardless of the current through or voltage across the source. The sym-
bols for an ideal DC voltage and current source are shown in Figure 1.1. It should be noted that an ideal
voltage and current source can deliver or absorb power to an electric circuit. An example of an ideal
voltage source absorbing power is a rechargeable battery.
Dependent sources establish a voltage or current in a circuit that is based upon the value of a voltage
or current elsewhere in the circuit. One use of dependent sources is to model operational amplifiers and
transistors. Table 1.1 presents a summary of the four types of dependent sources.
A passive circuit element models devices that cannot generate electric energy such as a light bulb.
The most common passive circuit elements are inductors, capacitors, and resistors. The voltage–current
relationships for these devices will be described in the subsequent section.
1.1.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage (V) difference across a resistor is linearly related to the current (I)
through the resistor (see Equation 1.1):
V = IR (1.1)
1-1
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0 (1.2)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) is also based upon the law of conservation
of energy. A loop is any closed path in a circuit. KVL states that the sum R
of the voltages around a loop is zero (i.e., sum of the voltage drops =
sum of the voltage rises). KVL is applied to the loop shown in Figure 1.4. FIGURE 1.2 Resistor.
Note that the direction of the loop goes from the negative terminal to the
Inductor + v – di
i v=L (1.3)
dt
t
1
L i=
L∫v dt + i(0)
0
(1.4)
Capacitor + V – dv
i i=C (1.5)
dt
t
1
v=
C ∫
i dt + v(0)
0
(1.6)
C
I1 R1
A
I3
I2
+
Vs
R2 R3
–
Loop A
+ V1 –
R1
+
Vs +
R2 R3 V2
– –
positive terminal on the voltage source, which indicates it is a voltage rise. For the KVL expression in
Equation 1.7, voltage rises are negative and voltage drops are positive:
−Vs + V1 + V2 = 0 (1.7)
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.5, apply Ohm’s law, KVL, and KCL to solve for the labeled voltages and
currents.
The first step in the analysis is to apply KCL at Node A and KVL at the left and right loop. These equa-
tions are provided in Equations 1.8 through 1.10:
Next, use Ohm’s law to rewrite Equations 1.9 and 1.10 in terms of the branch currents and resistor values.
These equations are shown in Equations 1.11 and 1.12:
Solving the simultaneous set of equations, (1.8), (1.11), and (1.12) yields
The results in (1.13) and Ohm’s law can be used to find the unknown voltages:
V1 = 50Is = 60 V (1.14)
V2 = 100I2 = 60 V (1.15)
V3 = 20I3 = 12 V (1.16)
V4 = 80I3 = 48 V (1.17)
50 Ω 20 Ω
A
Is
+ V1 – V3 –
+ ++ +
120 V 100 Ω V2 V4 80 Ω
– – –
I2 I3
16 Ω 12 Ω
+
Vs Is 96 Ω 120 Ω 80 Ω
4Ω
–
(–1)
1 1 1
Req = 16 + 12 + 4 = 32 Ω Req = + + = 32 Ω
(a) (b) 96 120 80
It is possible to analyze the circuit in Example 1.1, to find the source current, Is. The first step is to recognize
that the 80 and 20 Ω resistors are in series and combine to yield 100 Ω. This simplified circuit is shown
in Figure 1.7.
The next step is to note that the two 100 Ω resistors are in parallel. Combine these two resistors to
yield the equivalent resistance of 50 Ω (see Figure 1.8).
The last simplification is to note that the 50 Ω resistors in Figure 1.8 are in series and yield the equiva-
lent resistance of 100 Ω (see Figure 1.9).
50 Ω
Is
+
120 V 100 Ω 100 Ω
–
50 Ω Finally, the last step is to use Ohm’s law to solve Is, which yields
Is
+
120
120 V 50 Ω Is = = 1.2 A (1.18)
– 100
Note that this result is consistent with the answer to Example 1.1.
FIGURE 1.8 Circuit in Figure 1.7 simpli-
fied by putting 100 W resistors in parallel.
Example 1.3: Analysis of Example 1.1 Using Voltage and Current Divider
For the circuit in Figure 1.5, given that Is = 1.2 A, use the current divider to find I2 and the voltage divider to
find V4. The first step in the analysis is to recognize that the 100 Ω resistor is in parallel with the 80 and 20
Ω series combination. The current divider relationship to find I2 is shown in Equation 1.19:
16 Ω 12 Ω
+
8V 4Ω 48 mA 96 Ω 120 Ω 80 Ω
–
16 96||120||80
V16Ω = =4 V I96Ω = 48 = 16 mA
(16 + 12 + 4)8 96
16 96||120||80
V12Ω = =3 V I120Ω = 48 = 12.8 mA
(16 + 12 + 4)8 120
4 96||120||80
V4Ω = =1 V I80Ω = 48 = 19.2 mA
(a) (16 + 12 + 4)8 (b) 80
FIGURE 1.10 Voltage and current divider rule for circuits in Figure 1.6. (a) Series circuit (voltage divider).
(b) Parallel circuit (current divider).
a b
R1 R2
Rb Ra
R3
c
c
R1R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 Rb Rc
Ra = R1 =
R1 Ra + Rb + Rc
R1R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 Ra Rc
Rb = R2 =
R2 Ra + Rb + Rc
R1R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 Ra Rb
Rc = R3 =
R3 Ra + Rb + Rc
Ohm’s law can be used to find the voltage, V2, across the 100 Ω resistor, V2 = 100I2 = 60 V. The voltage
divider can be used to find the voltage, V4, as shown in Equation 1.20:
80
V4 = V2 = 48 V (1.20)
80 + 20
Note that these results are consistent with the solution to Example 1.1.
1.2.1 Node-Voltage Method
The node-voltage method is a general technique that can be applied to any circuit. An independent KCL
equation can be written at every essential node (nodes with three or more elements connected) except
for one. The standard practice is to choose the ground node as the reference node and omit the ground
node from the set of equations. Next, each essential node is labeled with a voltage variable (V1, V2, etc.).
The node voltage represents the positive voltage difference at the labeled node with respect to the refer-
ence node. A KCL equation is written summing the currents leaving the node in terms of the unknown
node voltages. Lastly, this set of linearly independent equations is solved for the unknown node voltages.
Finally, the node voltages can be used to find any current in the circuit.
Given the circuit in Figure 1.11, use the node-voltage method to find the power delivered by
each source.
Recall that the first step in the analysis was to label the essential nodes. The four essential nodes in
Figure 1.11 have already been labeled as V1, V2, V3, and ground (0 V). Since V1 is the voltage at that node
with respect to the reference node (“ground node”), it is tied to the 200 V source so V1 = 200 V. The node
voltages V2 and V3 are unknown, thus KCL must be performed to find these values. In order to simplify
analysis, the KCL equations are derived such that the current is drawn leaving the node if it is not given.
The KCL equations at V2 and V3 are given in Equations 1.21 and 1.22:
V2 − V1 V2 V2 − V3
KCL at V2 : I500 Ω + I250 Ω + I400 Ω = + + =0 (1.21)
500 250 400
V3 − V1 V3 − V2
KCL at V3 : I100 Ω + I400 Ω − 1= + − 1= 0 (1.22)
100 400
By substituting V1 = 200 into Equations 1.21 and 1.22, and solving the simultaneous system of equations
yields
Using the results of Equation 1.23, it is possible to find the power associated with the 1 A current source.
Since the voltage across the current source is V3, and it is not in the passive sign convention, the power is
V1
500 Ω 100 Ω
+
200 V 400 Ω
– V2 V3
250 Ω 1A
P = −V3 (1) = −265 W or 265 W delivered. In order to find the current through the 200 V source, it is necessary
to use KCL at V1. The KCL equation at V1 is given in Equation 1.24:
V1 − V2 V1 − V3
KCL at V1 : Is + I500 Ω + I100 Ω = Is + + =0 (1.24)
500 100
Is = 500 mA (1.25)
Since the 200 V source obeys the passive sign convention, the power is P = 100Is =100 W absorbed. In
order to check that the analysis is correct, the law of conservation can be used to verify that the sum of
all of the power delivered equals the sum of all of the power absorbed.
For the circuit in Figure 1.11, use Δ-Y transformations to find the power associated with the 200 V source.
The first step in the analysis is to identify that the 500, 100, and 400 Ω resistors form a Δ configuration as
Ra, Rb , and Rc, respectively. This circuit can be simplified by converting the Δ configuration to a Y configu-
ration. Equations 1.26 through 1.28 are used to find the resistor values in the Y configuration. The simpli-
fied circuit is shown in Figure 1.12.
RbRc ( 400)(100)
R1 = = = 40 Ω (1.26)
Ra + Rb + Rc 500 + 100 + 400
Rc Ra ( 400)(500)
R2 = = = 200 Ω (1.27)
Ra + Rb + Rc 500 + 100 + 400
RaRb (500)(100)
R3 = = = 50 Ω (1.28)
Ra + Rb + Rc 500 + 100 + 400
In order to find the power associated with the 200 V source, perform KCL at essential Node A. The equa-
tion and solution are shown in Equations 1.29 and 1.30:
VA − V1 VA
KCL at VA : Is + I200 + 250 Ω − I = + − 1= 0 (1.29)
50 450
VA = 225 V (1.30)
V1
50 Ω R3
+ A
200 V 200 Ω 40 Ω R1
R2
–
V2 V3
250 Ω 1A
Using the result in Equation 1.30 to find the current through the 200 V source yields
VA − 200
Is = = 500 mA (1.31)
50
Thus, the power absorbed by the 200 V source is 100 W, consistent with the prior solution.
The circuit in Figure 1.13 models an operational amplifier. An operational amplifier is an active circuit
element used to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi-
sion, differentiation, and integration. This electronic unit is an integrated circuit that can be modeled as
a VCVS. The gain of the op amp is the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage, (Vo /Vs ). Use KCL to
determine the gain of the circuit in Figure 1.13.
The KCL equations at Nodes A and B are shown in Equations 1.32 and 1.33:
VA − Vs VA − VB VA
KCL at VA : I10 kΩ + I2 MΩ + I20 kΩ = + + =0 (1.32)
10 k 20 k 2M
VB − VA VB − 2 × 105Vd
KCL at VB : I50 Ω + I20 kΩ = + =0 (1.33)
20 k 50
Note that the dependent source introduces a constraint equation based upon the relationship between
the node voltage and the controlling voltage, Vd. This relationship is VA = −Vd. This produces two equa-
tions and two unknowns that can be solved for the gain shown in Equation 1.34:
Vo −20 k
≈ = −2 (1.34)
Vs 10 k
A special case of the node-voltage method is when there is a voltage source between two nonreference
essential nodes (see Figure 1.14).
In this case, an additional unknown variable must be introduced to describe the current in the branch
with the voltage source. To minimize the number of unknowns, an alternate method to introducing
another variable is to label the voltage source and any element in parallel with it as a supernode. The
supernode in Figure 1.14 is denoted by the superimposed oval. The node-voltage method with super-
nodes involves deriving a KCL and KVL equation at the supernode as well as KCL equations at any other
essential nodes where the voltage is unknown and solving the simultaneous system of equations.
20 kΩ
10 kΩ 50 Ω
B
A
+ – +
Vs +
2 MΩ Vd 2 × 105 Vd Vo
– + –
–
Hanna hätkähti.
»Miten niin?»
»Rouva Bergin…»
»Oh ei, hyvä rouva, se menisi yli voimieni. Enempää kuin yhtä,
enintään kahta oppilasta en voi opettaa.»
Hanna nousi.
»Rouva…»
»Se on aikomukseni.»
»Kyllä.»
»Hyvin musikaalinen.»
Seuraavana päivänä aikaisin hän meni rouva Bergin luo. Tämä oli
juuri saapunut toimistoon ja luki saapunutta postia.
»Mitenkä niin? Totta kai teillä on joku tuttu, joka tuntee teidät ja
johon te voitte vedota?»
»Ei, rouva Berg, minä olen outo täällä. Te ette eilen: kysynyt
sellaisista mitään ettekä myöskään sanonut, että niitä tarvitaan…»
»Ei — ketään.»
»Tosin kyllä, mutta jos teillä on syytä salata perheenne nimi, niin
syy voi olla sitä laatua, ettette ole sopiva kasvattamaan nuoria
tyttöjä, ja edesvastuu olisi minun. Kas tässä, neiti, on
sisäänkirjoitusrahanne… Olen pahoillani, että olen pakotettu
poistamaan teidät kirjoistani.»
Mutta kyyneleet eivät auta. Hanna ajatteli sinne ja tänne. Mitä hänen
oli nyt tekeminen. Oh, hänen elämäntarinansa ei ollut omiaan
herättämään myötätuntoa. Hän oli aivan masennuksissa rouva
Bergin sanoista: »jos teillä on syytä salata perheenne nimi, niin syy
voi olla sitä laatua, ettette ole sopiva kasvattamaan nuoria tyttöjä.»
Ja asianlaita olikin niin. Hänhän oli rikollinen, langennut. Kuinka hän
ei ollut ajatellut tätä ennen, mitenkä hän oli voinut pitää itseään
siveänä ja ylväänä ja unohtaa, että vaimo, joka jättää miehensä
heittäytyäkseen rakastajansa syliin, on viimeinen, jonka hoitoon äiti
uskoo nuoret tyttönsä?
Hanna.»
»Ei tässäkään.»
Raskain mielin Hanna poistui ja lohdutti itseään sillä, että
huomenna onnistuu paremmin.
Sitten hän avasi Dori tädin kirjeen. Tätä hän juuri oli niin
levottomasti odotellut. Hän levitti paperin. Siinä oli vain muutamia
rivejä otsakirjoituksetta. Ensi silmäykseltä Hanna saattoi jo huomata
ettei kirje tuonut lohtua. Kirjeen ulkonäöstä voi jo päättää, mitä se
tuo, vaikkei se vielä ole puhunutkaan. Kenraalitar kirjoitti todellakin
seuraavasti:
»Missä on vaimosi?»
»Oletko suunniltasi?»
»Olin silloin, kun uskoin nuoren vaimo raukkani..» Hänellä oli kova
sana huulilla, mutta hän hillitsi itsensä… »maailmannaisen
huostaan.»
»Portinvartian vaimo näki hänen hiipivän pois, eikä hän ole tullut
takaisin. Herra on itkenyt koko yön tuolla; saatoin kuulla sen oven
läpi. Vasta aamulla hän meni sänkykamariin ja heittäytyi vuoteelle —
ja olen nähnyt, että kaikki laatikot ovat avatut ja että paperipalasia on
lattialla. Aamiaistakaan ei herra ole tahtonut, raukka. Vein hänelle
kahvia, mutta ei hän siihen koskenutkaan.»