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Fundamentals of
Sustainability in
Civil Engineering
Fundamentals of
Sustainability in
Civil Engineering
Andrew Braham
All cover photos by M. Knapp. Counterclockwise from upper left: Nanjing, China; Romania; Usa,
Japan; Orphanage in Tanzania; Seattle (WA) skyline, USA; Franz Joseph Glacier, New Zealand;
center: Okavango Delta, Botswana.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-7512-0 (Hardback)
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To Brenda
Cotents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................xi
Author..................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Sustainability................................................................ 1

1.1 Development of Sustainability through the United Nations....... 1
1.2 American Society of Civil Engineers and Sustainability...........4
1.3 As Civil Engineers, How Do We Incorporate
Sustainability?....................................................................... 6
References............................................................................................. 8
Chapter 2 Pillar: Economic Sustainability............................................................ 9

2.1 Traditional Sustainable Economics............................................9
2.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis............................................................9
2.3 Present, Future, and Annual Worth.......................................... 17
2.4 Rate of Return..........................................................................20
2.5 Benefit/Cost Ratio.................................................................... 21
2.6 Summary of Economic Pillar................................................... 22
References...........................................................................................24
Chapter 3 Pillar: Environmental Sustainability...................................................25

3.1 Life Cycle Analysis..................................................................25
3.2 Ecological Footprint................................................................. 29
3.3 Planet Boundary....................................................................... 31
3.4 Environmental Product Declaration.........................................34
3.5 Summary of Environmental Pillar........................................... 37
References........................................................................................... 39
Chapter 4 Pillar: Social Sustainability................................................................. 41

4.1 Existing Civil Engineering Concepts....................................... 42
4.2 United Nations (2002, 2007, 2012, 2015).................................44
4.3 Oxfam Doughnut...................................................................... 45
4.4 Human Development Index...................................................... 48
4.5 Social Impact Assessment........................................................ 50
4.6 Emerging Areas of Social Sustainability................................. 52
References........................................................................................... 53
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 5 Application: Environmental Sustainability......................................... 55

5.1 Low-Impact Development........................................................ 55
5.1.1 Green Roofs................................................................. 59
5.1.2 Porous Pavements........................................................ 63
5.1.3 Bioretention Cells........................................................66
5.2 Drinking Water Treatment....................................................... 69
5.3 Wastewater Treatment.............................................................. 74
5.4 Outdoor Air Quality................................................................. 76
References...........................................................................................84
Chapter 6 Application: Geotechnical Sustainability........................................... 87

6.1 Alternate Granular Fill Materials............................................. 87
6.2 Expanded Polystyrene Fill........................................................92
6.3 Retaining Walls........................................................................ 95
6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls..................................... 102
References......................................................................................... 107
Chapter 7 Application: Structural Sustainability............................................... 109

7.1 Fly Ash................................................................................... 109
7.2 Bamboo.................................................................................. 113
7.3 Steel Diagrids......................................................................... 117
7.4 Certification and Rating Systems........................................... 122
References......................................................................................... 133
Chapter 8 Application: Transportation Sustainability....................................... 135

8.1 Material Reuse: RAP and RAS.............................................. 135
8.2 Multimodal Transportation.................................................... 138
8.3 Intelligent Transportation Systems......................................... 142
8.4 Crash Modification Factors.................................................... 145
References......................................................................................... 152
Chapter 9 Tomorrow’s Sustainability................................................................ 155

9.1 Sustainability Is Not a Straightforward Issue......................... 155
9.2 Sustainability Is an Undeveloped Field.................................. 157
9.3 Paradigm Shift Required for Sustainability........................... 158
References......................................................................................... 158
Index....................................................................................................................... 159
Preface
The content of this textbook targets a senior-level undergraduate course in Civil
Engineering. This textbook is intended to introduce students to the broad concept of
sustainability while also preparing them for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE)
exam. Effort has been made to utilize concepts from the FE reference manual so that
students become familiar with or reacquainted with terminology and nomenclature
utilized in the FE reference manual.
All attempts were made to remove any errors from this book. However, there are
no doubt lingering issues here and there, and for that I apologize. If you find an error
within the text, whether grammatical or technical, please do not hesitate to email me
at afbraham@uark.edu. Thank you.
Andrew Braham
ix
Acknowledgments
I could not have completed this book on my own. Thank you to my colleagues who
reviewed chapters in their subject areas, including Ken Sandler, Zola Moon, Wen
Zhang, Richard Welcher, and Gary Prinz. I also greatly appreciate my colleagues
who helped me through polishing concepts and homework problems, including
Julian Fairey, Findlay Edwards, and Rodolfo Valdes-Vasquez. At the end of the day,
I would not be in my current position without students, and I thank all of the students
who have taken my course Sustainability in Civil Engineering. So many of the ideas
and concepts have been taken directly out of my learnings in the classroom.
Thank you to all the staff at Taylor & Francis who were always quick to help and
who made the process as easy as possible for me.
Finally, a huge thanks to my personal editors, Judy and Brenda, who have,
over the past 15 years, taught me more about writing than I learned in any class.
xi
Author
Andrew Braham is an associate professor of civil engineering at the University of
Arkansas. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin with a BS in May 2000
and an MS in May 2002. From June 2002 through December 2004, he worked with
Koch Materials Company as a field engineer and a research engineer. In June 2005,
he returned to school for doctoral work at the University of Illinois and graduated
in December 2008. For the next two years, from February 2009 to November 2010,
Dr. Braham was a postdoctoral research fellow at Southeast University in Nanjing,
China. In November 2010, Dr. Braham began work in the Civil Engineering
Department at the University of Arkansas, where he has continued to study trans-
portation materials while expanding into sustainability. A major component of
Dr. Braham’s laboratory investigates pavement maintenance and rehabilitation
products and advanced pavement materials characterization. He has performed
research for regional, state, and national funding agencies, along with private indus-
try. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in transportation engineering,
pavement design, pavement materials, and sustainability. You can find out more
about Dr. Braham at www.andrewbraham.com.
xiii
1 Introduction to
Sustainability
We hold the future in our hands, together, we must ensure that our grandchil-
dren will not have to ask why we failed to do the right things, and let them
suffer the consequences.
Ban Ki-moon
The term “sustainability” is currently very popular. Industries and organizations
realize the benefits of protecting the future while succeeding in the present. In
the present, sustainability is most often defined as incorporating three pillars into
design: economics, environmental, and social. However, the general concepts of sus-
tainability have been in use for millennia. The design and construction of Roman
aqueducts for drinking water distribution were so robust that they have lasted cen-
turies, with dozens of aqueducts built as early as 300 bc still standing today and
the “Roman Road” still being used for movement of traffic. The Iroquois Native
American confederacy has been in place since approximately the twelfth century,
and uses the concept of sustainability in their constitution. Finally, today, there is
a significant push for many sustainability initiatives, including more fuel-efficient
vehicles on the roadway. Fuel-efficient vehicles address all three pillars of sustain-
ability, by reducing fuel consumption (economics), decreasing emissions (environ-
mental), and allowing more diverse transportation options for consumers (social, or
society). There are literally hundreds of existing books on sustainability discussing
these and other concepts, but in order to demonstrate the development of sustain-
ability overall, resources from the United Nations (UN) will be used to show how
sustainability has been qualified and quantified over the past 40 years.
1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH

THE UNITED NATIONS
The UN, established in 1945 to avoid future conflicts on the scale of World War I
and World War II, is an international organization made up of 193 member states as
of 2016. Written in 1945, the UN’s charter (from www.un.org) contains four aims:
1. To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our
lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind
2. To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of
the human, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and
small
1
2 Fundamentals of Sustainability in Civil Engineering
3. To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obliga-
tions arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be
maintained
4. To promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom
In order to strive toward achieving these four aims, four guidelines (also from
www.un.org) were also established:
1. To practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good
neighbors
2. To unite our strength to maintain international peace and security
3. To ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods,
that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest
4. To employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and
social advancement of all peoples
This basis of international cooperation provides a logical place to begin examin-

ing the development of the concepts of sustainability. At the end of the day, while
each individual nation can work toward becoming more sustainable, pollutants that
cause acid rain do not distinguish between borders, waste that accumulates in oceans
does not follow international water law, and rivers that are dammed in one coun-
try may reduce flow in a second country downstream. These issues are complex.
Therefore, taking a global perspective helps ensure that all countries are working
toward similar common goals.
The first significant milestone for sustainability within the UN was the World
Conservation Strategy, developed in 1980 (IUCN, 1980). In this document, sustain-
ability was described through three goals:
1. Maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems

2. Preserve genetic diversity
3. Ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems
These three goals mainly revolve around the

concept of protecting the environment, with SIDEBAR 1.1
terms such as ecological processes, life support To read more about the United
systems, genetic diversity, species, and ecosys- Nations, visit their website at
tems. However, 7 years later, in 1987, the UN www.un.org.
released the Brundtland Commission Report,
which is probably the most recognizable milestone in the UN’s sustainability devel-
opment (Brundtland, 1987). Within the Brundtland Commission, a theme was devel-
oped to qualify sustainability. The theme reads that sustainability “meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.” This theme is independent of protecting the environment, but the con-
cept of the environment is still woven into the fabric of the theme. It is interesting
that this concept is almost identical to the Constitution of the Iroquois Nations, which
states (in part): “Look and listen for the welfare of the whole people and have always
Introduction to Sustainability 3
in view not only the present but also the coming generations, even those whose faces
are yet beneath the surface of the ground—the unborn of the future Nation.”
In 2002, the UN hosted a World Summit on Sustainable Development, which for
the first time defined what are called the three pillars of sustainability: economics,
environmental, and social (UN, 2002). During this summit, a key theme was the
commitment to “building a humane, equitable, and caring global society, cognizant
of the need for human dignity for all” at local, national, regional, and global levels.
With this new solid foundation of the three pillars, future conferences and summits
began formulating objectives and themes around sustainability. For example, the
2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development put forth three objectives (UN,
2012):
1. Poverty eradication
2. Changing unsustainable and promoting sustainable patterns of consump-
tion and production
3. Protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social
developments
Through these three objectives, the three pillars of sustainability are clear, with
economics clearly a part of the second and third objective, the environmental also in
the second and third objectives, and social spanning all three objectives.
Following the UN summits in 2002 and 2012, the UN developed a resolution in
2015 that went even further with quantifying the measures of achieving sustainabil-
ity (UN, 2015). This resolution, titled “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development,” broadened the scope of sustainability significantly
with 17 metrics. These metrics are summarized in Table 1.1.
In addition to these 17 metrics, a timeline was established in order to meet eight
“Millennium Development Goals” (UN, 2007). The timeline goal is to achieve all
eight by 2030. The eight Millennium Development Goals are
1. Eradicate extreme poverty

2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership
The UN has put sustainability metrics and Millennium Development Goals

to practice through many channels, most noticeably through their Economic and
Social Council and Secretariat. Through these “main bodies,” the UN promotes and
finances sustainable development, provides coordination and oversight, and builds
partnerships.
While the UN has provided strong guidance on how to pursue sustainability,
and has shown leadership in the implementation of their policies, it is important
TABLE 1.1
2015 United Nations Resolution on Sustainability Metrics
Metric Brief Description
1 Poverty End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2 Food End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture
3 Health Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
4 Education Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong
learning opportunities for all
5 Women Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6 Water Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all
7 Energy Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all
8 Economy Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment, and decent work for all
9 Infrastructure Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization, and foster innovation
10 Inequality Reduce inequality within and among countries
11 Habitation Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable
12 Consumption Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13 Climate Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
14 Marine Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for
ecosystems sustainable development
15 Ecosystems Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16 Institutions Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable, and
inclusive institutions at all levels
17 Sustainability Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development
to understand how we as civil engineers need to incorporate sustainability into our

professional lives. Fortunately, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has
provided clear guidance on how to do this.
1.2 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

AND SUSTAINABILITY
The ASCE was founded in 1852 and is the oldest engineering society in the United
States. More than 150,000 people are members across 177 countries, which includes
more than 380 student chapters at universities in the United States alone. The ASCE
has been active in promoting the importance of sustainability and has made sustain-
ability a major focus area. The ASCE defines sustainability as: “A set of environ-
mental, economic and social conditions in which all of society has the capacity and
opportunity to maintain and improve its quality of life indefinitely without degrading
the quantity, quality, or availability of natural, economic, and social resources.” This
definition clearly incorporates the three pillars of sustainability (economics, environ-
mental, social) and draws on the latter UN work that also incorporates the concept of
recognizing future generations. In addition to having a definition with several active
initiatives, ASCE has also incorporated sustainability into their Code of Ethics.
In 1914, ASCE adopted a Code of Ethics, which is the “model for professional
conduct” for ASCE members (ASCE, 2006). Within this Code, ASCE has four fun-
damental principles and seven fundamental canons. Sustainability is mentioned in
the first principle: “using [engineer’s] knowledge and skill for the enhancement of
human welfare and the environment.” This principle directly addresses two of the
three pillars of sustainability, social and environmental. In addition to the first prin-
ciple in ASCE’s Code of Ethics, sustainability is mentioned in several of the seven
canons. Canon 1 states that “engineers shall … strive to comply with the principles
of sustainable development.” Further discussion of Canon 1 indicates that if profes-
sional judgment is overruled, engineers should inform clients or employers of the
possible consequences. In addition, engineers need to work for the advancement of
safety, health, and well-being of their communities (social pillar) and the protec-
tion of the environment (environmental pillar). Canon 3 continues the sustainability
theme by asking engineers to endeavor to extend public knowledge of engineering
and suitable development. This dedication by ASCE of incorporating sustainable
principles into their Code of Ethics enforces the commitment of the civil engineering
community in understanding and incorporating sustainable practices into the field.
The question becomes at this point: how is this done?
SIDEBAR 1.2 WRITING A HIGH-QUALITY ESSAY

A well-written essay contains three components: an introduction, a body, and
a conclusion. The introduction should gently guide the reader into the topic,
starting with a high-level discussion that sets up the reader to understand
the purpose of the body content. The introduction should end with a topic
sentence, which clearly states the main points of the body. This will allow the
reader to be fully ready for the body of your essay, which usually contains
2–3 main points that you are trying to describe to the reader. These could
be examples, arguments, or situations that form the skeleton of your essay.
Within the body, you should support the points with ideas and facts that wrap
the skeleton with muscle and create a clear picture of your discussion. After
efficiently stating your main points, the conclusion is a recap of your introduc-
tion and body. No new information should be provided in the conclusion, and
the reader should be able to obtain the gist of your essay from only reading the
conclusion. This allows readers to gain a general idea of your essay, and if they
are interested, they can read the entire document. Finally, engineering essays
are generally written in third person. While they can be written in first person,
take care as most readers are interested in the topic of the essay, and not the
writer of the essay.
1.3 AS CIVIL ENGINEERS, HOW DO WE

INCORPORATE SUSTAINABILITY?
After this introductory chapter, this book is divided into eight additional chapters,
encompassing the three pillars of sustainability (Chapters 2 through 4), moving into
applications of sustainability in the four primary areas of civil engineering (Chapters
5 through 8), and finishing with a glimpse into tomorrow’s sustainability (Chapter 9).
Chapter 2 will cover the economic pillar of sustainability. Tools to quantify eco-
nomic measures of sustainability will be introduced, along with case studies and
examples studying civil engineering projects that have incorporated economic
aspects of sustainability. Specific tools include life cycle cost analysis, present/
future/annual worth, rate of return, and benefit/cost ratio. Chapter 3 will explore
the environmental pillar of sustainability. In this chapter, life cycle analysis, eco-
logical footprint, planet boundary, and environmental product declarations will be
discussed. Similar to this chapter on the economic pillar, examples of environmental
implementation of these metrics in civil engineering projects will be shown. The
third pillar of sustainability, social, will be covered in Chapter 4. The social pil-
lar has not been quantified to the same depth as the economic and environmental
pillars, but there are several tools available that could provide insight on potential
social impacts of civil engineering. These tools include previously published articles
in civil engineering journals, the five documents produced by the UN, the Oxfam
Doughnut, the Human Development Index, and the Social Impact Assessment. In
addition, emerging areas of social m etrics will be introduced. The concepts covered
in the three sustainability pillars are summarized in Table 1.2.
While Chapters 2 through 4 provide foundational information as to quantitative
and qualitative metrics to the three pillars of sustainability, Chapters 5 through 8
will delve deeply into specific applications of sustainability in the four primary areas
of civil engineering. Chapter 5 is devoted to environmental applications of sustain-
ability while Chapter 6 covers geotechnical applications of sustainability. Chapter
7 will explore structural applications of sustainability, and Chapter 8 will cover the
fourth and final area of civil engineering—transportation applications. Chapters 5
through 8 will cover a wide range of topics, from drinking water treatment to geo-
foam fill, steel diagrids to recycled asphalt pavement. In addition, these four chapters
of application will provide extensive practice problems that utilize concepts taken
TABLE 1.2
Key Concepts Covered in the Economic, Environmental, and Social Pillars
of Sustainability
Economic Environmental Social
• Life cycle cost analysis • Life cycle analysis • Existing civil engineering examples
• Present/future/annual • Ecological footprint • United Nations
worth • Planet boundary • Oxfam Doughnut
• Rate of return • Environmental • Human Development Index
• Benefit/cost ratio product declarations • Social Impact Assessment
Sustainability in civil engineering
Environmental
Economic
Social
Environmental, geotechnical, structural, transportation
FIGURE 1.1 Components of civil engineering sustainability. (Credit: A. Braham.)
directly from the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
(NCEES) Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) reference handbook. This will not only
allow for additional practice in preparation for the FE exam, but will also provide
insight as to the broad scope of coverage on the FE exam. The content of Chapters 2
through 8 is graphically represented in Figure 1.1.
This book will finish with Chapter 9, which will give a survey of the future direc-
tion of sustainability in civil engineering, Sustainability is not a straightforward
issue and the field itself is highly underdeveloped. In order to fully implement con-
cepts from all three pillars, a paradigm shift will need to occur in industry and
government. Engineers are typically strong in the STEM fields (science, technology,
engineering, math), but are less robust in the “softer skills” such as policy making
and human development. This should not be viewed, however, as an obstacle but as
an opportunity to continue identifying, building, and nurturing relationships across
multiple disciplines in order to not only improve our world today but also tomorrow.
HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
For all answers in this chapter, use the format provided under Sidebar 1.2 “Writing
a High-Quality Essay.”
1. The first paragraph of this chapter discussed how ancient civilizations were
either actively participating or providing governance in sustainable prac-
tices. Find a third ancient civilization that also incorporated sustainable
practices, and give three examples on how they did so.
2. The United Nations was established in 1945, but its aims have not changed
since. Examine the four aims—do you think that all four are still important
today? In your answer, provide three examples of why you think that they
are still either important or not important.
3. Similar to question 2, the United Nations also have four guidelines that have
not changed since 1945. Examine the four guidelines—do you think that all
four are still important today? In your answer, provide three examples of
why you think that they are still either important or not important.
4. Over the years, the United Nations hosted five conferences or summits
(1980, 1987, 2002, 2012, and 2015) that directly revolved around sustain-
ability. Of these five, which conference or summit do you think was most
important in the development of sustainability on a global scale?
5. Of the 17 metrics developed during the 2015 UN Sustainable Development
Summit, choose which metric you believe is most relevant and which met-
ric you believe is least relevant. Provide two examples for each argument.
6. Two of the 17 metrics developed during the 2015 UN Sustainable Devel-
opment Summit are directly related to civil engineering: water and infra-
structure. Choose one of these two metrics and discuss three examples of
sustainability in your chosen metric.
7. Eight goals were developed during the 2015 UN Sustainable Development
Summit. Choose which goal you believe is most achievable by 2030 and
which goal you believe is least achievable by 2030. Provide two examples
for each argument.
8. After examining ASCE’s definition of sustainability, do you feel it is com-
plete? If so, justify with three discussion points. If not, provide three discus-
sion points on how you think it could be improved.
9. There is no mention of cost or economics in the ASCE Code of Ethics. As
one of the three pillars of sustainability, economics is an important com-
ponent. Why do you think that economics was not mentioned in the Code,
and do you think it should be included? Use three discussion points in your
answer.
REFERENCES
ASCE. Code of Ethics. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, amended 2006.
Brundtland, G. H. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our
Common Future. United Nations, New York, 1987.
IUCN. World Conservation Strategy, Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable
Development. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN), United Nations, New York, 1980.
UN. Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. United Nations, Johannesburg,
South Africa, 2002.
UN. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. United Nations,
Third Edition, New York, 2007.
UN. Report of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. United Nations,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2012.
UN. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution
adopted by the General Assembly on September 25, 2015, New York, Seventieth
Session.
2 Economic Sustainability
Pillar
We make a living by what we get, we make a life by what we give.

Winston Churchill
At the end of the day, private companies, public agencies, and all owners need to
stay in business. This is often driven by financial considerations. If an organization
is “in the red,” it means that they are spending more money than they are making,
and, in the long term, the organization will fail. However, many choices are only
made by considering today’s costs. So, if choice A costs less than choice B today,
the organization will default to choice A. However, what if choice A costs less today,
but will cost more over the 15-year design period versus cost B? Is it worth spending
more money today to save money tomorrow? This is one of the key concepts of eco-
nomics in sustainability, looking beyond today’s cost and ensuring that, in the long
term, the best economic decisions are being made. This concept is the cornerstone of
the economic pillar of sustainability.
2.1 TRADITIONAL SUSTAINABLE ECONOMICS

Traditional economic considerations of sustainability revolve around three main
points: local impact, material savings, and reuse. When considering economics
and local impact, sustainable practices provide employment and stimulate local
economy. By saving materials, that is, reusing existing materials, organizations can
reduce upfront costs, reduce the transportation of materials, and reduce onsite waste.
In addition, by utilizing fewer natural resources, future savings are gained in many
areas, such as reducing the amount of material going to landfills. While these are
all important concepts of reuse, they are limited in the fact that raw costs are not
the only factor; what is more, maintenance and disposal costs may be quite different
depending on the manufactured product or the engineering infrastructure. Finally,
long-term performance is not taken into account, and in some applications, the lon-
ger-term performance may not even be known. These are certainly challenges while
considering the economic perspectives of sustainability, but there are several con-
cepts that can aid in more accurately capturing the full life span. These include life
cycle cost analysis (traditional and probabilistic, Section 2.3), present/future/annual
worth (Section 2.4), rate of return (Section 2.5), and benefit/cost ratio (Section 2.6).
2.2 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

A life cycle cost analysis, or LCCA, is a very well-established method of quantifying
long-term economic impacts. An LCCA takes into account both initial and discounted
9
future costs in an attempt to identify the best value over the life of either a manufac-
tured product or engineering infrastructure. A convenient feature of an LCCA, when
comparing two different cost alternatives, is that common costs can cancel out and
only costs that are different are considered. This highlights the importance of stating
assumptions in the analysis, as different stakeholders in a project could make very
different assumptions. Another key aspect of an LCCA is determining the analysis
period. An analysis period can cover either a portion or the full life of a product or
infrastructure, and can even extend through the salvage of material at the end of life.
Regardless of the analysis period that is chosen, however, care must be taken when
stating assumptions and defining the analysis period to reduce confusion.
When considering the life cycle stages, both manufactured products and engi-
neering infrastructure can be broken down into six stages. For a manufactured
SIDEBAR 2.1 SALVAGE VALUE

Salvage value, in short, is the economic value of either a product or infrastruc-
ture at the end of the analysis period for the product or infrastructure. This can
include the recycle, the remanufacture, or the reuse value of the product or
infrastructure. If no specific data is available to calculate the salvage value, it
is assumed to be zero. There are several methods for calculating or estimating
the salvage value. For example, the Federal Highway Administration uses the
following for pavements:
  actual life of alternative  

Salvage value = 1−    × cost of alternative
  expected life of alternative  
This simplified approach is acceptable by many because of the high level

of uncertainty associated with service lives and costs for different pavement
layer components, and the relatively small impact that salvage value has on
life cycle cost comparisons. However, more complicated measurements for
salvage value have been developed for pavements, including the following:
 remaining life of last resurfacing 

Salvage value = CLR ×  + CRI
 service life of last resurfacing 
where CLR is the cost of the last resurfacing, and CRI is the cost of the lower
asphalt layers remaining from the initial construction. This calculation of
salvage value accounts for the in-place value of the pavement structure in
addition to the remaining life of the last resurfacing.
The use of this simplified approach in estimating salvage value is justified
by the fact that there are several uncertainties associated with the service lives
and costs for the different pavement component layers, and the relatively small
impact that salvage value actually has on life cycle comparisons.
Economic Pillar 11
product, such as aggregate in Portland cement concrete (PCC), the first stage is
material extraction. After extraction, the material is processed (stage two) in order
to reach the third stage, manufacturing. After manufacturing, the product is used
(stage four), and finally, the product has an end of life (stage five). At this point, there
is the possibility for the sixth stage, which is material reuse. For example, aggre-
gates for pavements are either taken out of a quarry through a blasting operation (for
manufactured aggregate), or can be dredged from a river bed (for natural aggregate).
Generally, the aggregate needs to be processed by screening out nonaggregate mate-
rial, or deleterious material, and washing excess clay or dust off the aggregate. Next,
the aggregate is crushed in a jaw crusher, cone crusher, or impact crusher and then
screened in order to achieve specific gradations for either a base course in a pave-
ment structure or within the concrete layer. This stage is the manufacturing stage
(stage three). Once the desired gradation is achieved, the aggregate is ready for use
in the pavement structure. However, over time, PCC weathers and ages under traffic
loads and environmental conditions, and the aggregate reaches the end of its life. The
sixth and final stage of a manufactured product is the use of the material in another
project, for example, crushing the weathered and aged PCC roadway for use in a new
application.
A similar sequence of life cycle stages can be evaluated for engineering infra-
structure. The first life cycle stage for engineering infrastructure is site develop-
ment. The second is infrastructure manufacturing, which is followed by materials
and product delivery (stage three). The fourth life cycle stage is infrastructure use,
and the life cycle is complete at the end of the infrastructure’s life and use in other
applications. For example, during the construction of a bridge, the first stage is pre-
paring the approaches and pylons for the support columns. The second stage would
be the manufacture of the steel, concrete, and bridge deck material that will be uti-
lized during construction. The third stage would be the actual delivery of the steel,
concrete, and bridge deck material and assembly on site. Once the bridge construc-
tion is completed, the bridge is in use for the life span, which eventually leads to the
end of life. If the opportunity presents itself, the components of the old bridge can be
reused (stage 6). For example, it is not uncommon for bridge girders to be taken from
high-volume roads, sorted for functionality, and then used on lower-volume roads;
this is a lower cost and a more sustainable option for small agencies such as cities
and counties that can work with larger agencies, such as state and national agencies,
in order to maximize the life use of each piece of infrastructure. A summary of the
life cycle stages for both manufactured product and engineered infrastructure can be
found in Table 2.1.
An advantage to defining projects with these six life cycle stages is the ability to
clearly define three concepts: recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse. Going from
the fifth step (end of life) to the second step (processing for materials, manufactur-
ing for infrastructure) is recycling. Recycling is very common in materials such as
steel and asphalt pavements, which are the two largest recycled materials by weight
in the world. Remanufacturing occurs when moving from the fifth stage (end of
life) to the third stage (manufacturing for materials, delivery and construction for
infrastructure). One example of remanufacturing is the utilization of existing facades
in new buildings. When a historic building needs extensive renovation, a potential
TABLE 2.1
Life Cycle Stages
Stage Manufactured Product Engineering Infrastructure
First Material extraction Site development
Second Process material Manufacturing of infrastructure
Third Manufacturing of material Infrastructure delivery and construction
Fourth Product use Infrastructure use
Fifth End of life End of life
Sixth Reuse of material Reuse of infrastructure
solution is to keep the facade of the building but completely replace the interior of
the building. During this process, the facade needs a complete overhaul, which is a
form of remanufacturing. The third concept of sustainability is reuse, which moves
from the fifth stage (end of life) to use (the fourth stage). The previous example of
reusing bridge girders from state roadways in country roadways is a good example of
reuse. Within the three concepts of recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse, reuse has
the highest level of sustainability. It requires the least amount of material transporta-
tion and processing. Conversely, recycling has the lowest level of sustainability, as
material generally needs to be collected in a central location for processing and then
redistributed to the field. Table 2.2 summarizes the concepts of recycling, remanu-
facturing, and reuse.
The traditional LCCA has six steps:
1. Establish alternative design strategies for the analysis period

2. Determine performance periods and activity timing
3. Estimate agency and user costs
4. Develop expenditure stream diagrams
5. Compute net present value (NPV)
6. Analyze results and reevaluate design strategies
The first step to LCCA, establish alternative design strategies for the analysis
period, allows the engineer to decide what different options are worthy of being
TABLE 2.2
Concepts of Sustainability, as Defined by the Six Life Cycle
Stages, and Their Impact
From To Concept Impact (Relative Sustainability)
Stage 5 Stage 2 Recycle Lowest
Stage 5 Stage 3 Remanufacturing Moderate
Stage 5 Stage 4 Reuse Highest
Economic Pillar 13
explored. While skyscrapers will probably never be constructed from aluminum (for
both cost and material properties), the debate of steel versus PCC is always of inter-
est, as is traditional steel designs such as moment frames versus diagrids. Therefore,
understanding the options, and then deciding the analysis period provide the founda-
tion for the LCCA.
The second step to LCCA is determining the performance periods and activ-
ity timing. Typical performance periods include maintenance and rehabilitation
schedules. Maintenance includes activities that have to be performed on a consistent
schedule in order to allow the infrastructure to perform as designed, whereas reha-
bilitation occurs when more than maintenance is required but a full replacement is
not necessary. A good example is a wood structure. If the wood is exposed, it needs
to be sealed at least every 3–5 years in order to maintain integrity. The sealing is
an example of maintenance. However, after several seals, often, individual pieces
of wood must be replaced. It is anticipated that every 10–15 years, a portion of the
structure will need to be replaced. However, the entire structure should not need to
be replaced at 10–15 years if properly maintained.
The third step, and often the most difficult step for the LCCA, is estimating the
agency and user costs. Here, the initial cost must not only be considered, but then
maintenance cost, the rehabilitation costs, and then the salvage value all also need
to be quantified. Pavements are an excellent example of breaking out agency and
user costs. For state agencies, examples of agency costs include materials, produc-
tion, and construction for the initial cost. A popular comparison of two different
pavements is asphalt concrete versus PCC. These have very different initial costs,
which are highly dependent on geographic region and traffic level. However, user
costs must also be considered. Not only is pavement construction a temporal incon-
venience for drivers, it also costs the user money in lost productivity. In fact, the 2015
Urban Mobility Scorecard estimated that traffic congestion cost users $160 billion
nationwide in 2014 (Schrank et al., 2015). This number is a combination of both fuel
costs and lost time costs. While this is a combination of both construction congestion
and standard congestion, it still shows the extreme scale of the impact of user delays
on our economy.
The fourth step of the traditional LCCA is to develop an expenditure stream dia-
gram. Continuing on with the pavement example, an LCCA analysis was done on
Arkansas State Highway 98 on the cost of a 2-in asphalt concrete overlay (Braham,
2016). The production, construction, and rehabilitation costs were estimated for a
50-year design period, with rehabilitation costs performed every 11 years. Note that
there is no maintenance in this analysis, as it was assumed that maintenance costs
were the same on all of the pavement types in the study. Figure 2.1 clearly shows the
power of these expenditure stream diagrams; notice that it is very quickly obvious
from the figure what the costs are and how they change over time.
The fifth step of the traditional LCCA is computing the NPV. The NPV takes all
anticipated future costs and converts the costs to today’s dollar value. When these
converted future costs are added to the initial cost, a single number is created and
multiple alternatives can be compared directly. Equation 2.1 is used to compute
the NPV.
5.2 User costs on top, agency costs on bottom

all dollars in year zero dollars, using 5% discount rate
salvage value of $6000 at year 50
Costs ($1000)
65.1
3.0
38.1
1.8
1.0
22.3 0.6
13.0 7.6
0 10 20 30 40 6.0
Time (years)
FIGURE 2.1 Expenditure stream diagram for a 2-in overlay on AR98 for a 50-year design.
(Credit: A. Braham.)
tn
 maintenance cost 
NPV = initial cost + ∑ 
0
(1 + r )t n 
tn
 rehabilitation cost   salvage cost 
+ ∑ 
0
(1 + r )t n  −  (1 + r )t n  (2.1)
where
t = time period analyzed (years)
n = year of analysis
r = discount rate (%)
This analysis shows the importance of determining performance periods and

activity timing, as well as the importance of having available dollar values for initial
maintenance, rehabilitation, and salvage costs. The combination of all of these four
costs will provide a sound platform for making the final design strategy. The sixth
and final step to the traditional LCCA analysis is comparing the NPV of different
design strategies, and reevaluate the strategies and assumptions to determine if any
important details were overlooked.
At this point, it is important to note that the cost analysis done for the traditional
LCCA has been deterministic. This simply means that single values were assumed
for prices, both for initial costs and for future costs. However, this is an enormous
assumption and not reflective of what actually happens in the real world, which has
variability of the price of materials. A good example is the price of Portland cement.
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Binoculina, according to the number of the eyes, and describes 304
British species, distributed among eleven families.
His successor in this country has been Pickard-Cambridge, whose
work, under the modest title of The Spiders of Dorset (1879–81), is
indispensable to British collectors.
Blackwall’s division of the order into tribes was evidently artificial,
and has not been followed by later Arachnologists. Dufour (1820)
founded two sub-orders, Dipneumones and Tetrapneumones, based
on the presence of two or four pulmonary sacs. Latreille (1825)
established, and many Arachnologists adopted, a division into tribes
based upon habits, Orbitelariae, Retitelariae, Citigradae, Latigradae,
etc., and this method of classification was followed in the important
work of Menge, entitled Preussische Spinnen, which was published
between 1866 and 1874.
Since 1870 determined efforts have been made to grapple with the
difficult subject of Spider classification, notably by Thorell and
Simon. The latter, undoubtedly the foremost living Arachnologist,
writes with especial authority, and it is inevitable that he should be
largely followed by students of Arachnology, who cannot pretend to
anything like the same width of outlook.
It is indicative of the transition stage through which the subject is
passing that Simon in his two most important works,[306] propounds
somewhat different schemes of classification, while in the Histoire
naturelle, where his latest views are to be found, he introduces in the
course of the work quite considerable modifications of the scheme
set forth in the first volume.
In that work the order is divided into two sub-orders, Araneae
theraphosae and Araneae verae, the first sub-order containing
Liphistius and the Mygalidae or Theraphosidae of other authors,
while all other spiders fall under the second sub-order. The Araneae
verae are subdivided into Cribellatae and Ecribellatae, according
to the presence or absence of “cribellum” and “calamistrum” (see p.
326) in the female. Important as these organs doubtless are, the
Cribellatae do not appear to form a natural group, some of the
families having apparently much closer affinities with certain of the
Ecribellatae than with one another. This is especially evident in the
case of the cribellate Oecobiidae and the ecribellate Urocteidae (see
p. 392), which most authors unite in a single family.
After all, the larger divisions of the order are not of great
importance, and in the present chapter Simon’s linear arrangement
of families will in the main be followed, except for the distribution of
the eight families which constitute his Cribellatae[307] to the positions
which a more general view of their structure would seem to indicate.
Fam. 1. Liphistiidae.—Spiders with segmented abdomen, as
shown by the presence of a series of tergal plates. Eight spinnerets
in the middle of the ventral surface of the abdomen, far removed
from the anal tubercle. Sternum long and narrow. Eight compact
eyes on a small eminence. Four pulmonary stigmata.
This Family includes a single
genus and two species of large
spiders (about two inches in
length), one from Penang and one
from Sumatra. Very few examples
have been found, and these are
Fig. 201.—Profile (nat. size) and ocular more or less defective and in bad
area (enlarged) of Liphistius desultor. condition. In some respects,
especially the distinct
segmentation of the abdomen,
this genus much more nearly approaches the Pedipalpi than do any
others of the order. No other spider possesses more than six spinning
mammillae, but it is possible that eight was the more primitive
number, and that the “cribellum” (see p. 326) of the so-called
Cribellate spiders is derived from the pair now possessed by
Liphistius alone.
Some Arachnologists consider the genus Liphistius so different
from all other spiders as to constitute in itself a sub-order, for which,
on account of the position of its spinnerets, the name MESOTHELAE
has been suggested, all other forms falling into the sub-order
OPISTHOTHELAE.
Fam. 2. Aviculariidae. (Mygalidae).[308]—Spiders with
independent chelicerae, the paturon directed forward and the
unguis or fang articulating in a vertical plane. The eyes are eight
(except Masteria, six), usually compact, and situated on an
eminence. Pedipalpi very leg-like, and palpal organs of male
simple. No maxillae. Four pulmonary stigmata. Spinnerets
normally four. No colulus.
The Aviculariidae inhabit the warmer portions of the world, and
are entirely unrepresented in this country. The monster spiders
which excite wonder in zoological collections belong to this group, as
do the moderate-sized “Trap-door” Spiders which are found
abundantly in the Mediterranean region.
The Family has been divided into about a hundred and fifty
genera, nearly half of which, however, contain only a single species.
They have been grouped by Simon[309] into seven sub-families,
Paratropidinae, Actinopodinae, Miginae, Ctenizinae,
Barychelinae, Aviculariinae, and Diplurinae, of which the first
three may be dealt with very briefly.
(i.) The Paratropidinae include only two American species,
Paratropis scrupea from the Amazon, and Anisaspis bacillifera from
St. Vincent. They have thick, rugose integuments, and the internal
angle of the coxa of the pedipalp is produced. The labium is fused
with the sternum, which is very broad. Nothing is known of their
habits, but as they do not possess a “rastellus” (see p. 320) they are
probably not burrowing spiders.
(ii.) The Actinopodinae comprise three genera, Stasinopus
represented by a single South African species, S. caffrus; Eriodon, of
which about ten species inhabit Australia; and Actinopus, of which
about ten species are found in Central and South America. They have
the coxae of the pedipalps very short and broad, and somewhat
produced at the internal angle. The eyes are not in the usual compact
group, but are somewhat extended across the caput. Actinopus
burrows a deep cylindrical hole lined with silk, and furnished with a
round, bevelled trap-door.
(iii.) The sub-family Miginae is established for the reception of
three genera, Moggridgea (South Africa), Migas (Australia and
South-West Africa), and Myrtale, whose single species, M. perroti,
inhabits Madagascar. They are chiefly characterised by their very
short and downwardly-directed chelicerae. They are not terricolous,
but inhabit trees, either boring holes in the bark, or constructing a
sort of silken retreat fortified by particles of wood.
(iv.) The Ctenizinae form a large group, including some forty
genera. All the “Trap-door” Spiders of the Continent fall under this
sub-family, which, moreover, has representatives in all the tropical
and sub-tropical regions of the world. A rastellus is always present,
and the eyes form a compact group on an eminence. The coxae of the
pedipalps are longer than in the groups previously mentioned, and
there is no production of the internal angle. The labium is generally
free.
The commonest European genus is Nemesia, of which about thirty
species inhabit the Mediterranean region. The cephalothorax is
rather flat, and the central fovea is recurved (◠). The burrow is
sometimes simple and sometimes branched, and the trap-door may
be either thin, or thick with bevelled edges.
Allied genera are Hermacha and Rachias in South America,
Spiroctenus in South Africa, Genysa in Madagascar, Scalidognathus
in Ceylon, and Arbanitis in New Zealand. The genus Cteniza (fovea
procurved ◡) possesses only a single species (C. sauvagei), found in
South-East France and Italy.
Pachylomerus is a widely-distributed genus, being represented in
North and South America, Japan, and North Africa. The tibiae of the
third pair of legs are marked above by a deep impression near the
base. A closely allied genus, Conothele. inhabits Southern Asia and
New Guinea.
The widely-distributed genus Acanthodon, which has
representatives in all the sub-tropical countries of the world,
together with the South American genera Idiops and Pseudidiops,
and the Indian genus Heligmonerus, present a peculiar arrangement
of the eyes, one pair being situated close together in the middle of the
front of the caput, while the remaining six form a more or less
compact group some distance behind them.
Among the many other genera of the Ctenizinae may be mentioned
Cyrtauchenius, of which many species inhabit North-West Africa,
and its close ally Amblyocarenum, represented on both shores of the
Mediterranean, and in North and South America. They differ from
Cteniza chiefly in the possession of strong scopulae on the tarsi and
metatarsi of the first pair of legs, and in the double row of teeth with
which the tarsal claws are furnished. Their burrows are often
surmounted by a sort of turret raised above the level of the ground.
(v.) The Barychelinae are burrowing forms which resemble
Nemesia, but have only two tarsal claws. Leptopelma is the only
European genus, and has close affinities with certain South
American genera (Psalistops, Euthycoelus, etc.). Pisenor inhabits
tropical Africa, and Diplothele, unique in possessing only two
spinning mammillae, is an inhabitant of India.
(vi.) The Aviculariinae include all the large hairy spiders which
are commonly called Mygale. The genus Phlogius, which inhabits
Southern Asia, forms a lidless burrow, though it has no rastellus, but
practically all the other members of the group are non-terricolous,
living under stones or in holes in trees, where they weave a slight
web. They are nocturnal in their habits. They all possess two tarsal
claws, and the labium is free and spined at the tip. Of the four
spinnerets the posterior pair are long and three-jointed, while the
anterior are short and not very close together.
The particular form of the tarsi and the nature of the scopulae,[310]
“claw-tufts,” and spines upon them are of great importance in
distinguishing the members of this group.
The Aviculariinae comprise about sixty genera from all the tropical
and sub-tropical regions of the world.
The genus Ischnocolus extends into the Mediterranean region,
having representatives besides in Southern Asia and in Central and
South America. All the tarsi have their scopulae divided
longitudinally by a band of hairs. Chaetopelma inhabits Egypt, Syria,
and Arabia, and Cyclosternum is found in West Africa as well as in
Central and South America. In these genera the scopulae of the last
two pairs of legs are alone divided. The largest known spider is
Theraphosa leblondi, which is a native of Guiana. It measures 9 cm.
(about three and a half inches) in length.
Eurypelma is a genus of large spiders entirely confined to the New
World, where it possesses many species. The genus Avicularia is also
American, and includes a number of large long-haired spiders with
short and very strong legs, on which the scopulae and claw-tufts are
well developed. Its nearest allies in the Old World are the Indian
genus Poecilotheria, and the West African genus Scodra. The
stridulating spider figured on p. 328 belongs to this group,
Chilobrachys being a genus from Ceylon.
(vii.) The Diplurinae are a very aberrant group, including some
twenty genera of Aviculariidae, usually of medium size, and
possessed, as a rule, of very long
posterior spinnerets. They do not
burrow or live in holes or under
stones, but weave webs of close
texture, much resembling those
characteristic of the Agelenidae
(see p. 415). The tarsal claws are
three in number, and there are
never any claw-tufts. The
rastellus, of course, is absent.
Two genera have
representatives in Europe,
Brachythele inhabiting the East
Mediterranean region (as well as
many other parts of the world),
while Macrothele is found in
Fig. 202.—Ischnothele dumicola, ♀ ×
Spain as well as in the Malay 2. (After Pocock.)
Peninsula and New Zealand.
Ischnothele dumicola is a native
of Western India. Diplura is a South American genus. Trechona
venosa, a large species remarkable for the orange bands which
decorate its abdomen, is also a native of South America. The New
Zealand genus Hexathele, and the genus Scotinoecus from Chili,
possess six spinnerets. Masteria (Ovalan Island) and Accola
(Philippines and South America) differ from the rest of the family in
having only six eyes.
Fam. 3. Atypidae.—Spiders with anteriorly projecting and
vertically articulating chelicerae, but with no trough on the paturon
for the reception of the unguis, which is guarded when closed by a
single row of teeth. The spinnerets are normally six, and the anal
tubercle is above, and well removed from the posterior spinnerets.
The Atypidae are a small family of six genera, rather closely related
to the Aviculariidae, and by some Arachnologists incorporated with
them. They may be regarded as the representatives of that family in
sub-tropical and temperate regions. In form they are strongly built,
with smooth integuments, and their legs are short and powerful. Of
the twenty-four species hitherto described almost all belong to the
northern hemisphere. Five are natives of Europe, and two are
included in the English fauna.
The best known is Atypus affinis,
which has been found in several
localities in the south of England,
and which has occurred on the
Devil’s Dyke, near Cambridge.
The female measures about half
an inch in length, the male being
smaller. It burrows a deep
cylindrical hole at the edge of a
grassy or heathery bank and lines
it with a loose tube of silk, which
extends considerably beyond the
orifice of the burrow, either lying
flat on the ground, or raised up
and attached to the neighbouring
herbage. There is no lid, but the
upper end of the tube is always
Fig. 203.—Atypus affinis, ♀. found closed, whether by its
elasticity or by the deliberate
operation of the spider is not
known. The animal is nocturnal in its habits. Another species, A.
beckii, occurs very rarely in the south of England.
The genus Atypus has representatives in Central and South
Europe, North Africa, Japan, Java, and North America. Of the other
genera, Calommata inhabits Central and South-East Asia and Japan,
Brachybothrium, Atypoides, and Hexura are peculiar to North
America, while Mecicobothrium comprises a single species (M.
thorelli) native to the Argentine.[311]
Fam. 4. Filistatidae.—Cribellate Spiders of moderate size,
usually brown or yellow in colour, with smooth integuments and
somewhat long tapering legs. The eight eyes are compactly
arranged, and the palpal organs of the male are of simple structure.
The six spinnerets are short, the anterior pair being thick and
separated. Two pulmonary sacs, with two minute tracheal stigmata
close behind them and widely separate.
There is but one genus, Filistata, in this family. About fifteen
species have been described, five of which inhabit the Mediterranean
region. Three are found in America, and others inhabit Central Asia,
the Philippines, and Australia. The genus is not represented in this
country, but one species, F. testacea, has an extremely wide
distribution in the Old World, while F. capitata extends throughout
the American continent.
The calamistrum of the female is short, only occupying a portion of
the metatarsus of the fourth leg. The cribellum is divided. These
spiders weave a web of close texture, of an irregular tubular form.
Fam. 5. Oecobiidae (Urocteidae).—Two very remarkable
genera constitute this family, Oecobius and Uroctea.
The species of Oecobius, about fifteen in number, are small
spiders, inhabiting sub-tropical countries—and especially desert
regions—and spinning a slight web under stones, or in holes in walls.
The female possesses a small transverse cribellum, the two halves of
which are widely separated. The calamistrum is but feebly developed.
No example has occurred in this country, but nine species have been
described in the Mediterranean region.
Fig. 204.—A, Oecobius maculatus, much enlarged; B, Uroctea

durandi, slightly enlarged. (After Simon.)
The three species of Uroctea are rather large spiders, two being
native to Africa, while the third inhabits China and Japan. They are
ecribellate. These two genera very closely resemble each other, not
only superficially, but in certain structural details—notably the
remarkably developed and two-jointed anal tubercle—and their close
affinity supplies the strongest argument against separating the
spiders which possess cribellum and calamistrum into a group by
themselves. In both genera the cephalothorax is very broad and
rounded at the sides. The eight eyes are compactly arranged. The
sternum is broad and heart-shaped. The legs are nearly of equal
length, and the posterior spinnerets have very long terminal joints.
Fam. 6. Sicariidae (Scytodidae).—The Sicariidae are a small
group of six-eyed spiders, usually with weak legs and slow halting
movements; they live under stones or in outhouses. The
cephalothorax is generally smooth and devoid of the median fovea,
and the palpal organs of the male are extremely simple. The best
known genus is Scytodes, one species of which (S. thoracica) has on
rare occasions been found in outhouses in the south of England, in
Dorsetshire, and Kent. This is a remarkable spider, about one-third
of an inch long, with a pale yellow ground-colour, marked with black
spots and patches. The cephalothorax is smooth and dome-shaped,
and highest near the posterior end.
All the other members of the family are exotic. Loxosceles is found
in the Mediterranean region and all over America, as well as in
Japan. The median fovea is present in this genus. Sicarius is a native
of America and South Africa. It is of stouter build than Scytodes, and
the legs are stronger. Drymusa belongs to South Africa. The peculiar
New Zealand species Periegops hirsutus is placed by Simon in this
family, as is also the North American genus Plectreurys,
notwithstanding its possession of eight eyes.
Fam. 7. Hypochilidae.—Two species only are included in this
family, Hypochilus thorelli of North America, and Ectatosticta
davidi, a native of China. They have four pulmonary sacs, though
they possess little else in common with the “Theraphosae.” The
pedipalpus of the male is very remarkable, the tarsus being almost
unmodified, and the very small palpal organ being inserted at its
extremity. These spiders are cribellate.
Fam. 8. Leptonetidae.—The Leptonetidae are small spiders
with smooth and usually dull-coloured integuments. Most of them
are cave-living, but some are found amidst vegetable débris in damp
spots in forests. The eyes are six in number, and the legs are
generally long and thin. There are five genera. Leptoneta has about
ten species living in caves in the Pyrenees. The single species of
Telema (T. tenella) has the same habitat. Ochyrocera has
representatives in tropical Asia and America, and is somewhat more
ornate than most members of the group. Usofila has a single species,
inhabiting North America, while Theotina is found in caves in the
Philippines and in Venezuela.
Fam. 9. Oonopidae.—The Oonopidae are very small spiders,
seldom exceeding 2 mm. in length (the largest 4 mm.), living among
vegetable débris. Oonops pulcher, the only English representative of
the family, is not rare under stones or in the débris at the bottom of
hedges. It is a small brick-red spider, easily recognised by its six
comparatively large oval eyes, which are pale-coloured, and occupy
the whole of the caput.
The minute spiders of this family were until recently overlooked by
collectors in foreign countries, but now more than a hundred species
have been described, belonging to some eighteen genera. Thirteen
species inhabit the Mediterranean region, occurring especially on the
African side. In several genera there is a “scutum” or hard plate on
the abdomen. This is the case with Dysderina, which has a wide
distribution, as have also Ischnyothyreus and Opopaea, and the
non-scutate genus Orchestina.
Fam. 10. Hadrotarsidae.—This family contains only two
species, Hadrotarsus babirusa from New Guinea, and Gmogala
scarabeus from Sydney. In general appearance they resemble the
scutate Oonopidae, but they have eight eyes, curiously arranged, two
large, somewhat triangular eyes being situated near the middle of the
cephalothorax, and two groups of three small eyes on either side of
the front part of the caput. These spiders are very minute.
Fam. 11. Dysderidae.—Six-eyed spiders, with long free labium,
and long maxillae provided with a well-developed scopula. The
cephalothorax is rather flat, and the abdomen is oval or cylindrical,
the integument being smooth and usually rather soft. The palpal
organ of the male is of simple structure.
The Dysderidae are divided into two sub-families, Dysderinae and
Segestriinae, for the most part confined to temperate regions.
(i.) The Dysderinae are easily recognised by a peculiarity of the
sternum. Instead of being merely excavated along its border for the
reception of the legs, its edge is folded round the coxae to meet the
carapace, and thus forms a series of collars or sockets in which the
limbs are articulated in perfect isolation from each other. These
spiders vary considerably in size, and are generally of a somewhat
uniform coloration, never marked with vivid patterns. There are
eight genera of this sub-family, two of which are represented in
England.
Dysdera cambridgii is not a rare spider under stones in rocky
localities, such as the Isle of Portland, and occurs, though less
commonly, all over the country in similar situations, and under the
loose bark of trees. It is half an inch in length, with a chestnut-
coloured cephalothorax and legs, and dull yellow abdomen. A closely
allied species, D. crocota, also occurs more rarely.
Harpactes hombergii is common in vegetable débris and under
decaying bark. It is about a quarter of an inch in length, of slender
form, with black-brown cephalothorax and clay-coloured abdomen.
The legs are yellowish and annulated. More than forty exotic species
of Dysdera and twenty-four of Harpactes have been described.
Another genus of the Dysderinae is Stalita, which comprises three
species, inhabiting the caves of Dalmatia and Carniola.
(ii.) The Segestriinae include two genera, Segestria and Ariadna.
Segestria senoculata occurs in England in similar localities to
those where Dysdera cambridgii is found. It is not much smaller
than that spider, and has a dark brown cephalothorax and legs and a
dull yellow abdomen, with a series of adder-like diamond-shaped
black markings along the middle. Two other species have occurred
on rare occasions in England, and twelve more are recorded from the
various temperate regions of the world.
Ariadna is the only Dysderid genus which invades the tropical
regions. It includes about twenty species.
Fam. 12. Caponiidae.—This is a small family of three genera
and about twelve species, remarkable in having no pulmonary sacs
but five tracheal stigmata,[312] and in the peculiar arrangement of
their six spinnerets, those which are ordinarily median being in the
same transverse line with the anterior ones.
The single species of Caponia (C. natalensis) inhabits South
Africa, while Caponina has two species in South America. These
spiders are eight-eyed, but the two median posterior eyes are much
the largest, and these alone are present in the remarkable genus
Nops, of which several species inhabit South America and adjacent
islands.
Fam. 13. Prodidomidae.—This small family includes about
twenty species of minute spiders from sub-tropical regions. They are
eight-eyed, with short smooth legs, terminated by two claws not
dentated. The spinnerets are especially characteristic.
Prodidomus (Miltia) includes fifteen species from the
Mediterranean region, Africa, and America. Zimris is an Asiatic
genus. The single species of Eleleis (E. crinita) is from the Cape.
Fam. 14. Drassidae.—Elongate spiders with low
cephalothorax. Legs usually rather long, strong, and tapering,
terminated by two pectinate claws, armed with spines, and
scopulate. The body is smooth or short haired and frequently
unicolorous and sombre-coloured, seldom ornate. The eyes,
normally eight, are in two transverse rows. The mouth-parts
(labium and maxillae) are long. Spinnerets as a rule terminal, and
visible from above.
This important family includes a large number of species from all
parts of the world, fifty-six being natives of the British Isles. There
are familiar examples in the brown or mouse-coloured spiders which
scurry away when stones are raised, or when loose bark is pulled off
a tree.
The family may be divided into seven sub-families, of which four,
Drassinae, Clubioninae, Liocraninae, and Micariinae, are
represented in this country.
(i.) The Drassinae include more than twenty genera, some of
which possess numerous species and have a wide distribution. The
following may be mentioned:—
Drassus contains twelve British species. The commonest is D.
lapidosus, a large dull brown spider, more than half an inch in
length, which lives beneath stones in all parts of the country. At least
a hundred species of this genus have been described.
Melanophora (= Prosthesima)
[313]
includes a large number of
species. They are dark-coloured
active spiders, many of them jet
black and glossy. Seven are
recorded from the British Isles,
the average size being about a
quarter of an inch. They are
found under stones. A closely
allied genus is Phaeocedus, whose
single species (P. braccatus) has
occurred, though very rarely, in
the south of England. Gnaphosa
has fifty-five species, of which
twenty-eight are European, and
four are British.
(ii.) The Clubioninae have the
anterior spinnerets closer
together, and the eyes more
extended across the caput than in
the foregoing sub-family. Nearly
thirty genera have been
Fig. 205.—Drassid Spiders. 1. Drassus established, of which three claim
lapidosus. 2. Clubiona corticalis. 3. special attention. Clubiona
Zora spinimana. 4. Micaria pulicaria. includes more than 100 species,
chiefly inhabiting temperate
regions. Fifteen are included in
the British list. They are mostly unicolorous, and yellow or brown in
colour, but a few (C. corticalis, C. compta, etc.) have a distinct
pattern on the abdomen. Cheiracanthium is a large and widely
spread genus, counting three English species. There are more than a
hundred species of the genus Anyphaena, of which one only (A.
accentuata) occurs in this country, where it is common upon bushes
and trees in the south.
(iii.) The Liocraninae include about twenty-four genera, of which
Zora, Liocranum, Agroeca, and Micariosoma are sparingly
represented in this country.
(iv.) The Micariinae are a remarkable group of Spiders containing
numerous ant-like mimetic forms. Two species of Micaria alone are
English, but that genus is abundantly represented on the Continent,
where the species mount up to forty. They are mostly small, dark,
shining spiders, which, though not particularly ant-like in form,
recall those insects both by their appearance and movements. Some
of the exotic genera, and particularly the South American genus
Myrmecium, possess remarkable instances of mimetic resemblance
to ants. Micaria pulicaria is a very pretty little spider, about a sixth
of an inch in length, black, with iridescent hairs, and some white
marks on the abdomen. It runs about in a very active ant-like fashion
and does not object to the sunshine. It is fairly abundant in England.
Fam. 15. Palpimanidae.—This family includes a few genera of
exotic spiders. They are especially characterised by the great
development of their anterior legs, which are not much used for
locomotion, but are frequently raised as the spider moves along,
generally somewhat slowly, by means of the other three pairs. The
best known genera are Metronax and Stenochilus from India,
Huttonia from New Zealand, and Palpimanus from the
Mediterranean region, Africa, and South Asia.
Fam. 16. Eresidae.—The Eresidae are a small family of cribellate
spiders whose systematic position has been the subject of much
discussion. In general appearance they resemble the Attidae (vide
infra), but this resemblance is quite superficial. On the whole they
seem more nearly allied to the following family than to any other.
They are stoutly built, with thick, strong legs, and live either in the
ground or on bushes, where they weave a close-textured web. One
species, Eresus cinnaberinus, has occurred on rare occasions in the
south of England, and the male, which is a third of an inch in length,
is perhaps the most striking member of our Spider fauna, the
abdomen being scarlet, with four (or sometimes six) black spots
edged with white hairs. The cephalothorax is black, with red on the
postero-lateral borders. The abdomen of the female is black.
Fam. 17. Dictynidae.—Cribellate spiders, with oval
cephalothorax and broad convex caput, with the eyes, normally
eight, ranged across it in two straight or slightly curved transverse
rows. Basal joints of chelicerae long and strong, often bowed. Legs
rather strong. Tarsi three-clawed and devoid of scopula.
The Dictynidae are sedentary spiders which weave a web of
irregular strands, covered by the close weft which is the product of
the cribellum. Some live under stones or in holes in walls, while
others spin their webs in bushes or herbage. There are about sixteen
genera, of which Dictyna and Amaurobius are the most important.
Nearly a hundred species of Dictyna have been described. They are
small spiders, usually living in grass and herbage. Thirty species
inhabit Europe and the neighbouring coast of Africa, and eight of
these are natives of Britain. D. arundinacea is very abundant,
especially in heather. It is about an eighth of an inch in length. D.
uncinata is also often met with. Amaurobius, of which about eighty
species are known, includes some species of much larger size. Three
species are native to this country, A. ferox, A. similis, and A.
fenestralis. A. ferox is a large and rather formidable-looking spider,
more than half an inch in length, with powerful chelicerae. It is
found under stones and bark, and in cellars and outhouses. A. similis
is the commonest species in England, though A. fenestralis
somewhat replaces it in the north. They are smaller than A. ferox,
but are found in similar situations.
Fam. 18. Psechridae.—This is a small family of cribellate
spiders, consisting only of two genera, Psechrus and Fecenia, and
some eight species, all natives of Southern Asia and the adjacent
islands. The two species of Psechrus are large spiders. They make
large domed webs, which they stretch between trees or rocks, and
beneath which they hang in an inverted position.
The calamistrum of these spiders is short, about half the length of
the fourth metatarsus.
Fam. 19. Zodariidae (Enyoidae).—In this family are included
a number of remarkable exotic spiders, most of them somewhat
Drassid-like in appearance, but generally with three-clawed tarsi.
The group appears to be a somewhat heterogeneous one, the twenty
genera of which it consists presenting rather a wide range of
characteristics.
Cydrela is an African genus of moderate sized spiders, containing
five species of very curious habits. They scramble about and burrow
in the sand, in which, according to Simon,[314] they appear to swim,
and their chief burrowing implements are their pedipalpi, which are
specially modified, the tarsi in the female bristling with spines, and
being armed with one or more terminal claws.
Laches (Lachesis) includes some larger pale-coloured spiders
found in Egypt and Syria, under stones in very hot and dry localities.
Storena has representatives in
all the tropical and sub-tropical
parts of the world, and numbers
about fifty species. They are of
moderate size, with integuments
smooth and glossy or finely
shagreened, usually dark-
coloured, with white or yellow
spots on the abdomen.
Hermippus (Fig. 206) is also
African. Zodarion (Enyo)
includes about thirty-five species
of rather small, generally
unicolorous spiders, very active
and fond of the sunshine. They
spin no web, but have a retreat
under a stone. Their chief prey
appear to be ants. Most of the
species are native to the
Mediterranean region, the others Fig. 206.—Hermippus loricatus, ♂ ×
belonging to Central and 2½. (After Simon.)
Southern Asia.
Simon includes in this family the remarkable genus Cryptothele,
found in Ceylon, Malacca, New Guinea, and various Oceanic islands.
They are moderate sized brownish spiders, with hard integuments
rugged with tubercles and projections. Their most curious
characteristic is their power of retracting their spinnerets within a
sort of sheath, so that they become entirely invisible.
Fam. 20. Hersiliidae.—This is a very distinct family of spiders,
with broad cephalothorax, with well-marked fovea and striae, and
small, well defined caput. The eyes, usually eight, are black except
the median anterior pair. The legs are long and thin, and the tarsi
three-clawed. The abdomen is oval or sub-globular, short haired, and
generally of greyish coloration. The spinnerets supply the chief
characteristic, the posterior pair
being long—often excessively long
—and two-jointed, the terminal
joint tapering and flexible. The
colulus is large. They are very
active spiders, living on tree
trunks or walls, or under stones,
but spreading no snare. Some of
them are of considerable size.
Hersilia includes nine species
native to Africa and Asia. Tama is
Fig. 207.—Hersilia caudata, ♀ . (After
Pickard-Cambridge.)
the only genus represented in the
New World, two of its species
being found in South America,
while others inhabit Africa, Asia, and Australia. Another genus,
Hersiliola, is principally African, but extends into Spain.
Fam. 21. Pholcidae.—This is another very well-marked family.
The most striking peculiarity of its members is the possession of
extremely long and thin legs, the metatarsi being especially
elongated, and the tarsi furnished with several false articulations.
The eyes are also very characteristic. They are usually eight in
number, the two anterior median eyes being black, while the other
six are white, and arranged in lateral groups of three, sometimes on
prominences or stalks. The abdomen is sometimes nearly globular,
but more often long and cylindrical. Most of the genera, which,
including several new genera lately established by Simon, number
more than twenty, are poor in species, but enjoy a very wide
distribution. This is explained by the fact that many of them live in
cellars and outhouses. This is the case with the genus Pholcus, of
which the sole English species Ph. phalangioides is a perfect
nuisance in buildings in the most southern parts of the country,
“spinning large sheets of irregular webs in the corners and angles,
and adding to them year by year.”[315] Other genera are Artema
(Africa, South Asia, Polynesia, America), which includes the largest
examples, and Spermophora, a six-eyed genus whose few species are
widely distributed.
Fam. 22. Theridiidae.—Sedentary spiders, usually with feeble
chelicerae and relatively large abdomen. Snare irregular.
The Theridiidae, as here understood, are a very extensive family,
and more than half the British spiders (about 270 species) are
included within it. This family and the next present unusual
difficulties of treatment, and there is great divergence of opinion as
to the most satisfactory way of dealing with them. This is chiefly due
to the fact that, notwithstanding an infinite variation of facies,
important points of structure are wonderfully uniform throughout
both the two groups, while any differences that do occur are bridged
over by intermediate forms which merge into each other.
Simon[316] has become so impressed with the difficulty of drawing
any clear line between certain groups which he previously classed
under the Theridiidae and the spiders commonly known as
Epeiridae, that he has recently removed them from the Theridiidae
and united them with the orb-weaving spiders to form the Family
Argiopidae, the family name Epeiridae being discarded. The groups
which, in his view, belong to the Argiopidae will be indicated below.
This view has not met with universal acceptance, and
notwithstanding the undoubted difficulty of clearly distinguishing
between the two families, it is more convenient in the present work
to maintain as a separate family a group of spiders nearly all of
whose members possess the easily recognised characteristic of
spinning a circular snare.
The Theridiidae and the Epeiridae form the great bulk of the
sedentary spiders. They do not wander in search of prey, but sit in
snares of various structure and wait for their victims to entangle
themselves. The spinnerets, organs whose peculiarities are often
strongly marked in other families, are here wonderfully constant in
their arrangement and general appearance, forming a compact
rosette-like group beneath the abdomen. Their eyes, normally eight
in number, present an infinite variety of arrangement. Their
chelicerae and mouth-parts vary considerably, but no abruptness of
variation is distinguishable. This is unsatisfactory from a systematic
point of view, and the necessary result is that certain groups might
with equal propriety be classed with the Theridiidae or the Epeiridae.
The latter family will here be taken as including all the orb-weaving
spiders and a few groups which appear inseparable from them.
We shall consider the Theridiidae as comprising the seven sub-
families, Argyrodinae, Episininae, Theridioninae,
Phoroncidiinae, Erigoninae, Formicinae, and Linyphiinae, and
shall briefly deal with them in this order.
(i.) The Argyrodinae are very curious spiders with very long and
often flexible abdomen. They are commonly parasitic on the circular
snares of Epeirid spiders, between the rays of which they spin their
own irregular webs. There are three genera, Argyrodes, Ariamnes,
and Rhomphaea, which are distributed in the tropical and sub-
tropical regions all over the world.
(ii.) The Episininae hardly conform to the character of sedentary
spiders, being frequently found outside their webs. In most species
the abdomen is narrow in front and broader behind, where it is
abruptly truncated or bluntly pointed. The genus Episinus is widely
distributed, and one species, E. truncatus, is one of our most
peculiar English spiders. It occurs occasionally under ledges of
grassy or heathery banks. The genus Tomoxena is an inhabitant of
tropical Asia. Janulus is found in the same regions, and in tropical
America.
(iii.) The Theridioninae are a large group of spiders, often very
ornate, and spinning snares of irregular threads running in all
directions. The abdomen is usually more or less globular. The
chelicerae are small and weak, and the paturon is transversely (not
obliquely) truncated for the reception of the small unguis or fang.
The somewhat long thin legs are almost or entirely destitute of
spines.
We may consider certain genera as typical of the various groups
into which this sub-family naturally falls. Theridion is the richest
genus of the entire order, numbering some 320 species, of which
seventeen inhabit the British Isles. During the summer months
nearly every bush is studded with the irregular webs of these little
spiders, generally prettily coloured, and with globular abdomen. The
commonest is T. sisyphium, which swarms on hollies and other
bushes all over the country. One of the handsomest is T. formosum, a
rather local species, about a sixth of an inch in length, with the
abdomen beautifully marked with oblique lines of white, yellow, red,
and black. T. tepidariorum, common in conservatories, is like a large
and plainer edition of T. formosum. T. riparium is remarkable for
the curious earth-encrusted tube which it forms for the reception of
its egg-cocoon. T. bimaculatum may often be seen among coarse
herbage, holding on to its ridiculously large egg-cocoon; it is a small
spider, and the sexes are more than usually unlike.
Latrodectus and Dipoena are associated exotic genera, including
some of the largest species of the group. Latrodectus is peculiarly
interesting on account of the great reputation for especially
poisonous properties which some of its species have acquired. The
New Zealand “Katipo” is L. scelio, while L. 13–guttatus enjoys an
almost equally evil reputation as the “malmignatte” in Corsica. The
American species L. mactans (Fig. 197, p. 362) is also considered
highly venomous. These spiders form their irregular webs on low
bushes, and it is curious that they are usually marked with red or
yellow spots on the abdomen. They have been referred to in the
section on the venom of spiders (see p. 362).
The genus Steatoda possesses one English species (S. bipunctata)
which is extremely common in buildings and in the angles of walls,
and is a rather striking spider, with dark cephalothorax, and livid
brown abdomen with a broken white stripe down the middle. Several
closely allied genera are also sparingly represented in this country,
among which may be mentioned Crustulina (two species), Asagena
(one species), Teutana (two species), Lithyphantes (one species),
Laseola (five species), and Euryopis (two species). In some of these
the male is provided with a stridulating organ between the thorax
and abdomen (Fig. 183, p. 327). The remarkable genus Tetrablemma
(see p. 318) is considered by Simon to have affinities with this group,
though Pickard-Cambridge, who first described it, is inclined to rank
it among the Dysderidae.
(iv.) The Phoroncidiinae are a remarkable group of spiny
Theridiids whose superficial resemblance to the Gasteracanthinae of
the Epeiridae (see p. 409) has often deceived Arachnologists as to
their true affinities. There are eight genera, all exotic, inhabiting hot
countries, and spinning a Theridion-like web on bushes. Phoroncidia
has twelve species in South Asia and Madagascar. Trithena (Fig.
208) is its American representative, five species being found in South
America. Ulesanis has about twenty species, and extends from South
America to Australia.
(v.) The Erigoninae are an immense group of minute, sober-
coloured spiders, which include the “Money-spinners” of popular
nomenclature, and are largely responsible for the gossamer which

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Fundamentals of sustainability in civil

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Sustainability................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 Pillar: Economic Sustainability............................................................ 9

Chapter 3 Pillar: Environmental Sustainability...................................................25

Chapter 4 Pillar: Social Sustainability................................................................. 41

Chapter 5 Application: Environmental Sustainability......................................... 55

Chapter 6 Application: Geotechnical Sustainability........................................... 87

Chapter 7 Application: Structural Sustainability............................................... 109

Chapter 8 Application: Transportation Sustainability....................................... 135

Chapter 9 Tomorrow’s Sustainability................................................................ 155

1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH

This basis of international cooperation provides a logical place to begin examin-

1. Maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems

These three goals mainly revolve around the

1. Eradicate extreme poverty

The UN has put sustainability metrics and Millennium Development Goals

to understand how we as civil engineers need to incorporate sustainability into our

1.2 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

SIDEBAR 1.2 WRITING A HIGH-QUALITY ESSAY

1.3 AS CIVIL ENGINEERS, HOW DO WE

Sustainability in civil engineering

FIGURE 1.1 Components of civil engineering sustainability. (Credit: A. Braham.)

We make a living by what we get, we make a life by what we give.

2.1 TRADITIONAL SUSTAINABLE ECONOMICS

2.2 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

SIDEBAR 2.1 SALVAGE VALUE

  actual life of alternative  

This simplified approach is acceptable by many because of the high level

 remaining life of last resurfacing 

1. Establish alternative design strategies for the analysis period

5.2 User costs on top, agency costs on bottom

This analysis shows the importance of determining performance periods and

Fig. 204.—A, Oecobius maculatus, much enlarged; B, Uroctea

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1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH

1.2 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

1.3 AS CIVIL ENGINEERS, HOW DO WE