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Technical and Vocational Education and Training:
Issues, Concerns and Prospects 31

Miriam Preckler Galguera

Globalization,
Mass Education
and Technical and
Vocational Education
and Training
The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana
and Namibia
Technical and Vocational Education
and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects

Volume 31
Series Editor-in-Chief:
Professor Rupert Maclean, QAPCO Professional Chair in Vocational Studies, and UNESCO Chair on TVET
and Sustainable Development, Office for Applied Research and Innovation, College of the North
Atlantic-Qatar

Associate Editors:
Professor Felix Rauner, TVET Research Group, University of Bremen, Germany
Professor Karen Evans, Institute of Education, University of London, United Kingdom
MS Sharon M. McLennon, Director, Newfoundland and Labrador Workforce Innovation Centre, Canada

Editorial Advisory Board:

Dr David Atchoarena, Division for Education Strategies and Capacity Building, UNESCO, Paris, France
Dr András Benedek, Ministry of Employment and Labour, Budapest, Hungary
Dr Paul Benteler, Stahlwerke Bremen, Germany
Professor Michel Carton, NORRAG c/o Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies,
Geneva, Switzerland
Dr Chris Chinien, Workforce Development Consulting, Montreal, Canada
Dr Claudio De Moura Castro, Faculade Pitágoras, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Dr Michael Frearson, SQW Consulting, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Dr Lavinia Gasperini, Natural Resources Management and Environment Department, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Dr Philipp Grollmann, Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BiBB), Bonn, Germany
Professor W. Norton Grubb, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, United States
of America
Dr Dennis R. Herschbach, Faculty of Education Policy and Leadership, University of Maryland, College Park,
United States of America
Dr Oriol Homs, Centre for European Investigation and Research in the Mediterranean Region, Barcelona,
Spain
Professor Moo-Sub Kang, Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, Seoul, Republic
of Korea
Dr Bonaventure W. Kerre, School of Education, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
Dr Günter Klein, German Aerospace Centre, Bonn, Germany
Dr Wilfried Kruse, Sozialforschungsstelle Dortmund, Dortmund Technical University, Germany
Professor Jon Lauglo, Department of Educational Research, Faculty of Education, University of Oslo, Norway
Dr Alexander Leibovich, Institute for Vocational Education and Training Development, Moscow, Russian
Federation
Professor Robert Lerman, Urban Institute, Washington, United States of America
Ms Naing Yee Mar, GIZ, Yangon, Myanmar
Professor Munther Wassef Masri, National Centre for Human Resources Development, Amman, Jordan
Dr Phillip McKenzie, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia
Dr Margarita Pavlova, UNESCO-UNEVOC Centre, Education University of Hong Kong, China
Dr Theo Raubsaet, Centre for Work, Training and Social Policy, Nijmegen, Netherlands
Professor Barry Sheehan, Melbourne University, Australia
Dr Madhu Singh, UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, Hamburg, Germany
Dr Jandhyala Tilak, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, India
Dr Pedro Daniel Weinberg, formerly Inter-American Centre for Knowledge Development in Vocational
Training (ILO/CINTERFOR), Montevideo, Uruguay
Professor Adrian Ziderman, Bar-llan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6969
Miriam Preckler Galguera

Globalization, Mass
Education and Technical
and Vocational Education
and Training
The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana
and Namibia
Miriam Preckler Galguera
Autonomous University of Madrid
Madrid, Spain

ISSN 1871-3041     ISSN 2213-221X (electronic)

Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects
ISBN 978-3-319-91106-9    ISBN 978-3-319-91107-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91107-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018941092

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgments

I would like to thank for the success and timeliness of this work some wonderful
people I have known for different lengths of time. First and foremost, I would like
to thank my family and beloved ones for their patience and understanding.
Secondly, I would like to thank UNESCO and all the people I have had the great
luck to get to know within the organization, not only for the opportunity they
brought me to conduct this work within the scope of an international organization,
but also for the friendships I have developed with some of the most amazing human
beings I have ever known. Special thanks to Mr. Gyutae Kim, Mr. Sobhi Tawil and
Ms. Asma Zubari; to Ms. Mmantsetsa Marope, Mr. David Atchoarena, Mr. Francesc
Pedró, Mr. Aaron Benavot, Ms. Paulina González-Pose, Mr. Salah Khaled, Mr.
Keith Holmes, Mr. Harrison Beck, Ms. Milena Caceres, Ms. Aida Alcarusi, Ms.
Yasmine Babiard, Ms. Mari Yasunaga, Mr. Rafael Quintana, Ms. Rita Locateli and
some other persons I will never forget.
I extend special appreciation to Mr. Luis Miguel Lázaro, Mr. J. Valle, Mr.
J. Eguren, Mr. Carlos Izquierdo, Mr. Pablo Gómez-Tavira, Ms. Anka Moldovan, Mr.
Santiago Fernández Prieto, Mr. Do Yong Park, Mr. Ewan Smith, Mr. Juan de
Barandica y Luxan, and Mr. Alfredo Pérez de Armiñán.
I acknowledge that this work would not have been possible without the contribu-
tions and insights of Mr. Raymond Doherty and his family, Ms. Veruschka McKey,
as well as all the participants in the study. In particular, I want to thank Mr. Jean-­
Pierre Ilboudo, Mr. Richwell Lukonga, and Ms. Janette Motsu.
Finally, I want to thank all the people I have had the chance to meet during these
years in Namibia, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, DR. Congo, France, Zimbabwe,
Spain, and South Sudan, the experts from the Republic of Korea, and the interna-
tional consultants from all over the world, for showing me the joy of life and the
meaning of living for each other without any greed or selfishness, thanks for show-
ing me your wise understanding of life.

v
Series Editors Introduction

This volume by Miriam Preckler Galguera, Globalisation, Mass Education and

TVET: The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana and Namibia, is the latest book to be
published in the long-standing Springer book series ‘Technical and Vocational
Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects’. This book by Preckler
Galguera is the 30th volume to be published to date in this book series.
Work is a major feature of most people’s lives. Not only does it provide them
with the means to meet basic needs, such as food, clothing and shelter, but also the
type of work undertaken by individuals and groups has a major impact on their self-­
identity, social status and standard of living. Technical and vocational education and
training (TVET) is concerned with ‘applied learning’, with the acquisition of
knowledge and skills for the world of work to increase opportunities for productive
work, sustainable livelihoods, personal empowerment and socio-economic
development.
This Springer book series on TVET and education for the changing world of
work seeks to provide comprehensive information about many cutting edge aspects
of TVET. The series showcases best and innovative approaches to skills develop-
ment for employability and aims to create an effective bridge between research,
policy and practice. It is an on-going project which seeks to provide a comprehen-
sive picture of current issues, concerns and prospects in TVET worldwide.
This important and timely book by Miriam Preckler Galguera, Globalisation,
Mass Education and TVET: The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana and Namibia,
examines the growing interest that exists regarding the impact of globalisation and
mass education on preparing people for the world of work, with particular reference
to applied learning and technical and vocational education and training. In doing
this the author provides a case study of Botswana and Namibia with particular refer-
ence to the impact of the international development agency UNESCO on education
policy making and practice in the area of TVET.
After setting the context by examining the expansion of mass education, globali-
sation and the impact of international organisations throughout the world, the book
examines in detail the role and programme activities of the international develop-
ment agency UNESCO in the area of education, with particular reference to

vii
viii Series Editors Introduction

TVET. Examined aspects include UNESCO’s normative TVET instruments,

UNESCO education strategy 2014–2021 and the impact of UNESCO on education
development in the less developed and developing countries worldwide, with
­particular reference to Africa.
This book of nine chapters then moves on to provide specific case studies of
Botswana and Namibia with regard to the more general matters concerning globali-
sation, mass education and TVET. The book explores the relationship of these coun-
tries to UNESCO in the area of education development.
There is no doubt in my mind that this is an important, cutting edge volume on a
topic that is of great interest to many researchers, policy makers and practitioners
throughout the world. I have no doubt that this book will be widely read and that it
has the potential to have an important impact on policy and practice, and further
research, in this area.

QAPCO Professional Chair in Vocational Studies, Rupert Maclean

and UNESCO Chair on TVET
and Sustainable Development, Office for Applied Research
and Innovation, College of the North Atlantic-Qatar
March 2018
Contents

1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Globalization, World Society, and the Expansion
of Standardization............................................................... 1
1.1.2 The Operation of International Organizations
in the Field of Education..................................................... 3
1.1.3 Mass Education at the Nation-State Level.......................... 4
1.1.4 The Construction of a Global Profession............................ 6
1.1.5 The Role of UNESCO and its Influence
on TVET Education Worldwide......................................... 7
1.1.6 The Importance of TVET in the Southern African
Development Community (SADC) Region........................ 8
1.2 Map of Contents................................................................................ 10
References.................................................................................................. 12
2 Globalization, International Organizations,
and Mass Education................................................................................. 15
2.1 Globalization and the World Society................................................ 15
2.1.1 Actors of the World Modern Society.................................. 16
2.2 International Organizations and the World Society.......................... 18
2.2.1 The Operation of International Organizations
in the Field of Education for Development........................ 20
2.3 Mass Education and Its Expansion on the World Society................ 23
2.3.1 Formal Education and the Origins of Mass Education....... 23
2.3.2 The Expansion of Mass Education..................................... 26
References.................................................................................................. 33
3 Contextualization of UNESCO as an International
Organization on Education..................................................................... 37
3.1 UNESCO As an International Organization..................................... 37
3.1.1 Basement and Foundations................................................. 37
3.1.2 UNESCO in the Field of Education.................................... 41

ix
x Contents

3.1.3 UNESCO Education Strategy 2014–2021.......................... 48

3.1.4 Education Agenda Post-2015.............................................. 48
3.1.5 Education and the Sustainable
Development Goals 2030.................................................... 50
References.................................................................................................. 51
4 Contextualization of TVET in Education.............................................. 53
4.1 TVET – General Understanding....................................................... 53
4.1.1 What Does TVET Mean and Imply?.................................. 53
4.1.2 Work, Formal Sector, Informal Sector,
and Decent Work................................................................. 55
4.2 TVET in a Global World................................................................... 56
4.2.1 Global TVET Challenges
on the Twenty-First Century............................................... 56
References.................................................................................................. 63
5 TVET at UNESCO................................................................................... 67
5.1 Conceptualization of TVET for UNESCO....................................... 67
5.2 Actual UNESCO’S TVET Strategy 2016–2021............................... 68
5.2.1 Core Area 1: Fostering Youth Employment
and Entrepreneurship.......................................................... 69
5.2.2 Core Area 2: Promoting Equity
and Gender Equality........................................................... 69
5.2.3 Core Area 3: Facilitating the Transition to Green
Economies and Sustainable Societies................................. 70
5.3 UNESCO’S TVET Normative Instruments...................................... 70
5.4 UNESCO-UNEVOC......................................................................... 72
References.................................................................................................. 73
6 UNESCO’s TVET Project: Better Education
for Africa’s Rise (BEAR)......................................................................... 75
6.1 Context and Background................................................................... 75
6.2 Overall Approach.............................................................................. 76
6.3 Project Design: Objectives and Key Features................................... 78
6.4 Implementation and Management Structure of the Project.............. 80
6.5 Country Specificities: Botswana and Namibia................................. 82
6.5.1 Botswana............................................................................. 82
6.5.2 Namibia............................................................................... 85
References.................................................................................................. 87
7 Contextualization of Botswana and Namibia as Member States
of the Southern African Development Community (SADC)................ 89
7.1 Southern African Development Community (SADC)...................... 89
7.1.1 SADC Goals, Principles, and Purpose................................ 89
7.2 Botswana (Fig. 7.2)........................................................................... 96
7.2.1 Context................................................................................ 96
7.2.2 Education............................................................................ 97
7.2.3 TVET in Botswana............................................................. 106
Contents xi

7.3 Namibia (Fig. 7.3)............................................................................. 114

7.3.1 Context................................................................................ 114
7.3.2 Education............................................................................ 116
7.3.3 TVET in Namibia............................................................... 130
References.................................................................................................. 136
8 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis................................................... 141
8.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis............................................... 141
8.1.1 Quantitative Analysis.......................................................... 141
8.1.2 Qualitative Analysis............................................................ 171
References.................................................................................................. 200
9 Conclusions and Recommendations....................................................... 201
9.1 Conclusions....................................................................................... 201
9.1.1 The Social Impact Perception on the Development
of TVET Systems by UNESCO......................................... 205
9.1.2 The Distribution of Mass Education Worldwide
Through the International Organizations............................ 210
9.1.3 UNESCO’s Role on the Development
of National TVET Systems................................................. 213
9.1.4 UNESCO’s Strengths, Weaknesses as International
Organization, and Suggestions to Improve
the Efficiency of Its Mandate and Work............................. 216
9.1.5 UNESCO’s Role on the Development
and Implementation of the BEAR Project
in Botswana and Namibia................................................... 218
9.2 Recommendations............................................................................. 220
9.2.1 To Enhance the Role of TVET in Supporting
National (and Regional) Development Objectives............. 221
9.2.2 To Expand Access to Technical and Vocational
Education and Training....................................................... 222
9.2.3 To Upgrade Vocational Teacher Education......................... 222
9.2.4 To Increase the Productivity of TVET Students................. 223
9.2.5 To Introduce Examinations as Part
of the TVET Learning Assessment Process........................ 224
9.2.6 To Enhance the Importance of Workplace Training........... 224
9.2.7 To Explore and Include New Models
of TVET Learning Including Distance TVET
Learning on the National TVET System............................ 225
9.2.8 To Maximize the Utilization of TVET Resources.............. 225
9.2.9 To Increase the Engagement of the Formal
TVET System with Micro and Informal Enterprises.......... 226
9.2.10 To Consider the Impact of HIV/AIDS
on Skills Development at the National Level..................... 227
9.2.11 To Engage TVET Colleges in Educationally
Aligned Income Generation Activities............................... 227
xii Contents

9.2.12 To Develop Strategies for Sponsorship............................... 227

9.2.13 To Create a Fast Track Pathway for Highly
Skilled Technicians to Gain TVET Teacher
Qualifications...................................................................... 228
9.2.14 To Develop Management Information Systems................. 228
9.2.15 To Bring the Private TVET into the National
TVET System..................................................................... 229
9.2.16 To Reinforce the Policy Coordination
Across Government Departments and Agencies................ 229
9.2.17 The Emergence and Performance
of Qualifications Systems................................................... 229
References.................................................................................................. 230
Acronyms

ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific

ADEA Association for the Development of Education in Africa
ADP Accenture Development Partnership
AfDB African Development Bank
AIDAB Australian International Development Assistance
Bureau
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ALMPs Active Labor Market Policies
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BCA Botswana College of Agriculture
BEAR Better Education for Africa’s Rise
BFTU Botswana Federation of Trade Unions
BGCSE Botswana General Certificate of Education
BIUST Botswana International University of Science and
Technology
BNVQ Botswana National Vocational Qualifications
BNVQF Botswana National Vocational Qualification
Frameworks
BOCODOL Botswana College for Distance and Open Learning
BoP, current Current Account Balance
BOTA Botswana Training Authority
BTEP Botswana Technical Education Program
CAME Conference of Allied Ministers of Education
CARICOM Caribbean Community
CBET Competency-Based education and training
CBOs Community-Based Organizations
CEDEFOP Centre Europeen pour le Developpement de la
Formation Professionelle
CESC Namibian Computer Education Services Corporation
CIES Comparative and International Education Society
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

xiii
xiv Acronyms

CONFEMEN La Conférence des ministres de l’Éducation des Etats et

Gouvernements de la Francophonie
COSDECs Community Skills Development Centers
COSDEF Community Skills Development Foundation
COST College for Out of School Training
CSP/NIP Namibian Country Strategy Paper and National
Indicative Paper
D and EU Developed Countries and European Union
DAC Development Assistance Committee
DACUM Development a Curriculum
DHS Demographic and Health Surveys
DOSET Department of Out-of-School Education
DR Developed Region
DR CONGO Democratic Republic of Congo
DTVET Department of Technical and Vocational Education and
Training
EAG Education at a Glance
EC European Commission
ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education
ECD Early Childhood Development
ECO/CONF Conference of the United Nations for the Establishment
of an Educational and Cultural Organization
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
ED Education
EDF European Development Fund
EDUCAIDS – UNAIDS Global Initiative on Education and HIV and AIDS
EFA Education for All
EMIS Education Management Information System
ESD Euro Statistic Database
ETF European Training Foundation
ETSIP Education and Training Sector Improvement Program
EU European Union
Euro Stat European Statistics Office
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FFA Framework for Action
FGDP Foreign Trade on Gross Domestic Product
G20 The Group of Twenty
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services (World Trade
Organization)
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIFTs Global Institute for Transferring Skills, South Korea
GINI GINI Coefficient
GIZ Rendered Through the Deutsche Gesellschaftfür
Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GMR Global Monitoring Report
Acronyms xv

GNI per capita Gross National Income per Capita

GNP Gross National Product
GPI Gender Parity Index
GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation
HATAB Hospitality and Tourism Association of Botswana
HDI Human Development Index
HDRs Human Development Reports
HIGSE Higher International General Certificate of Secondary
Education
HIV Human Immune-Deficiency Virus
HRD Human Development Service of Korea, South Korea
HRDAC Human Resources Development Advisory Council
HRDC Human Resource Development Council
IAG-TVET Inter-agency Technical and Vocational Education and
Training
IATT Inter-agency Task Team
IBE UNESCO’s International Bureau of Education
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IDP Integrated Development Planning
IGCSE International General Certificate of Secondary
Education
IGOs Intergovernmental Organizations
IHDI Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index
IICBA UNESCO’s International Institute for Capacity Building
in Africa
IIEP UNESCO’s International Institute for Educational
Planning
ILO International Labor Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
INEE Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies
INSSO International Network of Sector Skills
IOM International Organization for Migration
IRBM International Results Based Management
ISC Industry Skills Committee
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
ISESCO Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification of All
ITC Information Technology Center
JSC Junior Secondary Certificate
KfW KreditanstaltfürWiederaufbau
KILM Key Indicators of the Labor Market
KRIVET Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and
Training
LA and C Latin America and Caribbean
xvi Acronyms

LAMP Literacy Assessment and Monitoring Program

LDC Low Development Countries
LDR Low Developed Region
LIFE Literacy Initiative for Empowerment
LMS Labor Market Statistics
MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MHETEC Namibian Ministry of Higher Education, Training and
Employment
MIS Management Information System
MLAF Botswana Ministries of Labor and Home Affairs
MLHA Botswana Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs
MLHF Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs
MOA Botswana Ministry of Agriculture
MoE&SD Botswana Ministry of Education and Skills Development
MoESD Botswana Ministry of Education and Skills Development
MOH Botswana Ministry of Health
MOOC Massive Openline Course
MQC Minimum Qualified Candidate
MTC Transport and Communications
MTTC Madirelo Training and Testing Center
MWC&R Quarrying, Construction and Resources
N$ Namibian Dollar
NAMCOL Namibian College of Open Learning
NAMWATER Namibian Water Corporation
NATCOM National Commission for UNESCO
NCC National Craft Certificate
NCE National Commission on Education
NDP Namibian Development Plan
NEET Youth Not in Education, Employment or Training
NER Net Enrolment Rate
NFE-MIS Non-formal Education Management Information
System
NGO Non-governmental Organization
NIED National Institute for Education Development
NIMT National Institute of Management Technology
NIP National Indicative Paper
NPD National Development Plans
NPO National Project Officer
NPVET National Policy on Vocational Education and Training
NQA Namibian Qualification Authority
NQF National Qualification Framework
NTA Namibian Training Authority
NTL National Training Levy
NVTA National Vocational Training Act
Acronyms xvii

ODA British Overseas Development Agency

ODA Official Development Assistance
ODL Open and Distance Learning
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development
OECD/DAC Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development/Development Assistance Committee
PASEC Program for the Analysis of Education System
Francophone Countries
PLS Policies and Lifelong Learning Systems
PSC Peace and Security Council
QAA Quality Assurance and Assessment Unit
RISDP Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan
RNPE Revised National Policy on Education
ROK Republic of Korea
RPL Recognition of Prior Learning
SACMEQ Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring
Educational Quality
SACU Southern African Customs Union
SADC Southern African Development Community
SARC Southern Africa Resource Center
SC Steering Committee
SIDA Swedish International Development Authority
SIPO Strategic Indicative Plan for the Organ
SQA Scottish Qualification Authority
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
SWAP Sector-wide Approach
SWAPO South West Africa People’s Organization
TCCA Technical Committee on Certification and Accreditation
TCs Government Technical Colleges
TEC Tertiary Educational Council
TVE Technical and Vocational Education
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
TVSD Technical and Vocational Skills Development
UCW Botswana United World College
UIL UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Program on HIV/Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome
UNAM University of Namibia
UNDP United National Development Program
UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational
Education and Training
xviii Acronyms

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization
UNESCO HQ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization Headquarter
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNITWIN University Twinning and Networking
UNPOP UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs
USA United States of America
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USD United Sates of America
VET Vocational Education and Training
VTCs Vocational Training Centers
WAP Working Age Population
WB The World Bank
WBES World Bank Enterprise Surveys
WBI World Bank Indicators
WHO World Health Organizations
WTO World Trade Organization
WVTC Windhoek Vocational Training Centre
YLS Youth Literacy and Skills Development
ZAR South African Rand
List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Evolution of education as a global development

priority for United Nations................................................................ 29
Fig. 2.2 Periods in UNESCO’s history........................................................... 31
Fig. 3.1 UNESCO Medium-Term Strategy 2014–2021 (37/c4).................... 43
Fig. 3.2 UNESCO’s strategic objectives for education 2014–2021............... 49
Fig. 6.1 Implementation framework on curriculum development.................. 77
Fig. 6.2 Main goals of the implementation of the BEAR project.................. 78
Fig. 6.3 UNESCO’s target sector, scope, major components
and an overview of the national counterparts
of the BEAR project in Botswana and Namibia
are summarized on Fig. 6.3............................................................... 79
Fig. 6.4 Implementation process and stakeholders’ responsibilities
within the BEAR project................................................................... 82
Fig. 7.1 SADC region..................................................................................... 90
Fig. 7.2 Botswana........................................................................................... 96
Fig. 7.3 Namibia............................................................................................. 114
Fig. 7.4 Namibian historical strategic development framework.................... 117
Fig. 7.5 Namibia Vision 2030: Projections on youth and development......... 132
Fig. 8.1 Categorization of the questionnaire according
to the existing variables..................................................................... 142
Fig. 8.2 Group of stakeholders at UNESCO TVET project........................... 174
Fig. 9.1 UNESCO’s influence: perceived benefits in different domains........ 206
Fig. 9.2 UNESCO’s role on the development of national TVET systems..... 215
Fig. 9.3 UNESCO’s strengths as international organization.......................... 217
Fig. 9.4 UNESCO’s weaknesses as international organization...................... 217
Fig. 9.5 TVET teacher training areas............................................................. 223
Fig. 9.6 Teacher training Outcome Based Education (OBE) areas................ 223
Fig. 9.7 Roles on the TVET examination process.......................................... 225

xix
List of Graphs

Graph 7.1 Education spending percentage of GDP, 2005............................ 91

Graph 7.2 Length of the TVET programs in the SADC countries............... 93
Graph 7.3 Percentage of education budget allocated
to TVET in the SADC region...................................................... 95
Graph 8.1 Participation within the different TVET
trades by centers.......................................................................... 145
Graph 8.2 Participation within the different TVET
trades by gender.......................................................................... 146
Graph 8.3 Highest level of education attained by country........................... 148
Graph 8.4 Employment situation before joining the TVET
program by country..................................................................... 149
Graph 8.5 Participant’s main source of household income by country........ 150
Graph 8.6 Perception of living standard with household
income by country....................................................................... 151
Graph 8.7 Different ways to finance the participation
on the TVET program by country............................................... 152
Graph 8.8 Perceived importance of the TVET program
according to the students’ professional future
expectations by country............................................................... 154
Graph 8.9 Perceived importance of the TVET program
according to the students’ professional future
expectations by gender................................................................ 154
Graph 8.10 Participants’ satisfaction on the TVET
program, by country.................................................................... 158
Graph 8.11 Participants’ satisfaction on the TVET
program, by gender..................................................................... 158
Graph 8.12 Balance of life prior to the participation
on the TVET program by country............................................... 160

xxi
xxii List of Graphs

Graph 8.13 Balance of life prior to the participation

on the TVET program by gender................................................ 160
Graph 8.14 Future labor expectations by country.......................................... 161
Graph 8.15 Future labor expectations by gender........................................... 162
Graph 8.16 Future employment prospects, in comparison
to the previous ones, by country................................................. 163
Graph 8.17 Future employment prospects in comparison
with the previous ones by gender................................................ 163
Graph 8.18 Future income expectations by country...................................... 164
Graph 8.19 Future income expectations by gender........................................ 165
Graph 8.20 Intentions to continue studying by country................................. 166
Graph 8.21 Intentions to continue studying by gender.................................. 167
Graph 8.22 Expected balance of life after finalization
of TVET program by country..................................................... 167
Graph 8.23 Expected Balance of life after finalization
of TVET program by gender....................................................... 168
Graph 8.24 Expected improvement on future economic
situation by country (after completing
the TVET program)..................................................................... 169
Graph 8.25 Participant’s employment expectations before
and after the TVET program....................................................... 170
Graph 8.26 Changes on participants’ expectations
about their own professional success by country........................ 171
Graph 8.27 Change of perception about socioeconomic
status (SES) before and after the participation
in the TVET program.................................................................. 173
List of Pictures

Picture 6.1 BEAR project consultation process......................................... 76

Picture 6.2 Capacity building workshop on curriculum
development in DTVET, Gaborone, Botswana....................... 81
Picture 6.3 BEAR project student at the GTC in Botswana...................... 84
Picture 6.4 BEAR project student at Namwater, Namibia......................... 86

xxiii
List of Tables

Table 4.1 Overview of the different interpretations of “formal,”

“nonformal,” and “informal” education worldwide....................... 54
Table 4.2 Projections of working age population
by development regions.................................................................. 59
Table 4.3 Evolution of total and youth unemployment (%) over time........... 60
Table 7.1 Education levels in Botswana......................................................... 102
Table 7.2 Education pathways in relation to the age...................................... 102
Table 7.3 Education levels in Namibia........................................................... 123
Table 7.4 Education pathways in relation to the age...................................... 124
Table 8.1 Total number of TVET students at national level
and within the BEAR program on the selected
trades by country............................................................................ 144
Table 8.2 Participants by gender and country of origin................................. 145
Table 8.3 Number of people living in households by country....................... 147
Table 8.4 Inferential test to compare countries and genres
in relation to the motivation, initial expectations,
future expectations, and participants’ perceptions in total............. 153
Table 8.5 Appreciation on expected learned outcomes
by country of origin and gender..................................................... 157
Table 8.6 Impact of the TVET program in total by gender
and country of origin...................................................................... 172

xxv
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1  lobalization, World Society, and the Expansion

G
of Standardization

Globalization, as a process, has a number of dimensions. First, it increases the polit-

ical and military interdependence and expanded the strength of organizations
involved. Second, it increases the economic interdependencies. Third, it expands a
flow of individual persons among societies through socioeconomic migration.
Fourth, globalization intensifies the interdependence expansion of expressive cul-
ture through communication, and, last, globalization expanded common models of
social order becoming authoritative in many social settings (Meyer 2000). Moreover
it has been argued that general models of modern society and the nation-state have
spread rapidly, with mass education as a derived consequence of the urgency of
national integration and development (Boli et al. 1985).
As starting point, historicism, with a focus on local factors, does not explain well
a social change that is happening worldwide. Sociological institutional or neo-­
institutional theory, as it has developed since 1970, has provided a useful perspec-
tive from which to understand the rise, nature, and impact of the modern world
order or society. For many decades, social theories made difficult to think of the
world as a society. Societies were independent systems, as the world did not have a
sovereign state, and global independence was recognized only in a limited way; the
world was by definition not a society (Heintz 1972; Robertson 1992), but the insti-
tutional theory changes the scenario, and the post-functionalist theories were
increasingly outlined emphasizing a cultural conception of society as an “imagined
community” (Anderson 1983) rather than a model of actors involved in functional
interdependencies (Meyer 2009).

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

M. Preckler Galguera, Globalization, Mass Education and Technical and
Vocational Education and Training, Technical and Vocational Education and
Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects 31,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91107-6_1
2 1 Introduction

Even though the world polity and cultural system are relatively stateless, they
legitimate strong nation-state identities as the dominant actors, which produce very
strong tendencies for the adoption of common models of modernity, despite extraor-
dinary differences in resources and local culture (Meyer 2009). Nation-state, orga-
nizational, and individual actors are seeking models of their actor hood. Participation
in these globalized association networks is known to be a strong predictor of proper
mobilized actor hood: this is true not only of national states but also of formal orga-
nizations and individuals too.
Common models of organization in the world arise and penetrate within social
life worldwide; according to McNeely (1995) there is no central controlling politi-
cal organization with legitimate sovereignty over or responsibility for the whole.
There are some important organizations such as the UN system and the World Bank/
IMF, but these are not sovereign; they derive such authority, as they have, from
delegation by the subunit nation-state actors that make them up. There are also some
rather dominating subunit actors, but these too have no direct or authoritative sover-
eignty over the system as a whole. Thus modern world society is filled with eager
participants in the formation of universalized global culture. These are the direct
creators of the general principles of social progress and social equality.
The economic and financial globalization that began on 1970 created a pro-
foundly new environment for policy actors in both developing and developed
nations (Fourcade and Babb 2002). It has been suggested that postwar economic
globalization was the driving force behind the worldwide spread of market-friendly
policies (Maxfield 1997; Kitschelt et al. 1999). In a context where production and
finance have become “flexible” and globalized (Boyer and Hollingsworth 1997;
Castells 2000), the economy is increasingly perceived as exogenous and therefore
relatively uncontrollable.
Some sociologists have pointed out the importance of international normative
pressures in constructing the liberalization process as “inevitable” (Centeno 2001).
According to this analysis, international norms (e.g., the belief in the “market
logic”) should be regarded as social constructions whose systematic institutional-
ization worldwide is effectively organized by “rationalized others” – mainly – inter-
national organizations (e.g., the United Nations, the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development [OECD], the International Monetary Fund [IMF])
and associations, science, and the professions (Haas 1992; Meyer et al. 1997). As
has been widely shown, these institutions routinely produce, teach, and thereby con-
tribute to the worldwide diffusion of a set of “norms,” including economic ones,
from standards for the collection of economic data to analytical categories for think-
ing about economic questions and courses of action regarding economic policy.
While this “normative” analytical framework correctly identifies some important
vehicles for the dissemination of an economic consensus, it does not account for the
latter’s substantive nature nor does it explain why the consensus changes over time.
The fact that we rarely connect the development of technical education and voca-
tional training policies and the impacts on society suggests that the fundamental
role of technical education as an agent of globalization is not very well understood
by sociologists. Partly this is because we don’t consider that the economy and the
1.1 Introduction 3

labor market play an important role regarding the specificities of this type of educa-
tion. As Fourcade (2006) said, we might see the necessity for sociologist to look at
globalization as a critical factor in the transformation of professions and profes-
sional dynamics in the modern era (Fourcade 2006).

1.1.2  he Operation of International Organizations

T
in the Field of Education

Traditionally international organizations are entities established by formal political

agreements between their members that have the status of international treaties;
their existence is recognized by law in their member states; they are not treated as
resident institutional units of the countries in which they are located (Archer 2015).
Nowadays it is no longer possible to think about international organizations only
including those that have traditionally comprised the “global” landscape (Dale and
Robertson 2007). The various multilateral organizations have been joined by an
array of new market actors on the global stage, private for-profit universities, multi-
national firms, credit rating agencies, and so on, all with interest in capitalizing on
the education sector. Some of these organizations have become powerful actors in
education. The neo-institutionalism theories have seen them as epistemic communi-
ties diffusing the norms and values of a world polity based on the values and
assumptions of Western modernity.
The international organization’s work emphasizes on the role of ideas, knowl-
edge, expertise, discourse, and agenda setting, all of which are mechanisms of
power of one sort or another. A key feature is that they show how important it is not
to adopt a one size fits all assumption but to probe beyond classifications and exam-
ine questions of what mechanisms work, in what ways, for whom, and under what
circumstances. In other words, it is important not to see the global institutions as
similar actors with similar interests on a similar stage but to view them as part of a
complex set of social forces and patterning’s which change over time.
On one hand, it is difficult to create a comprehensive categorization of the inter-
national organizations, even though different comparisons regarding the work they
do already exists (Schafer 2006). Any categorization of the international organiza-
tions would include conditionalities (World Bank), conventions (International
Labor Organization (ILO), rules (World Trade Organization (WTO)), “norm cre-
ation,” indicators and peer review (Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development [OECD]), and meta-regulation (European Union (EU) (Dale and
Robertson 2007). On the other hand, it is important to recognize as Berstein
(2004) refers that international organizations generate a set of “rules of realization”
and “rules of recognition” of the global system that are spread by this entities and
dominate, that is, the rules that describe what that system is. What Lukes’ called as
“the rules of the game” (Lukes 2005). The kind of rules does not apply only to the
content of the education but also to its governance and in particular to the role of
national states in that process.
4 1 Introduction

Moreover it is important to point out that a range of new and different actors have
entered into the international organizations scene and consider that the “traditional”
international organization has changed qualitatively in the last decade and a half,
both in the nature of their functioning and their mandates across the board and in the
increasing emphasis they have placed on education; the clearest example of this is
the OECD, where education has moved from being a “Cinderella” function, a small
and relatively disregarded part of an umbrella economic and social directorate, to
becoming a separate directorate in its own right (Dale and Robertson 2007).
New actors have arrived on the scene engaged in supplying a highly differenti-
ated range of services, including testing services, tutoring, and specialized knowl-
edge. Thus, not only is there evidence of an emerging “globalizing education
industry,” but this industry runs parallel with the existing sector, at the same time
transforming that sector.
These actors operate differently to traditional education institutions; many pub-
licly traded growth is through differentiation rather than offering across the board
services and global expansion in order to achieve economies of scale. These enter-
prises are not simply symptomatic of the growing market dimensions of education,
but their presence is being shaped by state policy (as a result of subsidization,
vouchers and so on) at the national and supranational scales. Many of these actors
are also involved in promoting their own interests through, for example, the GATS
or through World Bank contracts in the developing world.

1.1.3 Mass Education at the Nation-State Level

Education has traditionally been regarded socially as the most national of activities.
For the last decades, education has been scripted linking ideologies of human rights
and social progress and has had an enormous impact on educational expansion
around the world (Riddle 1993). It is the institution through which new members of
a society are socialized into its ways and understandings and learn the values and
the rules of appropriateness of the society (Dale and Robertson 2007).
To explain national education developments, one must go beyond “national tra-
ditions” and situate nation-state within a broader nation-state system. Only then
does the world institutionalization of education emerge as a major dynamic to be
analyzed (Meyer 2009).
Since the end of the Second World War, the growth of education is notable for
several reasons. First, the institutions of mass education have spread to virtually all
countries despite vast differences in political, economic, social, and cultural organi-
zation. Second, rates of enrollment around the world are high and represent enor-
mous financial investments by many impoverished states and economies. And,
third, the rapidity of educational expansion across states was unanticipated, its
speed catching by surprise both theorists and practitioners alike (Meyer et al. 1993).
1.1 Introduction 5

Mass education, throughout its modern history has been justified by functional
theories and ideologies. Education is supposed to be closely tied to the distinctive
needs and direction of a particular society. This tradition is not without critics. On one
hand the arguments from the left side are based on the assessment that mass and elite
education function to maintain societies dominated by economic and/or political
interest; on the other hand from the right side, it is seen as the received wisdom both
in educational theories of social order. These visions continue to influence the field of
comparative education (Meyer et al. 1992).
National education systems originate and become institutionalized in national
societies that aspire to develop and progress along quite standard lines. Standardized
education arises then as an agreed upon common feature of development and prog-
ress as well as a crucial instrument intended to attain these transnational legiti-
mated goals.
Conventional functional theories, both from the left and the right, tend to be
micro-sociological, sharing characteristics that limit their capacity to interpret the
global standardization of education. First, standardization would arise from the tight
economic and political integration, which implies that educational standardization
seems to occur at faster not slower rates than other forms of integration. Second,
education is tied into national social systems made up of defined interest; therefore,
the society constructs and reconstructs education as a phenomenon rather than a
natural entity. But it is also important to consider a macrosociological aspect while
retaining the realism of functional theories.
As a reaction to the functional theories of mass education, a social scientific reac-
tion to functionalism refers that educational systems tend to reflect the distinctive
cultural values and perspectives characteristics of national societies, not necessarily
tight functional requisites or even power and interest systems, which emphasize the
uniqueness of national educational systems.
Furthermore, the sociological neo-institutionalism perspective defended by
Thomas et al. (1987) refers that modern education tends almost inherently to be a
world enterprise, universal, and universalistic in aspiration, and as in outcomes,
nation-states organize education as embedded in a world society. Nation-states
share the same identity which is a national society with standard modern goals and
standard strategies to attain these goals, even though the characteristics of theses
nation-states differ (Thomas et al. 1987).The concept of mass education under-
stands education as a part of the cultural model of the modern society or nation-­
state. Education is adopted as a part of this model, and this adoption symbolizes
commitment to becoming a respectable member or “imagined community” legiti-
mated by world society (Anderson 1983).
Education is standardized because it is part of a general model of the modern
nation-state. The elaboration of education as a relatively specific model in itself
greatly increases global standardization (Meyer 2009).
6 1 Introduction

1.1.4 The Construction of a Global Profession

Professionalization is traditionally understood as a local and geographically bound

process. Typically, we consider that the nation-state sets the boundaries of the ecol-
ogies within which professions emerge, structure themselves, and interact with each
other. The main reason is that professions’ rights of entry are typically regulated
locally, either at the national or the state level. As a result, the sociology of profes-
sions has been a particularly fertile ground for developing cross-national and com-
parative arguments (Abbott 1988). For instance, the literature draws a sharp contrast
between the state-regulated professions of continental Europe and the privately
regulated professions of the Anglo-Saxon world, even though finer distinctions have
often been made within these categories.
The link between nation and profession holds in reverse as well: professional-
ization is often seen as one of the processes whereby nation building takes place
historically. This is especially clear in the case of certain professions, such as the
civil service or the military that directly participate in the institutionalization of
public authority (Skowronek 2002). Abbott (2005) suggests that the argument
applies more broadly; states, he argues, constructed and defined themselves partly
in relation to the very effort made by the emerging professions to establish their
own space.
Professions are determined primarily by markets and politics (Sarfatti-Larson
1979). To know how markets and politics interact at the international level to influ-
ence professional dynamics is a quite complex matter. National boundaries and
regulations continue to limit the extent to which economic activities (including pro-
fessional ones) can be transplanted within a country or from one country to another.
Professionalism may expand their activities beyond their country of origin; never-
theless it is not in our hands to analyze this specific scenario, not trying to know
what happens when a profession extends its influence beyond its national boundar-
ies; meanwhile the process on how professions internationalize looks analytically
similar to how they nationalized. In other words, we ought to consider the global
logic of professional development as such, both at local and global levels rather than
to study the globalization of the particular professional domain.
Since the beginning of the 1950s and 1960s, the intellectual and institutional
framework of the social sciences worldwide started undergoing rapid expansion and
transformation of professions; higher education was increasingly seen as a central
element in the societal purpose: to construct the nation by providing a moral educa-
tion to the masses and a technocratic training to the elite. To sum up colonial
European powers exported educational designs to their core colonies during the first
half of the twentieth century.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A scrap of
paper
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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Title: A scrap of paper

The inner history of German diplomacy and her scheme of
world-wide conquest

Author: Emile Joseph Dillon

Release date: November 18, 2023 [eBook #72164]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1914

Credits: Brian Coe and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SCRAP OF

PAPER ***
 Transcriber’s Notes
Additional notes will be found near the end of this ebook.
This book did not have a Table of Contents. The one below
has been prepared by the Transcriber, using the actual Chapter
headings.

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY v

CHAPTER I
THE CAREFULLY LAID SCHEME 1

CHAPTER II
THE MANY-TRACKED LINES OF GERMAN DIPLOMACY 15

CHAPTER III
THE PLAN AND ITS EXECUTION 27

CHAPTER IV
FORCING THE QUARREL 40

CHAPTER V
GERMANY’S PROGRAMME 69

CHAPTER VI
THE POSITION OF ITALY 78

CHAPTER VII
THE TWELFTH HOUR 98

CHAPTER VIII
THE EARTHQUAKE 127

CHAPTER IX
BRITISH NEUTRALITY AND BELLIGERENCY 141

CHAPTER X
THE INFAMOUS OFFER 154

CHAPTER XI
JUST FOR “A SCRAP OF PAPER” 177

APPENDIX
DIPLOMACY AND THE WAR 205
Photo: Elliott & Fry
Dr. E. J. DILLON
A SCRAP of PAPER
THE INNER HISTORY OF
GERMAN DIPLOMACY
AND HER SCHEME OF
WORLD-WIDE CONQUEST
By
Dr. E. J. DILLON
Third Edition.

HODDER AND STOUGHTON

LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO
MCMXIV
 INTRODUCTORY
“Just for a word—neutrality, a word which in war-time had so often
been disregarded—just for a scrap of paper Great Britain was going
to make war.” Such was the significant comment of the German
Chancellor on Great Britain’s determination to uphold the neutrality
of Belgium. A scrap of paper! This phrase, applied to a binding
treaty, is destined to stick like a Nessus’ shirt to the memory of its
author, his imperial inspirer, and their country until such time as the
militarism which originated it has been consumed without residue. It
is a Satanic sneer hurled with fell purpose into a world of civilized
human beings. No such powerful dissolvent of organized society has
been devised since men first began to aggregate. The primal source
of the inner cohesive force which holds the elements of society
together is faith in the plighted word. Destroy that and you have
withdrawn the cement from the structure, which will forthwith crumble
away. But this prospect does not dismay the Prussian. He is ready to
face and adjust it to his needs. He would substitute for this inner
cohesion the outer pressure of militarism, which, like the hoops of a
barrel, press together the staves. Brutal force, in the form of jackboot
tyranny, then, is the amended formula of social life which is to be
forced upon Europe and the world. Such, in brief, is the new social
gospel of the Hohenzollerns, the last word of Teutonic culture.
This revolutionary doctrine, applied thus simply and
undisguisedly to what normal peoples deem the sacredness of
treaties, has awakened dormant British emotion to self-
consciousness and let loose a storm of indignation here. It startled
the quietism of the masses and their self-complacent leaders, whose
comforting practice was to refuse to think evil of the Germans,
however overwhelming the evidence. The windy folly of these
advocati diaboli, from whom the bulk of the British nation derived
their misconceptions of the German Empire, worked evils of which
we have as yet witnessed only the beginning. Those who, like
myself, know the country, its institutions, its language, literature,
social life, and national strivings, and who continually warned their
countrymen of what was coming, were put out of court as croaking
prophets of the evil which we ourselves were charged with stirring
up.
It is now clear to the dullest apprehension that the most dismal of
those forecasts, the most sinister of those predictions, were terribly
real, while the comforting assurances of the ever-ready publicists
and politicians, who knew Germany only from books of travel,
holiday excursions, or the after-dinner eloquence of members of
Anglo-German Leagues, were but dangerous mirages which lulled
the nation’s misgivings to slumber. And now the masses have been
ungently awakened. The simple declaration of a German statesman
of repute, and a man, too, of the highest honesty as this term is
understood in his own country, that the most solemn treaty, ratified
and relied upon as stronger than fortresses bristling with cannon, is
but a scrap of paper, unworthy the notice of an enterprising nation,
suddenly drew into the light of Western civilization the new and
subversive body of doctrine which the Teutons of Europe had for a
generation been conspiring to establish, and would have succeeded
in establishing were it not for a single hitch in the execution of their
programme. If the combined efforts of peace-loving France, Russia,
Great Britain, and Italy had moved the Tsar’s Government to stay its
hand and allow Servia to be mutilated, and the Bucharest Treaty to
be flung aside as a worthless scrap of paper, or if Austria had been
permitted to listen to M. Sazonoff’s request and reduce her demands
within the compass of the possible, the realization of the Teutonic
plot against non-German Europe would have been begun later on,
under much more favourable auspices, and probably worked out to a
successful issue. That plot belongs to a category of crimes against
the human race which can hardly be more effectively attacked than
by plainly stating its objects and the means relied upon to attain
them.
The objects of Prussia’s ambition—an ambition shared by every
anæmic, bespectacled clerk and able-bodied tram-conductor in the
Fatherland—are “cultural,” and the means of achieving them are
heavy guns, quick-firers, and millions of ruthless warriors. Real
German culture in all its manifestations—scientific, artistic,
philosophical, musical, commercial, and military—accepts and
champions the new principle and the fresh ideas which are to
regenerate the effete social organisms of to-day. According to the
theory underlying this grandiose national enterprise, the forces of
Christianity are spent. New ichor for the dry veins of decrepit Europe
is stored up in German philosophy and poetry. Mediæval art has
exhausted the traditional forms, but Teutonism is ready to furnish it
with new ones. Music is almost a creation of German genius.
Commerce was stagnating in the ruts of old-world use and wont until
German enterprise created new markets for it, and infused a new
spirit into its trading community. Applied science owes more to
German research and ingenuity than to the efforts of all the world
besides. And the race thus highly gifted is deserving of a field worthy
of its world-regenerating labours. At present it is cooped up in
Central Europe with an absurdly small coast-line. Its surplus
population has, for lack of colonies, to be dumped down on foreign
shores, where it is lost for ever to the Fatherland. For this degrading
position, which can no longer be tolerated, there is but one remedy:
expansion. But to be effectual it must be expansion combined with
Germanization. And the only means of accomplishing this end is for
Germany to hack her way through the decrepit ethnic masses that
obstruct her path and to impose her higher civilization on the natives.
Poland was the first vile body on which this experiment was tried,
and it has been found, and authoritatively announced, that the Slavs
are but ethnic manure, useful to fertilize the seed-fields of Teutonic
culture, but good for little else. The Latin races, too, are degenerates
who live on memories and thrive on tolerance. Beef-eating Britons
are the incarnation of base hypocrisy and crass self-indulgence, and
their Empire, like a hollow tree, still stands only because no storm
has yet assailed it. To set youthful, healthy, idealistic Germany in the
high places now occupied by those inert masses that once were
progressive nations is but to adjust obsolete conditions to the
pressing requirements of the present time—to execute the wise
decrees of a just God. And in order to bring this task to a satisfactory
issue, militarism must reign as the paramount power before culture
can ascend the throne. Militarism is a necessity, and unreasoning
obedience the condition of its success.
It is easy to think scorn of these arrogant pretensions and to turn
away from them to what may seem more urgent and more profitable
occupations. And hitherto this has been the attitude towards them of
the advanced wing of British progressists, who imitated the Germans
in this—that they judged of others’ motives by their own. But the
danger cannot be exorcized by contempt or indifference. The forces
at the command of the Teuton are stupendous. His army is a
numerous, homogeneous, and self-sacrificing nation. His weapons
are the most deadly that applied science could invent and the most
practised skill could fashion. And these weapons are handled not by
amateur or unwilling soldiers, but by fanatics as frenzied as the
Moslems, who behold paradise and its houris athwart the grey
smoke of the battlefield. For Teutonism is not merely a political
system, it is also a religious cult, and its symbol of faith is
Deutschland über Alles. Germany above everything, including
human and divine laws.
One of the dogmas of this cult resembles that of the invisible
Church, and lays it down that the members of this chosen race are
far more numerous in the present, as indeed they also were in the
past, than the untutored mind is apt to imagine. The greatest artists
of mediæval Italy, whom an ignorant world regards as Italian, nay
Christ himself, were Germans whose nationality has only just been
discovered. That the Dutch, the Swiss, the Belgians, the Swedes
and Norwegians, and the recalcitrant British are all sheep strayed
from the Teutonic flock, and destined to be brought back by the
collies of militarism, is a self-evident axiom. This process of recovery
had already begun and was making visible progress. Antwerp was
already practically Germanized, and Professor Delbrück, in his reply
to one of my articles on German expansion, described it as
practically a German port. The elections to the municipality in that
flourishing Belgian town were run by the German wealthy residents
there. The lace manufactories of Belgium were wholly in German
hands. So, too, was the trade in furs. A few years more of peaceful
interpenetration would have seen Holland and Belgium linked by a
postal and, perhaps, a Customs union with the German Empire.
In this new faith ethics play no part. The furtherance of the
German cause takes precedence of every law, divine and human. It
is the one rule of right living. Whatever is done for Germany or for
the German army abroad or at home, be it a misdemeanour or a
crime in the eyes of other peoples, is well done and meritorious. A
young midshipman, going home at night in a state of semi-
intoxication, slays a civilian because he imagines—and, as it turns
out, mistakenly imagines—that he has been slighted, and feels
bound in duty to vindicate the honour of the Kaiser’s navy. He is
applauded, not punished. Soldiers sabre laughing civilians in the
street for the honour of the Kaiser’s uniform, and in lieu of
chastisement they receive public approbation. Abroad, Germans of
position—German residents in Antwerp offered a recent example—
worm themselves into the confidence of the authorities, learn their
secrets, offer them “friendly” advice, and secretly communicate
everything of military importance which they discover to their
Government, which secretly subsidizes them, and betray the trusting
people whose hospitality and friendship they have so long enjoyed.
Their conduct is patriotic. The press deliberately concocts news,
spreads it throughout the world, systematically poisoning the wells of
truth, and then vilifies the base hypocrisy of the British, who
contradict it. That is part of the work of furthering the good cause of
civilization. Tampering with State documents and forging State
papers are recognized expedients which are wholly justified by the
German “necessity which knows no law.” We have had enlightening
examples of them since the war broke out. Prince Bismarck availed
himself of this cultural privilege when he altered the Kaiser’s
despatch in order to precipitate a collision with France. And the
verdict of the nation was “Well done, thou good and faithful servant,
who hast made such patriotic use of the maxim that the end, when it
is Germany’s cause, justifies the means and hallows the act.” Since
his day the practice has been reduced to a system.
With such principles illustrated by such examples, how could the
present Imperial Chancellor regard a mere parchment treaty that lay
across the road of his country’s army other than as a mere scrap of
paper?
That was a logical corollary of the root-principle of Pan-
Germanism. Germany’s necessity, of which her own Kaiser,
statesmen, diplomatists, and generals are the best judges, knows no
law. Every treaty, every obligation, every duty has to vanish before it:
the Treaty of Bucharest, establishing equilibrium in the Balkans, as
well as the Treaty of 1839, safeguarding the neutrality of Belgium.
Hence nobody conversant with the nature, growth, and spread of this
new militant race-worship was in the least surprised at the
Chancellor’s contempt for the scrap of paper and for the simple-
minded statesmen who proclaimed its binding force. I certainly was
not. Experience had familiarized me with these German doctrines
and practices; and although my experience was more constant and
striking than that of our public men who had spent most of their lives
in Great Britain, they, too, had had tokens enough of the new ethics
which Prussia had imported into her international policy to put them
on their guard against what was coming. But nobody is so blind as
he who will not see.
Pan-Germanism, then, is become a racial religion, and to
historical and other sciences has been confided the task of
demonstrating its truth. But if curiosity prompts us to inquire to what
race its military apostles, the Prussians, belong, and to interrogate
history and philology on the subject, we find that they are not
Germans at all. This fact appears to have escaped notice here. The
Prussians are members of a race which in the ethnic groups of
European Aryans occupy a place midway between the Slavs and the
Teutons. Their next-of-kin are the Lithuanians and the Letts. The
characteristic traits of the old Prussians, the surviving fragments of
whose language I was once obliged to study, are brutal arrogance
towards those under them, and cringing servility towards their
superiors. One has but to turn to the political history of the race to
gather abundant illustrations of these distinctive marks. To the
submissiveness of the masses is to be attributed the ease with which
the leaders of the nation drilled it into a vast fighting machine, whose
members often and suddenly changed sides without murmur or
criticism at the bidding of their chief. And it was with this redoubtable
weapon that the Hohenzollern dynasty, which itself is German, won
for the State over which it presided territory and renown. This done,
and done thoroughly, it was Prussia who experimented upon all
Germany in the way in which the Hohenzollerns had experimented
on Prussia; and being supported by the literary, artistic, and scientific
elements of the German people, succeeded thus far, and might have
ended by realizing their ambitious dream, had it not been for the
interposition of circumstance which misled them in their choice of
opportunity.
Thus latter-day Germany furnishes a remarkable instance of the
remoulding of a whole nation by a dynasty. For the people has, in
truth, in some essential respects been born anew. The centre of its
ethico-spiritual system has been shifted, and if it had a chance of
gaining the upper hand Europe would be confronted with the most
appalling danger that ever yet threatened. Morality, once cultivated
by Germans with religious fervour, has become the handmaid of
politics, truth is subservient to expediency, honour the menial of the
regiment. Between the present and the past yawns an abyss. The
country of Leibnitz, of Kant, of Herder, and of Goethe was marked off
by fundamental differences from the Germany of to-day. The nation’s
ideas have undergone since then an amazing transformation, which
is only now unfolding itself in some of its concrete manifestations to
the gaze of the easy-going politicians of this country. So, too, have
the ethical principles by which the means of pursuing the ideals were
formerly sifted and chosen. The place once occupied by a spiritual
force, by the conscience of the nation and the individual, is now
usurped by a tyrannical system devised by a military caste for a
countless army. And this system has been idealized and popularized
by visionaries and poets, professors, and even ministers of religion
whose spiritual nature has been warped from childhood. To-day
there is no counter-force in the land. Jesuitism, as the most virulent
Calvinists depict it at its worst, was a salutary influence when
compared with this monstrous product of savagery, attired in military
uniform and the wrappages of civilization, and enlisted in the service
of rank immorality.
 What could afford our normally constituted people a clearer
insight into the warped moral sense of the Prussianized German
people than the remarkable appeal recently made by the “salt of the
Fatherland,” German theologians and clergymen, to “Evangelical
Christians abroad,” setting forth the true causes of the present
1
iniquitous war? These men of God preface their fervent appeal by
announcing to Evangelical Christians the lamentable fact that “a
systematic network of lies, controlling the international telegraph
service, is endeavouring in other lands to cast upon our people and
its Government the guilt for the outbreak of this war, and has dared
to dispute the inner right of us and our Emperor to invoke the
assistance of God.... Her ideal was peaceful work. She has
contributed a worthy share to the cultural wealth of the modern
world. She has not dreamed of depriving others of light and air. She
desired to thrust no one from his place. In friendly competition with
other peoples she has developed the gifts which God had given her.
Her industry brought her rich fruit. She won also a modest share in
the task of colonization in the primitive world, and was exerting
herself to offer her contribution to the remoulding of Eastern Asia.
She has left no one, who is willing to see the truth, in doubt as to her
peaceful disposition. Only under the compulsion to repel a wanton
attack has she now drawn the sword.”
These heralds of peace and Christian love appear to have been
so immersed in their heavenly mission that they have not had time to
peruse such unevangelical works as the writings of Treitschke,
Clausewitz, Maurenbrecher, Nietzsche, Delbrück, Rohrbach,
Schmoller, Bernhardi. And yet these are the evangelists of the
present generation of Germans. Whether the innocence of the dove
or the wisdom of the serpent is answerable for this failure of the
Evangelical Germans to face the facts is immaterial. The main point
is that first the German professors published their justification of this
revolting crime against humanity; then came the anathema hurled
against the allies by German authors, who pledged themselves
never again to translate into the language of God’s chosen people
the works of any French, English, or Russian man of letters; these
were succeeded by the Socialists, who readily discovered chapter
and verse in the Gospel of Marx for the catastrophic action of the
Government they were wont to curse, and exhorted their Italian
comrades to espouse the Kaiser’s cause against the allies; and now
the rear of this solemn procession of the nation’s teachers is brought
up by their spiritual guides and pastors, who publicly proclaim that
their Divine Master may fully be implored to help his German
worshippers to slay so many Russians, British, and French
Christians that they may bring this war to an end by dictating the
terms of peace, and firmly establishing the reign of militarism in
Europe. That is the only meaning of the summary condemnation of
those who have “dared to dispute the inner right of us and our
Emperor to invoke the assistance of God.”
If this be Evangelical Christianity as taught in latter-day
Germany, many Christians throughout the world, even among those
who have scant sympathy with Rome, will turn with a feeling of relief
to the decree of the new Pope enjoining prayers for the soldiers who
are heroically risking their lives in the field, but forbidding the faithful
to dictate to the Almighty the side to which he shall accord the final
victory.
As historians, this body of divines have one eye bandaged, and
read with the other only the trumped-up case for their own Kaiser
and countrymen. They write:
“As our Government was exerting itself to localize the justifiable
vengeance for an abominable royal murder, and to avoid the
outbreak of war between two neighbouring Great Powers, one of
them, whilst invoking the mediation of our Emperor, proceeded (in
spite of its pledged word) to threaten our frontiers, and compelled us
to protect our land from being ravaged by Asiatic barbarism. Then
our adversaries were joined also by those who by blood and history
and faith are our brothers, with whom we felt ourselves in the
common world-task more closely bound than with almost any nation.
Over against a world in arms we recognize clearly that we have to
defend our existence, our individuality, our culture, and our honour.”
From the theological standpoint, then, Germany is engaged in a
purely defensive war against nations guilty of breaking their pledged
word, and of wantonly attacking the peace-loving Teutons.
 Nobody can read without a grim smile this misleading exposé
which ignores the Austrian ultimatum to Servia, with its forty-eight
hours’ term for an answer; the exasperating demands which were
drafted, not for the purpose of being accepted by the Belgrade
Government, but with the admitted object of provoking a refusal; the
fervent insistence with which the British Foreign Minister besought
the German Government to obtain an extension of the time from
their Austrian ally; the mockery of a pretence at mediation made by
the Kaiser and his Chancellor, and their refusal to fall in with Sir
Edward Grey’s proposal to summon a conference and secure full
satisfaction and effectual guarantees for Austria; and the German
ultimatum, presented to Russia and to France at the very moment
when the Vienna Government had “finally yielded” to Russia’s
2
demands and “had good hopes of a peaceful issue.” Those were
essential factors in the origins of the war. Yet of these data the
spiritual shepherds of the German people have nothing to say. They
pass them over in silence. For they are labouring to establish in the
minds of Evangelical Christians abroad their “inner right” to invoke
the assistance of God for the Kaiser, who patronizes Him. This
unctuous blending of Teutonic religion with the apology of systematic
inhumanity reminds one of an attempt to improve the abominable
smell of assafœtida with a sprinkling of eau-de-Cologne.
These comments are nowise intended as a reproach to the
theologians and pastors who have set their names to this appeal.
Personally, I venture to think that they have acted most
conscientiously in the matter, just as did von Treitschke, Bernhardi,
and their colleagues and their followers. The only point that I would
like to make clear is that they have a warped ethical sense—what
the schoolmen were wont to term “a false conscience.” And the
greater the scrupulosity with which they act in accordance with its
promptings, the more cheerfully and abominably do they sin against
the conscience of the human race.
The simplicity and unction with which these men come forward
to vindicate their “inner right” to pray God to help their Kaiser to
victory over pacific peoples, the calm matter-of-fact way in which
they accuse the Belgians of revolting barbarities—for that is one of