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Exotic Fruits Reference Guide
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Exotic Fruits Reference
Guide

Edited by
Sueli Rodrigues
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil

Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva

Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil

Edy Sousa de Brito

Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-803138-4

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visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

Acquisition Editor: Nancy Maragioglio
Editorial Project Manager: Mariana L. Kuhl
Production Project Manager: Punithavathy Govindaradjane
Cover Designer: Greg Harris
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents

List of Contributors xv Fruit Ripening 18

Preface xix Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Acknowledgment xxi Value of the Fruit 18
Sensory Characteristics of the Fruit 20
Conservation 20
Application 20
Açaı́—Euterpe oleracea Acknowledgment 21
References 21
Maria do S.P. de Oliveira and Gustavo Schwartz
Açaı́ Origin, Ecology, Botany, and Annatto/Urucum—Bixa orellana
Socioeconomic Importance 1 Paulo C. Stringheta, Pollyanna I. Silva and
Harvest Season 3
André G.V. Costa
Estimated Annual Production and
Harvest/Postharvest Conservation 3 Cultivation Origin and Botanical Aspects 23
Fruit Physiology, Biochemistry, Chemical Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 23
Composition, and Nutritional Value 4 Harvest 23
Sensory Characteristics 4 Postharvest 24
Industrial Application or Potential Estimated Production and Trade of Annatto 24
Industrial Application 4 Chemical Composition of Annatto 25
References 5 Biosynthesis of Annatto Compounds 26
Biological Activities of Annatto Compounds 26
Acerola—Malpighia emarginata Industrial Application and Potential
Industrial Application 27
Carlos F.H. Moura, Luciana de S. Oliveira, Kellina O.
References 28
de Souza, Lorena G. da Franca, Laiza B. Ribeiro,
Further Reading 30
Pahlevi A. de Souza and Maria R.A. de Miranda
Origin and Botanical Classification 7 Araça—Psidium cattleyanum Sabine
Production 8 Mônica M. de Almeida Lopes and
Harvest 8 Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Postharvest 8
Postharvest Quality 10 Origin and Botanical Aspects 31
References 13 Production 31
Fruit Physiology and Nutritional Value 32
Ambarella—Spondias cytherea Postharvest Conservation 34
Potential Industrial application 34
Benoit B. Koubala, Germain Kansci and
References 35
Marie-Christine Ralet
Introduction 15 Avocado fruit—Persea americana
Origin and Distribution 15 Elena Hurtado-Fernández, Alberto
Botanical Aspects 16 Fernández-Gutiérrez and Alegrı́a Carrasco-Pancorbo
Taxonomy and Colloquial Names 16
Description 16 Botany and Origin 37
Harvest and Production 17 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 39
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 17 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 40
Fruit Development and Maturation 17 Sensory Characteristics 42

v
vi Contents

Harvest Season 42 Cacao—Theobroma cacao

Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 43
Estimated Annual Production 44 Pahlevi A. de Souza, Lunian F. Moreira, Diógenes H.A.
World Trade 44 Sarmento and Franciscleudo B. da Costa
Industrial Applications and Other Potential Uses 44 Origin and Botanical Aspects 69
Acknowledgment 46 Harvest and Potential of Industrialization 72
References 46 Cocoa Beans Processing 72
Bacuri—Platonia insignis Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 72
References 75
Angelo P. Jacomino, Patricia M. Pinto and
Camilla Z. Gallon Cagaita—Eugenia dysenterica
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 49 Eli R.B. de Souza, Yanuzi M.V. Camilo
Production 49 and Rosângela Vera
Harvest and Postharvest Technology 50 Origin, Culture, and Botanical Aspects 77
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 50 Harvest Season and Estimated
Potential Industry Application 50 Annual Production 78
Concluding Remarks 51 Physiology and Biochemistry of Fruits 79
References 51 Harvest, Postharvest, and Potential
Breadfruit—Artocarpus altilis Industrial Application 80
References 82
(Parkinson) Fosberg
Diane Ragone Caju—Anacardium occidentale
Introduction 53 Edy Sousa de Brito, Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 53 and Sueli Rodrigues
Harvest Season 54 Botanical and Agronomical Aspects 85
Estimated Annual Production 55 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 85
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 55 Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 55 Value Including, Vitamins, Mineral,
Sensory Characteristics 57 Phenolics and Antioxidant Compounds
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 57 Among Others 86
Industrial Application or Potential Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 87
Industrial Application 58 Industrial Application or Potential
Acknowledgments 59 Industrial Application 88
References 59 References 88
Buriti fruit—Mauritia flexuosa Cambuci—Campomanesia phaea
Hector H.F. Koolen, Felipe M.A. da Silva, Vitor S.V. da (O. Berg.) Landrum
Silva, Weider H.P. Paz and Giovana A. Bataglion
Tatiane de O. Tokairin, Horst Bremer Neto and
Origin and Botany 61 Angelo P. Jacomino
Origin and Considerations 61
Botanical Aspects 61 Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 91
Harvest Season and Annual Production 62 Harvest Season 92
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 62 Estimated Annual Production 92
Buriti Fruit Morphology 62 Physiology and Biochemistry of Cambuci Fruit 92
Buriti Fruit Nutrient Content 63 Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Buriti Fruit Metabolites 64 Value Including Vitamins, Minerals,
Biological Benefits 65 Phenolics and Antioxidant Compounds 92
Sensory Characteristics and Food Application 66 Sensory Attributes 93
Harvest, Postharvest Conservation Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 93
and Industrial Applications 66 Perspectives and Industrial Applications 94
Acknowledgment 66 Acknowledgments 94
References 66 References 94
 Contents vii

Camu-camu—Myrciaria dubia Anticancer Activity 124

(Kunth) McVaugh Antimalarial Activity 124
Lectin and Cell Adhesion Activity 124
Juan C. Castro, J. Dylan Maddox and Sixto A. Imán Cytotoxicity 125
Potential and Traditional Medicinal Uses 125
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 97
References 126
Harvest Season and Estimated
Annual Production 98 Chilean Guava—Myrtus ugni
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 98
Chemical and Nutritional Compositions 99 Marcia A.A. Lorca
Health-Promoting Phytochemicals 99 The Species 129
Sensory Characteristics 102 Ethnic Uses 130
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 102 Socioeconomic Importance 130
Potential Industrial Application 103 Phytochemistry and Biological Activity 132
Acknowledgments 103 Our Experience 133
References 103 Murtilla Fruits 133
Canistel—Pouteria campechiana Murtilla Leaves 134
In Vitro Determination of the Antioxidant
(Kunth) Baehni Capacity of Extracts and Phenolic
Fadzilah Awang-Kanak and Mohd Fadzelly Abu Bakar Compounds From Ugni molinae
Turcz. Leaves 135
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 107 Antioxidant Activity of Ugni molinae
Harvest Season 108 Turcz. (“Murtilla”) Infuses 135
Estimated Annual Production 108 Consumption of Ugni molinae (Turcz.)
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 108 Tea Elicits Increased Plasma Antioxidant
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Values 109 Potential in Humans 135
Sensory Characteristics 109 References 138
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 110 Further Reading 139
Industrial Application or Potential
Industrial Application 110 Ciruela/Mexican Plum—Spondias
Acknowledgment 111 purpurea L.
References 111
Georgina Vargas-Simón
Caqui—Diospyros kaki Cultivar Origin and Ethnobotanical Aspects 141
Ricardo Alfredo Kluge and Magda Andréia Tessmer Botanical Description 142
Harvest Season 143
Origin and Botanical Aspects 113 Estimated Annual Production 144
Harvest Season 114 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 144
Estimated Annual Production 114 Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 115 Value Including, Vitamins, Mineral,
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Phenolic, Antioxidant Compounds,
Value, Including Vitamins, Mineral, and Sensory Characteristics 145
Phenolics, and Antioxidant Compounds 116 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 145
Sensory Features 116 Industrial Application or Potential
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 117 Industrial Application 148
Industrial Application or Potential Propagation 149
Industrial Application 117 Acknowledgment 149
Acknowledgment 117 References 149
References 117 Further Reading 152
Cempedak—Artocarpus champeden Cocona—Solanum sessiliflorum
Mônica M. de Almeida Lopes, Kellina O. Pedro Jiménez
de Souza and Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Introduction 153
Origin and Botanical Aspects 121 Origin, Distribution, and Morphology 153
Nutritive and Medicinal Properties 123 Fruit Composition 155
viii Contents

Agronomical Aspects 156 Sensory Characteristics 174

Pests and Diseases 157 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 175
Uses and Perspectives 157 Harvest Season 175
Conclusions 158 Harvesting 175
References 158 Ripening 175
Surface Coating 176
Cupuassu—Theobroma grandiflorum 1-MCP 176
Ana L.F. Pereira, Virgı́nia K.G. Abreu and Storage 176
Sueli Rodrigues Industrial Application or Potential
Industrial Application 176
Introduction 159 Fresh Fruit 176
Cultivar Origin, Botanical Aspects and Durian Products 177
Harvest Season 159 Durian Husk 177
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 160 Concluding Remarks 177
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation References 177
and Potential Industrial Application 161 Further Reading 180
Final Remarks 162
References 162 Elderberry—Sambucus nigra L.
Custard apple—Annona squamosa L. Sueli Rodrigues, Edy Sousa de Brito and
Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Umesh B. Jagtap and Vishwas A. Bapat
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 181
Introduction 163 Postharvest 182
Origin and Distribution 163 Estimated Production 182
Botanical Description 163 Biochemical and Physiology 183
Total Production and Market 164 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 183
Uses 164 Industrialization 184
Dietary Uses 164 References 185
Use in Traditional Medicine 164
Phytochemistry 165 Figo da india—Opuntia spp.
Fruits 165
José Á. Guerrero-Beltrán and Carlos E. Ochoa-Velasco
Seeds 166
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 166 Fruit Origin and Botanical Aspects 187
Potential Industrial Application 166 Origin 187
Acknowledgment 166 Taxonomy 187
References 166 Fruit Characteristics 188
Cultivation and Harvest 190
Durian—Durio zibethinus Physiology and Biochemistry 190
Saichol Ketsa Physical Changes 190
Respiration Characteristics 191
Introduction 169 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 191
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 169 Composition 191
Estimated Annual Production 170 Nutritive Characteristics 191
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 170 Minerals 192
Respiration 170 Amino Acids 192
Ethylene Production 170 Vitamins 192
Softening 171 Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidants 193
Color Development 171 Pigments 194
Weight Loss 172 Volatile Compounds and
Dehiscence 172 Sensory Characteristics 194
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 173 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 195
Vitamins and Minerals 173 Harvest 195
Antioxidants 173 Postharvest Conservation 196
Fatty Acids 174 Potential Industrialization 197
Carbohydrates 174 Juice and Nectar 197
Carotenoids 174 Jams, Jellies, and Candies 197
 Contents ix

Fudge, Cheese or “ate” 198 Guarana—Paullinia cupana Kunth var.

Dehydrated Products 198 sorbilis (Mart.) Ducke
Alcoholic Drink “colonche” 198
Minimal Processing 198 André Luiz Atroch and Firmino J. do Nascimento Filho
Pigments 199
Introduction 225
Final Remarks 199
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 225
References 199
Flowering, Pollination, and Harvest Season 227
Finger lime/The Australian Estimated Annual Production 228
The Guarana and Polyploidy 229
Caviar—Citrus australasica
Genetic Resources 229
Estelle Delort and Yong-Ming Yuan Genetic Variability 230
Brief History of Guarana Genetic
Botanical Classification 204 Improvement 233
Physiology and Harvest Season 204 Objectives of Guarana Breeding 233
Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Genetic Improvement Methods 233
Composition, and Nutritional Value 206 Mass Selection 233
Sensory Characteristics and Plant Selection With Progeny Testing 234
Volatile Composition 206 Clonal Selection 234
Nutritional Value: Vitamins, Mineral, Recurrent Intraspecific Selection 234
Phenolics, and Antioxidant Compounds 206 Transcriptome of Fruit With Seeds 235
Production and Industrial Applications Future Prospects 235
of Commercialized Varieties 208 References 235
References 209 Further Reading 236
Gooseberry—Ribes uva-crispa, sin. Jabuticaba—Myrciaria spp.
R. grossularia L
Luiz C.C. Salomão, Dalmo L. de Siqueira,
Stanislaw Pluta César F. Aquino and Leila C.R. de Lins
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 211 Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 237
Harvest Season 212 Harvest Season 239
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 213 Estimated Annual Production 239
Estimated Annual Production 214 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 239
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 240
Value Including, Vitamins, Mineral, Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 241
Phenolics, and Antioxidant Compounds 215 Industrial Application 242
Sensory Characteristics 215 References 242
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 215
Industrial Application or Potential Jambo—Syzygium malaccense
Industrial Application 217
Market Potential 217 Fabiano A.N. Fernandes and Sueli Rodrigues
References 218 Introduction 245
Botanical Aspects 245
Grumixama—Eugenia brasiliensis Lam Harvest Season 245
Luciane de L. Teixeira, Neuza M.A. Hassimotto Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 246
and Franco M. Lajolo Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 247
Sensory Characteristics 248
Introduction 219 Industrial Application 248
Plant 219 References 248
Chemical and Nutritional Composition 219
Phytochemical Profile 220 Jambolan—Syzygium jambolanum
Harvest Season and Production:
Luiz B. de Sousa Sabino, Edy Sousa de Brito and
Purple Grumixama 222
Potential Industrial Application 223 Ivanildo J. da Silva Júnior
Acknowledgment 223 Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 251
References 223 Harvest Season 251
Further Reading 224 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 251
x Contents

Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 252 Fruit Compositions, Nutritional, and
Anthocyanins 252 Nutraceuticals Properties 274
Biological Properties of Jambolan 253 Fresh and Processed Products 276
Sensory Characteristics 254 References 276
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 254
Industrial Application and Potential
Langsat—Lansium domesticum
Industrial Application 254 Chairat Techavuthiporn
References 255
Further Reading 256 Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 279
Harvest Season 280
Jatoba—Hymenaea courbaril Estimated Annual Production 280
Fruit Physiology 280
Gustavo Schwartz Chemical Compositions and Nutritional
Species Origin, Ecology, Botany, and Values 280
Socioeconomic Importance 257 Sensory Characteristics 281
Harvest Season 259 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 282
Estimated Annual Production and Potential Industrial Application 282
Harvest/Postharvest Conservation 259 References 283
Fruit Physiology, Biochemistry, Further Reading 283
Chemical Composition, and Loquat/Nispero—Eriobotrya
Nutritional Value 260 japonica Lindl.
Sensory Characteristics 260
Industrial Application or Potential Mônica M. de Almeida Lopes, Alex Guimarães
Industrial Application 260 Sanches, Kellina O. de Souza and Ebenezer de
References 261 Oliveira Silva

Jujuba—Ziziphus jujuba Origin and Botanical Aspects 285

Production 285
Xinwen Jin Postharvest and Nutritional Value 286
Postharvest Conservation 288
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 263
Potential Industrial and Medicinal Uses 289
Estimated Annual Production 265
References 290
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 265
Further Reading 292
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 265
Chemical Composition 265 Maboque/Monkey Orange—Strychnos
Nutritional Values 266 spinosa
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 266
Industrial Application or Potential Sueli Rodrigues, Edy Sousa de Brito and
Industrial Application 267 Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Red Date (Dry Date) 267
Botanical Origin 293
Candied Jujube (Honey Jujube) 267
Postharvest and Physiology 293
Spirited Jujube (“Drunk Jujube”) 267
Sensory and Physicochemical
Smoked Jujube 267
Characterization 294
Roasted Jujube 267
Industrialization and Uses 295
Jujube Jam 268
References 296
Jujube Paste/Filling 268
Reaching Additional Consumers 268 Macauba Palm—Acrocomia aculeata
Acknowledgments 268
References 268 José M.C. Costa, Dalany M. Oliveira and
Luis E.C. Costa
Kumquat—Fortunella japonica Introduction 297
Amedeo Palma and Salvatore D’Aquino Botanic and Production Aspects of
Macaúba Palm 298
Classification 271 Drying Processes 298
Origin and Distribution 271 Drying Adjuvants 299
Botany, Morphology, and Anatomy 271 Fruit Drying 300
Postharvest Physiology and Storage 272 Macaúba Palm Fruit Components 300
 Contents xi

Whole Fruit Pulp With and Without Harvest Season 334

Maltodextrin Addition 300 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 335
Dried Macaúba Pulp Powder 301 Sensory Characteristics 336
The Influence of Drying Processes on the Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 337
Chemical Composition of Macaúba Industrial Potential 337
Palm Fruit Bioactive Compounds 301 References 337
References 302
Further Reading 304 Pitaya—Hylocereus undatus (Haw)
Mangaba—Hancornia speciosa Edmundo M. Mercado-Silva
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 339
Narendra Narain, Fernanda R.M. França and
Harvest Season 340
Maria T.S.L. Neta
Estimated Annual Production 340
Introduction 305 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 341
Origin and Production 305 Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Botanical Aspects 305 Value: Vitamins, Mineral, Phenolics,
Cultivation and Harvest 306 and Antioxidant Compounds 342
Physiology and Biochemistry 307 Sensory Characteristics 343
Fruit Development 307 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 343
Chemical Composition and Nutrition 308 Packing Systems 344
Vitamin C 309 Alternative Treatments 344
Phenolic Compounds 309 Pests and Diseases 345
Volatile Constituents 311 Quarantine Treatments 345
Final Considerations 316 Industrial Application or Potential
References 316 Industrial Application 345
Further Reading 318 References 346

Noni—Morinda citrifolia L. Pitomba—Talisia esculenta

Mônica M. de Almeida Lopes, Alex Guimarães Sueli Rodrigues, Edy Sousa de Brito and
Sanches, João A. de Sousa and Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Botanical Aspects and Harvest Season 351
Origin and Botanical Aspects 319 Estimated Annual Production 351
Cultivation Practices and Harvest 319 Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Postharvest and Nutritional Value 322 Value Including, Vitamins, Mineral,
Industrial Uses 323 Phenolics, and Antioxidant Compounds 351
References 324 Industrial Application or Potential
Industrial Application 353
Pidada—Sonneratia caseolaris References 353
Azlen Che Rahim and Mohd Fadzelly Abu Bakar Pomegranate/Roma—Punica granatum
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 327 Mustafa Erkan and Adem Dogan
Harvest Annual Production 327
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 328 Cultivars, Origin, and Botanical Aspects 355
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 328 Harvest Seasons 357
Antioxidant Properties 329 Annual Production 357
Sensory Characteristics 329 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 358
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 330 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 358
Industrial Application or Potential Application 330 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 358
Acknowledgment 331 Controlled Atmosphere/Modified
References 331 Atmosphere Storage 359
Problems Under Suboptimal Conditions 359
Pitanga—Eugenia uniflora L. Industrial Application 360
Minimally Processed or Ready-to-Eat Arils 360
Rodrigo C. Franzon, Silvia Carpenedo,
Jelly, Beverages, and Other Usage 360
Maximiliano D. Viñoly and Maria do C.B. Raseira
References 360
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 333 Further Reading 361
xii Contents

Quince—Cydonia oblonga Harvest Season 385

Estimated Annual Production 385
Mônica M. de Almeida Lopes, Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 385
Alex Guimarães Sanches, Kellina O. de Souza Nutritional Composition 385
and Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva Phytochemical Content 385
Origin and Botanical Aspects 363 Antioxidant Activity 387
Production 363 Immunostimulatory Activity 387
Postharvest Physiology and Nutritional Value 364 Antihyperuricemic Activity 388
Postharvest Conservation 366 Antiproliferative Activity 388
Industrial Application 366 Sensory and Physicochemical Characteristics 388
References 366 Conservation 388
Further Reading 368 Current and Potential Industrial Application 388
Acknowledgment 389
Rambutãn—Nephelium lappaceum References 389

Wen Li, Jiaoke Zeng and Yuanzhi Shao Soursop—Annona muricata

Origin and Botanical Aspects 369 Shuaibu Babaji Sanusi and Mohd Fadzelly Abu Bakar
Origin 369
Morphological Characteristics 369 Introduction 391
Cultivars and Harvest Season 370 Cultivar Origin and Distribution 391
Cultivation 371 Taxonomy and Botanical Description 391
Propagation 371 Harvesting Season 392
Growing Behavior and Management 371 Estimated Annual Production 392
Sensory Characteristics 371 Physiology and Biochemistry 393
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 371 Sensory Characteristics of Soursop Fruit 394
Nutritional Component 371 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 394
Antioxidant Compounds 371 Industrial Application 395
Polyamine 372 Acknowledgments 395
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 372 References 395
Harvest and Postharvest Physiology 372
Postharvest Conservation 373
Sugar Apple—Annona squamosa Linn.
Industrial Applications 373 Muhammad Murtala Mainasara, Mohd Fadzelly Abu
Peel Application 373 Bakar, Maryati Mohamed, Alona C. Linatoc
Seed Application 374 and Fatimah Sabran
References 374
Further Reading 375 Annona squamosa 397
International Common Names 397
Safou—Dacryodes edulis Cultivar Origin 397
Botanical Aspects 398
Sueli Rodrigues, Edy Sousa de Brito and Description 398
Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva Harvest Season 400
Cultivar Origin and Botanic Aspects 377 Estimated Annual Production 400
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 377 Plant Chemicals 400
Sensory Aspects 378 Fruit Composition 400
Harvest Season, Postharvest Sensory Characteristics 401
Conservation, Physiology, and Biochemistry 380 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 401
Industrial Application or Potential Industrial Application 402
Industrial Application 380 Economic Value 402
References 381 References 402
Further Reading 402
Salak—Salacca zalacca
Tamarindo—Tamarindus indica
Nur Amalina Ismail and Mohd Fadzelly Abu Bakar
Md.Salim Azad
Introduction 383
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Description 383 Introduction 403
Morphology and Physiology 384 Taxonomy 403
 Contents xiii

Distribution and Habitat 404 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 429

General Description 404 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value 429
Food Value 406 Sensory Characteristics 431
Chemical Composition 406 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 431
Harvesting and Storage 406 Industrial Application or Potential
Cultivars 407 Industrial Application 431
Postharvest Uses 407 Final Remarks 432
Household Uses 408 References 432
Medicinal Uses 408
Industrial Uses 408 Uvaia—Eugenia pyriformis Cambess
Other Uses 409 Angelo P. Jacomino, Aline P.G. da Silva,
Propagation and Conservation 409
Thais P. de Freitas and Verônica S. de Paula Morais
Acknowledgment 410
References 410 Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 435
Further Reading 412 Harvest Season 435
Estimated Annual Production 436
Tarap—Artocarpus odoratissimus Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 436
Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Fazleen Izzany Abu Bakar and Mohd Fadzelly
Value Including Vitamins, Minerals,
Abu Bakar
Phenolics, and Antioxidant Compounds 436
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 413 Sensory Characteristics 436
Harvest Season 414 Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 436
Estimated Annual Production 414 Harvest 436
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 415 Postharvest Conservation 437
Chemical Composition and Nutritional Industrial Application or Potential
Value Including Vitamins, Mineral, Industrial Application 437
Phenolics and Antioxidant Compounds 415 Acknowledgments 437
Sensory Characteristics 417 References 438
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 417 Further Reading 438
Industrial Application or Potential
Industrial Application 418 Wampee—Clausena lansium
Acknowledgment 418 Sueli Rodrigues, Edy Sousa de Brito and
References 418 Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
The Tucumã of Amazonas— Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 439
Astrocaryum aculeatum Harvest Season 439
Composition and Uses 439
Roberto C.V. Santos, Michele R. Sagrillo, Euler E. References 441
Ribeiro and Ivana B.M. Cruz
Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 419
Wood Apple—Limonia acidissima
Harvest Season 419 Sueli Rodrigues, Edy Sousa de Brito and
Estimated Annual Production 419 Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva
Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 420
Uses and Applications 422 Cultivar Origin and Botanical Aspects 443
Recent In Vitro Studies 422 Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry 443
References 424 Chemical Composition and Nutritional
Value Including Vitamins, Mineral,
Umbu—Spondias tuberosa Phenolics and Antioxidant Compounds 444
Harvest and Postharvest Conservation 444
Maria Auxiliadora C. de Lima, Silvanda de M. Silva Potential Industrial Application 444
and Viseldo R. de Oliveira Medicinal Use 444
Introduction 427 Food Uses 446
Origin and Botanical Aspects 427 References 446
Genetic Variability 428
Harvest Season 429 Author Index 447
Estimated Annual Production 429 Subject Index 459
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List of Contributors
Virgı́nia K.G. Abreu, Federal University of Maranhão,
Imperatriz, MA, Brazil
Fazleen Izzany Abu Bakar, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Mohd Fadzelly Abu Bakar, Universiti Tun Hussein
Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
César F. Aquino, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa,
Minas Gerais, Brazil
André Luiz Atroch, Embrapa Western Amazon,
Manaus, Brazil
Fadzilah Awang-Kanak, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia; Universiti
Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia
Md. Salim Azad, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
Vishwas A. Bapat, Shivaji University, Kolhapur,
Maharashtra, India
Giovana A. Bataglion, Federal University of Amazonas,
Manaus, Brazil
Yanuzi M.V. Camilo, Federal University of Goiás,
Goiânia, Brazil
Silvia Carpenedo, Embrapa Temperate Agriculture,
Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Alegrı́a Carrasco-Pancorbo, University of Granada,
Granada, Spain
Juan C. Castro, National University of the Peruvian
Amazon, Iquitos, Peru
André G.V. Costa, Federal University of Espı́rito Santo,
Alegre, Espı́rito Santo, Brazil
José M.C. Costa, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
Luis E.C. Costa, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
Ivana B.M. Cruz, Federal University of Santa Maria,
Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Salvatore D’Aquino, Institute of Sciences of Food
Production, National Research Council, Sassari, Italy
Franciscleudo B. da Costa, UFCG/CCTA, Pombal, Brazil
Lorena G. da Franca, Federal Institute of Education,
Science and Technology of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte,
Brazil
Aline P.G. da Silva, University of São Paulo, Luiz de
Queiroz College of Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo,
Brazil
Felipe M.A. da Silva, Federal University of Amazonas,
Manaus, Brazil
Ivanildo J. da Silva Júnior, Federal University of
Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Vitor S.V. da Silva, Amazonas State University,
Manaus, Brazil
Mônica M. de Almeida Lopes, Federal University of
Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Edy Sousa de Brito, Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Thais P. de Freitas, University of São Paulo, Luiz de
Queiroz College of Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo,
Brazil
Maria Auxiliadora C. de Lima, Embrapa Semiárido,
Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
Leila C.R. de Lins, Federal University of Viçosa,
Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Maria R.A. de Miranda, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Maria do S.P. de Oliveira, Embrapa Eastern Amazon,
Belém, Para, Brazil
Viseldo R. de Oliveira, Embrapa Semiárido, Petrolina,
Pernambuco, Brazil
Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva, Embrapa Agroindústria
Tropical, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Verônica S. de Paula Morais, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Southern Minas
Gerais, IFSULDEMINAS, Inconfidentes, Minas Gerais,
Brazil
Dalmo L. de Siqueira, Federal University of Viçosa,
Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
xv
xvi List of Contributors
João A. de Sousa, Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Luiz B. de Sousa Sabino, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Eli R.B. de Souza, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,
Brazil
Kellina O. de Souza, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Pahlevi A. de Souza, Federal Institute of Education,
Science and Technology of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte,
Brazil
Estelle Delort, Firmenich SA, Geneva, Switzerland
Firmino J. do Nascimento Filho, Embrapa Western
Amazon, Manaus, Brazil
Adem Dogan, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
Mustafa Erkan, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
Fabiano A.N. Fernandes, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Alberto Fernández-Gutiérrez, University of Granada,
Granada, Spain
Fernanda R.M. França, Federal University of Sergipe,
São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
Rodrigo C. Franzon, Embrapa Temperate Agriculture,
Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Camilla Z. Gallon, University of Espirito Santo, Vitória,
Brazil
José Á. Guerrero-Beltrán, Universidad de las Américas
Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
Neuza M.A. Hassimotto, University of São Paulo, São
Paulo, Brazil
Elena Hurtado-Fernández, University of Granada,
Granada, Spain
Sixto A. Imán, National Institute of Agricultural
Innovation, Iquitos, Peru
Nur Amalina Ismail, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Angelo P. Jacomino, University of São Paulo, Luiz de
Queiroz College of Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo,
Brazil
Umesh B. Jagtap, Government Vidarbha Institute of
Science and Humanities, Amravati, Maharashtra, India
Pedro Jiménez, Universidad Militar Nueva Granada,
Bogotá, Colombia
Xinwen Jin, Institute of Food Science and Technology,
XAARS, Shihezi City, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous
Region, P.R. China
Germain Kansci, University of Yaounde, Yaounde,
Cameroon
Saichol Ketsa, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand;
The Royal Society of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand
Ricardo Alfredo Kluge, University of São Paulo/
ESALQ, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
Hector H.F. Koolen, Amazonas State University,
Manaus, Brazil
Benoit B. Koubala, University of Maroua, Maroua,
Cameroon
Franco M. Lajolo, University of São Paulo, São Paulo,
Brazil
Wen Li, Hainan University, Hai Kou, People’s Republic
of China
Alona C. Linatoc, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Marcia A.A. Lorca, University of Concepción,
Concepción, Chile
J. Dylan Maddox, The Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago, IL, United States; American Public
University System, Charles Town, WV, United States
Muhammad Murtala Mainasara, Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Edmundo M. Mercado-Silva, Autonomous University
of Queretaro, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
Maryati Mohamed, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Lunian F. Moreira, Federal Institute of Education,
Science and Technology of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte,
Brazil
Carlos F.H. Moura, Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Narendra Narain, Federal University of Sergipe, São
Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
Maria T.S.L. Neta, Federal University of Sergipe, São
Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
Horst Bremer Neto, University of São Paulo, Luiz de
Queiroz College of Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo,
Brazil
Carlos E. Ochoa-Velasco, Benemérita Universidad
Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
Dalany M. Oliveira, Federal Institute of Education,
Science and Technology of Paraiba, Sousa, Paraiba,
Brazil
Luciana de S. Oliveira, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil

Amedeo Palma, Institute of Sciences of Food
Production, National Research Council, Sassari, Italy
Weider H.P. Paz, Federal University of Amazonas,
Manaus, Brazil
Ana L.F. Pereira, Federal University of Maranhão,
Imperatriz, MA, Brazil
Patricia M. Pinto, Cantareira College, São Paulo,
Brazil
Stanislaw Pluta, Research Institute of Horticulture,
Skierniewice, Poland
Diane Ragone, National Tropical Botanical Garden,
Kalaheo, HI, United States
Azlen Che Rahim, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Marie-Christine Ralet, INRA, Nantes Research Center,
Nantes, France
Maria do C.B. Raseira, Embrapa Temperate
Agriculture, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Euler E. Ribeiro, University for the Third Age, University
of Amazonas State, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
Laiza B. Ribeiro, Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Sueli Rodrigues, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
Fatimah Sabran, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Michele R. Sagrillo, Franciscan University Center, Santa
Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Luiz C.C. Salomão, Federal University of Viçosa,
Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Alex Guimarães Sanches, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Roberto C.V. Santos, Federal University of Santa Maria,
Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
List of Contributors xvii
Shuaibu Babaji Sanusi, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia
Diógenes H.A. Sarmento, UNIVALE, Limoeiro do
Norte, Brazil
Gustavo Schwartz, Embrapa Eastern Amazon, Belém,
Para, Brazil
Yuanzhi Shao, Hainan University, Hai Kou, People’s
Republic of China
Pollyanna I. Silva, Federal University of Espı́rito Santo,
Alegre, Espı́rito Santo, Brazil
Silvanda de M. Silva, Federal University of Paraiba
State, Areia, Paraiba, Brazil
Paulo C. Stringheta, Federal University of Viçosa,
Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Chairat Techavuthiporn, Huachiew Chalermprakiet
University, Samut Prakarn, Thailand
Luciane de L. Teixeira, University of São Paulo,
São Paulo, Brazil
Magda Andréia Tessmer, University of São Paulo/
ESALQ, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
Tatiane de O. Tokairin, University of São Paulo,
Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, Piracicaba,
São Paulo, Brazil
Georgina Vargas-Simón, Universidad Juárez Autónoma
de Tabasco, Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico
Rosângela Vera, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,
Brazil
Maximiliano D. Viñoly, Federal University of Pelotas,
Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Yong-Ming Yuan, Firmenich Aromatics Co. Ltd.,
Shanghai, China
Jiaoke Zeng, Hainan University, Hai Kou, People’s
Republic of China
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Preface

Fruit consumption is increasing due to the world concern for health and well-being. Fruit consumption is nowadays
associated with the life quality improvement due to their high content of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidant
compounds. However, the most known and consumed fruits are the ones cultivated on a large scale, industrialized, and
sold worldwide. Exotic fruits are usually local fruits known and consumed according to the cultural practices. Besides
their atypical shape and their unique taste, exotic fruits might be richer in functional compounds than the regular ones.
Some of them are cultivated on a large scale, but as any fruit, they are usually perishable and seasonal, and their
exportation is limited. Other are not produced on a large scale, and most of them are not cultivated but collected and
consumed by the local population.
The Exotic Fruit Reference Guide introduces exotic fruits from several parts of the world. Their origin and botanical
aspects, cultivation and harvest, physiology and biochemistry, chemical composition, and nutritional value are covered
within the book chapters. The harvest and postharvest conservation, as well as their potential industrialization, are also
presented as a way of stimulating the interest in their consumption and large-scale production. The book chapters were
written by expert authors from different institutions around the world. The exotic fruits are present within the book in
short and easy to read chapters to serve as a reference guide for the ones interested in exotic and different fruits. The
chapters are independent and can be read in any order. Thus, enjoy the reading!

xix
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Acknowledgment

The editors acknowledge the National Institute of Tropical Fruits (INCT-FT-CNPq/FAPITEC) for funding the research
in fruit processing in Brazil.

xxi
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Açaı́—Euterpe oleracea
Maria do S.P. de Oliveira and Gustavo Schwartz
Embrapa Eastern Amazon, Bele´m, Para, Brazil

Chapter Outline
Açaı́ Origin, Ecology, Botany, and Socioeconomic Importance 1 Fruit Physiology, Biochemistry, Chemical Composition, and
Harvest Season 3 Nutritional Value 4
Estimated Annual Production and Harvest/Postharvest Sensory Characteristics 4
Conservation 3 Industrial Application or Potential Industrial Application 4
References 5

AÇAÍ ORIGIN, ECOLOGY, BOTANY, AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Açaı́ (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) is a palm species (family Arecaceae) native from the river Amazon’s basin. This palm
species is also known as acai, assai, or huasai. Because of the denomination açaı́, the species is often confused with its
sister species, the lone-açaı́ (Euterpe precatoria Mart.). The main difference between the two species is that E. oleracea
occurs in clumps of many stems while E. precatoria always occurs in a single stem (Oliveira et al., 2015).
Individuals of açaı́ are commonly found in high densities spread over swamps and floodplains in clumps that can
have up to 20 stems (Cavalcante, 2010). Açaı́ palms have cylindrical, ringed, erect, fibrous, and branchless stems,
which can reach 30 m in height and 18 cm in diameter (Fig. 1). High stem heights are only reached by individuals in
their natural environments under competition against other palms and trees inside a forest. Cultivated açaı́ palms are not
as tall as those in nature, because they face less or no competition from other palms or trees (Oliveira et al., 2012).
Each açaı́ stem supports on average 10
12 compound leaves of 3.5 m in length, all of them spirally arranged. Scars
left by fallen leaves are found along the whole stem forming nodes and internodes (Henderson, 2000; Fig. 1). Açaı́’s
roots are fasciculated, dense, and superficial, with lenticels and aerenchymas sizing 1 cm in diameter. These roots are
reddish and usually grow 30
40 cm above ground. They are densely aggregated around each stem basis.
Male and female flowers develop in the same inflorescence, hence açaı́ is a monoecious species. In terms of repro-
duction, cross-fertilization is the most common system as incompatibility and flowering asynchrony of male and female
flowers are observed (Oliveira et al., 2012). However, up to 12.9% of self-fertilization (autogamy) can occur in the spe-
cies (Souza, 2002).
There are two main varieties of açaı́ palm: the purple or black, and the green or white açaı́, where the difference is
in the fruit’s skin (epicarp) color of ripe fruits (Oliveira et al., 2015). Purple açaı́ contains dark skin (Fig. 2) and pulp
that is used to produce purplish juice. Green açaı́ has a shiny dark green pulp and its juice is soft and greenish
(Cavalcante, 2010).
Fruits and seeds of açaı́ are spread out by a wide number of dispersers. Over short distances, fruits and seeds are dis-
persed by small rodents, while birds, such as toucans, guans, araçaris, parakeets, parrots, and thrushes, spread açaı́ over
long distances. Rivers and humans can also work as dispersal agents (Cymerys and Shanley, 2005). In nature, each açaı́
cluster is composed by hundreds of fruits (globular drupes) with a slight depression of 1
2 cm in diameter and
0.6
2.8 g in weight (Fig. 2). They are bright green when unripe and purple or opaque green when ripe, depending on
the variety (Oliveira, 2002). Each fruit contains a mesocarp 1
2 mm thick, which varies in color, and an edible part
(epicarp and mesocarp) representing 7%
25% of the fruit (Cavalcante, 2010). Seeds have a fibrous seed coat, hard
endocarp and a small embryo, with abundant recalcitrant endosperm.

Exotic Fruits Reference Guide. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803138-4.00002-2

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Exotic Fruits Reference Guide

FIGURE 1 Açaı́ (Euterpe oleracea) palms with many stems per clump. Source: Photo by Maria do Socorro Padilha de Oliveira.

Seeds are not dormant and the species regeneration normally occurs through seedling banks. During the seedling
stage, açaı́ is a shade-tolerant plant, but such shade tolerance is no longer observed in adult palms, which normally
reach a nearly 20
25 years lifespan. Seeds are an important way of producing açaı́ seedlings, so they can germinate in
a few days. Seed sizes vary from 0.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter and seed weights vary from 0.6 to 2.8 g. These weights
result in an average of 900 seeds per kilogram, where the variation ranges from 435 to 1250 seeds per kilogram
(Queiroz and Mochiutti, 2001; Oliveira et al., 2015).
Fruit production of açaı́ appears as an ancient activity of the indigenous people from the Amazon. Nowadays, the
palm is widely used by the local people to produce juice and palm heart, two important economic products in the
Amazon, especially in the Pará state of Brazil (Oliveira et al., 2015). The juice, obtained by macerating fruits mixed
with water, is also known as açaı́, which is usually sold unprocessed and pasteurized or as a mixed frozen pulp. Juice is
currently the most financially profitable product of the açaı́ palm for both small farmers and industrial producers.
Known as an energy drink, açaı́ has been accepted beyond the Amazon region. Its juice has been consumed worldwide
in beverages, fruit mixes, and icecreams, where consumers recognize it as a pulp with great nutritional power.
Besides the juice production, açaı́ palms are widely used for ornamentation in gardens and parks of the Amazon
region. Moreover, the açaı́ palm has been planted to grow and protect degraded soils due to its constant leaves deposi-
tion and abundant root system to work on soil formation.
In the Amazon region, açaı́ has a relevant socioeconomic role. The açaı́ juice is usually consumed with tapioca flour
and fish as a side dish, being part of the traditional local food. Pará is the leading açaı́ production in Brazil, supplying
nearly 90% of the Brazilian domestic market (Oliveira et al., 2015). Açaı́ is widely appreciated in other Brazilian states
and countries of the Amazon region. More recently, açaı́ has also been consumed in southern and southeastern states of
Brazil and many countries from South America and other continents (Santana et al., 2008). In addition to the fruit, the
palm heart is appreciated and considered a fine dish. Differently from another sister species (Euterpe edulis Mart.) pres-
ent in the Atlantic forest of South America, the harvesting of palm heart from açaı́ does not cause the plant death. Thus,
the açaı́’s palm heart is commercialized in large scale, including exportation. Pasteurization/acidification and juice
 Açaı́—Euterpe oleracea 3

FIGURE 2 Hundreds of ripe açaı́ (Euterpe oleracea) fruits from the purple variety in a single cluster. Source: Photo by Maria do Socorro Padilha
de Oliveira.

freezing are part of the industrial processing of açaı́. Most of the açaı́ production in Pará is sold to other non-
Amazonian Brazilian states and exported. Consumers outside Pará, to where açaı́ is sold or exported, usually consume
processed açaı́ in blends with banana, guarana, condensed milk, and cereals.

HARVEST SEASON
Palms of açaı́ start their reproduction phase (flowering) at nearly four years of age and the fruit production lasts an aver-
age 5
10 years after germination. Reproduction can start even earlier in plants under cultivation (Oliveira et al., 2002).
The species presents continuous flowering and fruiting, so this means a constant production for the whole year.
Flowering peaks happen from February to July and fruiting from August to December (during the rainy season) in the
Eastern Amazon (Oliveira et al., 2002).

ESTIMATED ANNUAL PRODUCTION AND HARVEST/POSTHARVEST CONSERVATION

A single açaı́ palm, in nature, can produce 4
8 clusters per year, where each cluster can reach 4 kg on average in
weight. Thus, an açaı́ clump can produce nearly 120 kg of fruit per yearly harvest. In intensively managed açaı́ crops,
the average production is even higher. It can reach 12
15 tons of fruits/ha/year in uplands and floodplains, respectively
(Cymerys and Shanley, 2005).
Fruits are harvested when completely mature, but they are not consumed without processing, as they are tasteless
and present low yields from the edible parts, when compared to most of the tropical fruits (Oliveira et al., 2015). Ripe
fruits, after processing to obtain the açaı́ juice, present a pasty consistency. The açaı́ processing is carried out mechani-
cally or manually, where only water is added after the fruit maceration. The water makes it easier to extract pulp and
filtrate the obtained juice.
4 Exotic Fruits Reference Guide

Postharvest conservation of açaı́ fruits consists of maintaining them under temperatures around 10  C. Fruit conser-
vation and transport for periods longer than 48 h is traditionally done with bags covered by ice, these bags can carry up
to 60 kg of fruit. When fruits or pulp are sold outside Pará or exported, refrigerating chambers are employed to conserve
their natural properties (Oliveira et al., 2015).

FRUIT PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, AND NUTRITIONAL

VALUE
In the composition of açaı́ fruits, there are nearly 90 bioactive substances, including flavonoids (31%), phenolic com-
pounds (23%), lignoids (11%), and anthocyanins (9%). Fatty acids, quinoses, terpenes, and norisoprenoids are also
found in açaı́ fruits (Yamaguchi et al., 2015; Carvalho et al., 2017). The açaı́ juice is a complete food that contains high
lipid and fiber quantities, as well as proteins, minerals (calcium, magnesium, potassium, nickel, manganese, copper,
boron, and chromium), and vitamins (B1 and E). Regarding the nutrient composition, açaı́ juice is considered as com-
plete as milk (Rogez, 2000).
Anthocyanin is a pigment from the flavonoids class present in high quantities in the purple açaı́ and is responsible
for the characteristic fruit color (Torma et al., 2017; Carvalho et al., 2017). This pigment can offer benefits to the
human health. It can help in reducing LDL (bad cholesterol). Pulp of açaı́ has antiaging properties and antioxidant
capacity in blood plasma. It also presents biological activity to reduce oxidative damage, inflammation in brain cells,
and coronary disease risk (Heinrich et al., 2011; Yamaguchi et al., 2015). Anthocyanins are very sensible to light, heat,
and oxygen, so any delay in processing açaı́ fruits can interfere negatively with their natural concentration.
Açaı́ fruits are significantly caloric due to their high lipid levels (21%
53%). Besides lipids, açaı́ present total fibers
(17%
71%), proteins (6%
12%), and carbohydrates (36%
43%). Lipids from the processed pulp have high levels of
unsaturated fatty acids (68%
71%). The açaı́’s fatty acid profile is similar to the olive and avocado oil (Rogez, 2000;
Domingues et al., 2017), which is rich in oleic acid (omega 6) and linoleic (omega 9). Higher amounts of the three fol-
lowing fatty acids are commonly present in açaı́: oleic acid (60%), palmitic acid (22%), and linoleic acid (12%).
Because of its complex composition and beneficial effects to the human health, açaı́ has been classified as a functional
food.
Nevertheless, the chemical properties and composition of açaı́ fruits, including anthocyanin, phenolic compounds,
acidity, soluble solids, and total solids, vary in relation to genetic features, cultivation system, harvesting techniques,
maturation stage, transport time, cleaning process, and maceration (Carvalho et al., 2017; Domingues et al., 2017).
Furthermore, the green açaı́ contains no anthocyanin and lower oil contents compared to the purple açaı́.

SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS
Juice of açaı́ is rarely consumed without mixing with other products, due to its low appreciated taste (Melo Neto et al.,
2013). In Brazilian Amazonian states, açaı́ juice is normally consumed in mixes with tapioca flour (made from manioc)
and sugar. Outside this region açaı́ has been consumed in blends with banana, guarana, condensed milk, and cereals,
which significant changes the original açaı́ taste. The specific composition of açaı́ fruits permits chemical enzymatic
alterations as oxidation. A visible alteration involves color changes of the juice, from purple to brown. This leads to
losses of anthocyanin, the most important açaı́’s pigment, due to enzymatic action. Hence, açaı́ oxidation can impair the
juice’s sensorial characteristics such as flavor, color, and texture.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OR POTENTIAL INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION

To make the açaı́ juice, fruits need to be harvested and transported in clusters. Fruit clusters are received in places that
require artisanal or industrial equipment to process fruits to obtain the açaı́ juice. These processing places and equip-
ment need to be perfectly clean, as the açaı́ fruits are highly perishable, with a few hours of lifecycle at room tempera-
ture. Açaı́ fruits are highly perishable due to the absence of a protective pulp skin and the fruit chemical composition
(Oliveira et al., 2015; Domingues et al., 2017). Fruits have pH $ 4.5, which favors microorganism infestations that can
include human pathogens.
Besides the traditional use of açaı́ juice, the processed pulp has been used in north Brazil to make icecream, açaı́
powder jelly, sweets, and cakes (Cymerys and Shanley, 2005; Yamaguchi et al., 2015). The current domestic market in
Brazil and exportation of açaı́ are increasing. In the Brazilian states out of the Amazon region, açaı́ has been consumed
 Açaı́—Euterpe oleracea 5

as frozen pulp and outside Brazil the fruit is mainly consumed as juice. Due to the rapid increase in açaı́ consumption,
new investments in plantings for industrial açaı́ production and the management of large natural populations have been
done, especially in Pará (Nogueira and Santana, 2014).
Pulp of açaı́ has been used in the food industry as a natural pigment, cosmetic, pharmaceutic, or for oil extraction.
Besides the traditional juice, açaı́ has been used to make sweets, gelatine capsules, powders, and teas (Costa et al.,
2013; Carvalho et al., 2010). Seeds of açaı́ have been used for manufacturing bio jewels. Açaı́ stem, besides its palm
heart extraction, cellulose is produced. These stems have also been traditionally used as a support for rural buildings,
lathes for fencing, corrals, walls and rafters for roofing tents, and firewood for ovens.

REFERENCES
Carvalho, A.V., Mattietto, R.A., Silva, P.A., Araújo, E.A.F., 2010. Otimização dos parâmetros tecnológicos para produção de estruturado a partir de
polpa de açaı́. Braz. J. Food Technol. 13, 232
241.
Carvalho, A.V., Silveira, T.F.F.da, Mattietto, R.de A., Oliveira, M.do S.P.de, Godoy, H.T., 2017. Chemical composition and antioxidant capacity of
açaı́ (Euterpe oleracea) genotypes and commercial pulps. J. Sci. Food Agric. 97, 1467
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 nerve, peripheral paralysis of (Bell's palsy),

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Diagnosis,

1205

Etiology,

1202

1203

Symptoms,

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Facial expression,

1203

1204

Muscles and organs affected,

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Reactions, electrical, in,

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Special senses and sensibility in,

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Bleeding and counter-irritation in,

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Iodide of potassium,

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epileptiform,

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spasm, painless,

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Facies hysterica,

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Faith-cure,

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Family form of tabes dorsalis,

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Faradic reactions, significance, in diagnosis of nervous lesions,

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Fasting girls,

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 saints,

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Fatty heart, in chronic alcoholism,

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Febrile insomnia,

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Feeding, forced, in neurasthenia,

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Feet, condition of, in advanced tabes dorsalis,

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in diffuse sclerosis,
888

Festination in paralysis agitans,

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Fever, thermic,

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and cerebral anæmia,

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Fibrillary contractions in nervous diseases,

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Fifth nerve, neuralgias of,

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Flexibility, wax-like, in catalepsy,

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337

Fontanels, state of, in chronic hydrocephalus,

741

742

in tubercular meningitis,

727

Frauds of hysterical patients,

233

,
234

Frequency of epileptic attacks,

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Friedreich's disease,

870

Front-tap, in diffuse spinal sclerosis,

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Functional nervous diseases, diagnosis of,

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 G.

Gait in chronic lead-poisoning,

686

in diffuse sclerosis,

888

in general paralysis of the insane,

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in paralysis agitans,

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in spastic spinal paralysis,

863

864

in tabes dorsalis,
831

Galvanic reactions, significance of, in diagnosis of nervous lesions,

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Galvanism, use in insanity,

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Ganglionic elements, condition of, in abscess of the brain,

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Gangrene in vaso-motor neuroses,

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Definition, history, and synonyms,

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 Duration, course, and nature,

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Etiology and diagnosis,

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of Reynaud's disease,

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Prognosis,

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Symmetrical,

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 Symptoms,

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Treatment,

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Electricity,

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Massage, rest, and tonics, use,

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Opium, use,

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Gastric crises in tabes dorsalis,

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Disorders, as a cause of epilepsy,

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Vertigo,

420

Gastralgia (see

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Gelsemium, use, in neuralgia,

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in painless facial spasm,

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General paralysis of the insane,

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Genito-urinary disorders of the chloral habit,

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of the opium habit,

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658

Genius, relations of, to insanity,

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Gliomatous tumors of the brain,

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Gold, use of, in hemiplegia,

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and sodium chloride, use of, in hysteria,

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Gout, relation of, to chronic lead-poisoning,

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to hysteria,
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Guarana, use, in migraine,

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Gummatous brain syphilis,

1003

1014

brain tumors,

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Gums, state of, in chronic lead-poisoning,

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Gustatory sensory disturbances in nervous diseases,

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Gymnastics, value of, in hysteria,

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in writers' cramp,

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Gynæcological treatment of hysteria,

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H.
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opium, and kindred affections,

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Hæmatoma of the dura mater,

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Hæmatorrachis,

754

Hair, changes in, in progressive unilateral facial atrophy,

695

Hallucinations in alcoholism,
626

631

in cerebral anæmia,

782

784

785

hyperæmia,

769

in delirium tremens,

627

628

in hystero-epilepsy,
301

in nervous diseases,

21

22

in the opium habit,

655

658

659

Handwriting in general paralysis of the insane,

183

in paralysis agitans,

435