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 FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FOOD CHEMISTRY

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FOOD CHEMISTRY

DONGFENG WANG
HONG LIN
JIANQIAN KAN
LINWEI LIU
XIAOXING ZENG
AND
SHENGRONG SHEN
EDITORS

New York
Copyright © 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
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Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Food chemistry / editors, Dongfeng Wang ... [et al.].

p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN:  (eBook)
1. Food--Analysis. 2. Food--Composition. I. Wang, Dongfeng.
TX531.F555 2011
664'.07--dc23
2011042522

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Contributors ix
About the Editors xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Dongfeng Wang
Chapter 2 Water 9
Jianqian Kan and Guoqing Huang
Chapter 3 Carbohydrates 35
Dongfeng Wang, Jipeng Sun, Guoqing Huang,
Xiaolin Zhou and Liping Sun
Chapter 4 Lipids 107
Shengrong Shen, Dongfeng Wang and Undurti N. Das
Chapter 5 Proteins 137
Hong Lin, Lisha Wu and Shuhui Wang
Chapter 6 Vitamins 191
Yibin Zhou, Dongfeng Wang and Ping Dong
Chapter 7 Minerals 223
Dongfeng Wang, Lina Yu, Haiyan Li, Bin Zhang,
Shuhui Wang and Xingguo Liang
Chapter 8 Food Flavors 247
Xiaoxiong Zeng and Guaoqing Huang
Chapter 9 Food Additives 273
Linwei Liu and Shiyuan Dong
Chapter 10 Toxicants in Foods 305
Wang Dongfeng, Guoqing Huang and Shuhui Wang
Index 353
 PREFACE

Foods consist of a large quantity of compounds, of which, some are original from plant or
animal materials, some are new ones generated during processing or preservation, some are
intentionally added by manufacturers, and some are contaminants produced during
processing, preservation or packaging. These compounds undergo various changes during
processing and storage and it is hence necessary to understand the effects of processing or
storage on these compounds so as to enhance the nutrition, palatability and safety of foods.
The purpose of Food Chemistry is to elucidate the structure, physicochemical properties,
nutrition and safety of major food constituents and their changes occurred during processing
and storage. Due to the extreme importance, Food Chemistry has been accepted as a major
fundamental course for food-related majors.
Though food chemistry has a history of more than 200 years, it developed into a
relatively independent system in the late 1960‘s. Since then, the United States, Japan,
Germany and other countries published several authoritative food chemistry textbooks,
including Latest Food Chemistry edited by Hayashi Junzo and Kitamura Mitsuo (Japan),
Food Chemistry by Sakurai Yoshito (Japan), Food Chemistry by Owen R. Fennema (United
States), Food Chemistry by Belitz HD (Germany), Food Chemistry by Zhang Wang (China),
and Food Chemistry by Dongfeng Wang (China). Of the works, the publications edited by
Fennema and Belitz HD have been widely chosen by university students as textbook.
However, the two books contain too many contents and part of them overlaps with those
stated in Biochemistry and Organic Chemistry. Besides, the two books are too expensive for
readers in developing countries.
Hence, there is an urgent demand to publish a simplified Food Chemistry textbook that
most university students can afford, which is the case of this book. This book presents the
chemistry and properties of the six essential nutrients contained in foods, including water,
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins and minerals, and their changes occurred during food
processing and storage. In addition, this book also deals with the chemistry and properties of
flavors, food additives and toxic substances in foods. This book is simplified and cheaper
than previously published books without reducing its academic level, and reflects the latest
advances in food chemistry. This work can be used as a textbook by university students and
especially suitable for students in developing countries and non-English speaking countries
for bilingual delivery.
The authors would like to thank the postgraduates of the Laboratory of Food Chemistry
and Nutrition of Ocean University of China, including Mei Ding, Yan Li, Lu Yu, Xingya Li,
viii Dongfeng Wang, Hong Lin, Jianqian Kan et al.

Xiang Gao, Wen Zhou, Zhe Xu, Min Wang, Mengqi Li, and Chunsheng Li, for assistance in
literature collection and typesetting, and Ocean University of China for funding the
publication.
 CONTRIBUTORS

Undurti N Das
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada-533 003, India

Liping Sun
College of Chemistry and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology,
Yunnan Province, China

Jipeng Sun
Third Institute of Oceanography State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen, China

Lina Yu
Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Qingdao, China

Xiaoling Zhou
Medical College of Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China

Bin Zhang
School of Food and Pharmacy & Medical School, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhushang
City, Zhejiang Province, China

Haiyan Li
College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China

Banping Wang
College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China

Xingguo Liang
College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
 ABOUT THE EDITORS

Dongfeng Wang is a professor of the College of Food Science and Engineering at the
Ocean University of China. He has published many books related to food chemistry as editor-
in-chief, including Food Chemistry (2007), Advanced Food Chemistry (2009), Chemistry of
Toxic Substances in Foods (2005), Technology of Experiment & Study of Tea Biochemistry
(1997), Experiments on Food Quality & Food Safety (2004) and Technology of Experiments
on Food Science and Engineering (2007). He has published over 120 original papers that
reflect his research interests in food chemistry, tea biochemistry, carbohydrate chemistry, and
preservation. He has received many teaching & academic honors, including The Second Prize
for Advanced Science and Technology of China in 2010, The First Prize for Advanced
Science and Technology from Ministry of Education of the People‘s Republic of China in
2009, Distinguished Teacher Awards from Shandong Province of China in 2006, and Award
for Young Scientists from Anhui Province in 2000. Professor Wang received his BS degree of
agriculture in 1982 from Anhui Agricultural College (Anhui, China), the MS degree of tea
biochemistry in 1988 from Zhejiang Agricultural University (Zhejiang, China), and the PhD
degree of inorganic biochemistry of food in 1999 from University of Science and Technology
of China (Hefei, China).

Jianquan Kan is a professor of the College of Food Science at Southwest University of

China. He is the editor-in-chief of many books related to food chemistry, including The
Practical Chemistry of Oil and Fat (1997), Food Chemistry (2002, revised in 2006 and 2008),
Advanced Food Chemistry (2011), An Introduction to Food Safety (2009), Food Analysis
(2011) and Experimental Methods (2011). He is the author or corresponding author of over
140 original papers covering food chemistry, food analysis and nutrition. He has been
honored the Second-Class Prize of Chongqing Science and Technology Advancement (2009)
and the Second Chongqing Academic and Technological Leader (2008). Professor Kan
received the BS degree of chemistry from Nanchong Normal College (Sichuan, China) in
1986, the MS degree of Product Processing and Storage from Southwest Agricultural
University (Chongqing, China) in 1992, and the PhD degree of Product Processing and
Storage from Southwest Agricultural University (Chongqing, China) in 2003.

Lingwei Liu is a professor of the College of Food Science & Engineering in Northwest
A&F University, Yangling, ShaanXi, China. He has done intensive researches related to food
chemistry, food analysis, nutrition and food safety. Professor Liu received the BS degree of
food science from Northwest Agriculture University (ShaanXi, China) in 1982 and the PhD
xii Dongfeng Wang, Hong Lin, Jianqian Kan et al.

degree of food science from Northwest Agriculture & Forest University (ShaanXi, China) in
1995.

Hong Lin received the BS degree in 1984, the MS degree in 1990, and the PhD degree
in 1998 in seafood science from the Ocean University of China. Professor Lin is a famous
expert in the seafood safety field and his research area covers novel marine organism-derived
chemical and biological hazard discovery, quality control during seafood processing, and fast
hazard detection method development. Professor Lin has been granted 4 invention patents,
published more than 100 original articles, and edited 4 academic books, including Seafood
Safety (2010), Aquatic Nutrition and Safety (2007), Effective Use of Aquatic Resources
(2007), and Fish Preservation Technologies (2000).

Xiaoxiong Zeng received the BS degree from Hunan Agricultural University in 1985,
the MS degree from Zhejiang Agricultural University in 1988, and the PhD degree from
Shizuoka University (Shizuoka, Japan) in 2000. Dr. Zeng is now a professor of the College of
Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, China. He is one of the
authors or corresponding author of over 100 original papers related to food chemistry, food
biotechnology and glycobiology.

Shengrong Shen is a professor of the School of Biosystems Engineering and Food

Science of Zhejiang University. Professor Shen was granted the PhD degree by the
Department of Biophysics of Zhejiang University in 1997. His research area includes
structural analysis of such bioactive compounds as lipids, fatty acids, and polyphenols. He
has published more than 100 original papers concerning food chemistry, food safety and
applied nutrition in the latest 10 years. Besides, professor Shen has published 5 academic
books related to food and health, tea biochemistry and food chemistry.

Yibin Zhou is a professor of the Department of Food Science and Engineering at Anhui
Agricultural University, Anhui, China. He had edited Food Chemistry (in Chinese) as an
assistant, and is the author or corresponding author of over 40 original papers on
carbohydrates, food engineering, and biotechnology.

Guoqing Huang is a lecturer of the College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao
Agricultural University, Qingdao, China.

Shiyuan Dong is a lecturer of the College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean
University of China, Qingdao, China.

Shuhui Wang is a PhD candidate in Biosystems Engineering Department College of

Agriculture - Ginn College of Engineering, Aubum University, Auburn, AL 36849-5417,
USA
In: Food Chemistry ISBN: 978-1-61942-125-7
Editors: D.Wang, H. Lin, J. Kan et al. © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Dongfeng Wang
College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China

ABSTRACT
Food Chemistry is a fundamental discipline for students, engineers, and
professionals engaged in the food industry. This chapter provides an overview of this
discipline, including its definition, purpose, development, and its role in food science and
engineering.

1.1. Food Chemistry and Its History

1.1.1. What Is Food Chemistry

Nutrients refer to the indispensable substance that provides nourishment essential for
maintenance of life, growth and development of human being. The human body needs a lot of
nutrients. Based on chemical structure, the nutrients can be divided into six major categories,
including water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and minerals.
A minor difference between terms foodstuff and food should be noted first. Foodstuff
refers to materials containing nutrients; while foods are materials that have been processed
from foodstuff (ranging from simple cleaning to a modern factory processing) in order to
meet people‘s nutritional and sensory requirements. In another word, a food shall be
characterized by both nutrition and sensory satisfaction.
The nutritional compositions of foods can be determined easily, but sensory satisfaction
is a much complex issue and is related to the color, texture, and shape, flavor of foods in
addition to the cultural background and dietary habits of consumers.
The chemical compositions of foods are very complex (Figure 1-1). Of the components,
some are intrinsic in animal or plant materials, some are generated during processing and
storage, some are intentionally added by manufacturers, some are contaminants originated
from the environment or microorganisms, and some are migrated from packing materials of
2 Dongfeng Wang

food. The purpose of Food Chemistry is to elucidate the structure, physical and chemical
properties, nutritional value as well as safety of these components, their changes undergone
during storage and processing, and the effects of these changes on food nutrition and
palatability. The knowledge is of great importance in improving food quality, developing new
food resources, evolving food processing and storage technologies, upgrading food packaging
materials, and increasing food safety and quality.

Water
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Minerals
Natural
Vitamins
Pigments
Hormones
Flavor components
Toxic substances

Food components

Natural additives
Food Addtives
Synthetic additives
Unnatural
From processing
Contaminants
From environmental pollution
Figure 1-1. Composition of foods.

Food Chemistry is a comprehensive discipline and partially overlaps with chemistry,

biochemistry, physical chemistry, botany, zoology, food nutrition, food safety, polymer
chemistry, environmental chemistry, toxicology, molecular biology, and many other subjects.
Food Chemistry associates the most closely with chemistry and biochemistry and it is the
extension of the two subjects to the food area. However, the subjects have different contents
and focuses. The chemistry subject deals mainly with the composition, property, and
reactions of molecules, biochemistry focuses on the reactions and changes of various
components in organisms under suitable or moderately suitable conditions, while food
chemistry is interested in the changes of components occurred in such unsuitable conditions
as freezing, heating, and drying, their interactions during these processes, and the effects of
these changes on the nutrition, safety, and sensory properties (such as color, flavor, taste, and
shape) of foods.

1.1.2. History of Food Chemistry

It is a short time since Food Chemistry is accepted as an independent subject. However,
the researches and reports related to this subject have been started since the last 1700s. Many
components were separated from foods by chemists and botanists at that time and Researches
on the Chemistry of Food by Justus von Liebig in 1847 is recognized as the first book related
to food chemistry.
 Introduction 3

As the trading of foods between regions and countries increased, both consumers and
manufacturers had urgent needs on the information of water contents and the presence non-
food components in foods. Meanwhile, driven by the rapid development of analysis measures,
the desire to understand the natural characteristic of foods also grew. In 1860, German
scholars Hanneberg W. and Stohman F. invented a method for the simultaneous
determination of water, crude fat, ash, and nitrogen contents. Several years later, diets
containing solely proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates were found insufficient for maintaining
life.
In 1900s, with the advancement of analytical techniques and the biochemistry subject and
the rapid development of the food industry, requirements on new food processing
technologies and prolonged storage life emerged, which drove the quick development of food
chemistry. During this period, a growing number of researches papers were published and the
quantity of related journals increased significantly as well, including Archives of Biochemistry
and Biophysics (initiated in 1942), Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (initiated in
1953) and Food Chemistry (initiated in 1966). Due to the emergency of increasing deep and
systematic publications, Food Chemistry gradually developed into an independent subject.
Chinese scholars Yanbin Xia and Ruijin Yang divide the history of Food Chemistry into
four stages.
Stage one: Many natural components were separated from plants and animals and were
identified, including lactic acid, citric acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid. The knowledge was
not systematic yet and was reported mainly by chemists.
Stage two: In the early 1900s (1820 ~ 1850), food chemistry developed quickly along
with the development of agricultural chemistry and gained much importance in Europe.
Specialized food chemistry laboratories were established and many professional journals
related to food chemistry were issued. Meanwhile, adulteration became a serious issue and
the need for impurity determination propelled the development of food chemistry. In this
stage, Justus von Liebig invented an optimized method for quantitative analysis of organic
substances and published Researches on the Chemistry of Food in 1847.
Stage three: In the middle 1900s century, the British scientist Arthur Hill Hassall reported
the microscopic images of pure and adulterated foods and food chemistry came into the
microanalysis time. In 1871, Jean Baptis M.D.M. proposed that diets containing only
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids were insufficient to sustain human‘s life. The interests on
the nutritional requirements further accelerated the development of food chemistry. Until the
first half of the 20th century, the majority of components in foods were identified and the
number of literatures related to chemistry food increased markedly. Food chemistry then
turned to be a mature and independent subject in mid-20th century.
Stage four: Food chemistry is now in the fourth stage. With the rapid development of
society, economy, science and technology, and the improvement of living standards,
consumers raise higher requirements on food security, nutrition, palatability, and
convenience. Meanwhile, to realize the transformation from traditional to scaled,
standardized, and modernized processing of foods, more and more new technologies,
materials, and equipment are used, which markedly drive the rapid development of food
chemistry. Besides, the advancement of basic chemistry, biochemistry, instrumental analysis
and other related subjects guarantee the rapid development of food chemistry. Food chemistry
has become a most important subject for food scientists [1, 2].
4 Dongfeng Wang

1.1.3. Food Chemistry Textbooks

A series of food chemistry textbooks were published between 1976 to 1985, including
Latest Food Chemistry by Hayashi Junzo and Kitamura Mitsuo (Japan), Food Chemistry by
Sakurai Yoshito (Japan), Food Chemistry by Owen R. Fennema (United States), and Food
Chemistry by Belitz HD (Germany), in which, the works of Fennenma and Belitz HD
contributed a lot to the development of food chemistry and has been widely chosen by
university students as textbook. Food Chemistry has been chosen as a fundamental course for
food related majors.

1.2. The Role of Food Chemistry in Food Science and Engineering

Foodstuff undergoes various chemical and biochemical reactions during storage,

transport, and processing. These reactions might yield products that are either beneficial to
food nutrition and palatability or harmful to consumers. The knowledge of food chemistry is
hence of extreme importance, because the purpose of this subject is to elucidate the changes
of various food components occurred during storage, transport, and processing and the effects
of these changes on food quality. In recent years, the control of composition, property,
structure, and interaction of various food components, the chemical nature of the nutrition and
palatability of complex food systems, and the exploitation of new food resources constitute
the new contents of food chemistry. With the development of science and technologies and
the extension of other fundamental subjects to the food industry, more and more toxic and
harmful chemicals in foods are identified and food chemistry has turned to be the theoretical
foundation for guaranteeing food quality and safety. Food chemistry plays an important role
in food science and engineering and is developing quickly.

1.2.1. Role of Food Chemistry in Technology Advancement

Nutrition, healthcare, safety, and enjoyment are the four fundamental attributes of foods
required by the modern food industry. The theories and application research results of food
chemistry are guiding the healthy and sustainable development of the food industry (Table 1-
1). Practice has proved that, no the theoretical guidance of food industry, no the ever growing
modern food industry.

Table 1-1. Impact of food chemistry on technological advancement of the

food industry [3, 4]

Food Industry Application

Flour improving; starch modification; new edible materials exploitation;
high-fructose syrup; food enzymes; molecular basis of food nutrition; new
Basic food sweetener and natural additive development; new oligosaccharide
industry production; oil modification; vegetable protein isolates; functional peptides
production; microbial polysaccharides and single cell protein development;
development and utilization of wild, marine, an edible drug resources, etc.
Storage and Chemical peeling; color protection; texture control; vitamin retention; de-
processing of astringency and debittering; coating and waxing; chemical preservation;
fruits and controlled atmosphere storage; bioactive packaging; enzyme-assisted
vegetables juicing, filtration and clarification; chemical preservation, etc.
 Introduction 5

Table 1-1. (Continued)

Food Industry Application

Post-slaughter processing; juice preservation and tenderization; color
protection and development; enhancement of the emulsifying capacity,
Storage and
gelling capacity, and viscoelasticity of meat; frozen denaturation of
processing of
proteins; fresh meat packaging in supermarket; production and application
meats
of fumigation agent; artificial meat production; comprehensive utilization of
viscera, etc
Instant dissolution; ingredient floating and/or sinking inhibition; protein
beverage stabilization; water treatment; juice stabilization; juice color
Beverage protection; flavor enhancement; alcohol degree decrease; beer clarification;
industry beer foamability and bitterness improvement; chemical nature and
prevention of beer non-biological stability; off-flavor elimination; juice de-
astringency; soybean odor elimination, etc.
Yoghurt and juice milk stabilization; chymosin substitute development;
Dairy industry
whey utilization; nutrition fortification of diary products; etc.
Baking High-efficiency leavening agent development; crispness improvement;
industry bread color and texture modification; aging and mildewing inhibition; etc.
Edible oils Lipid refinement; lipid modification; development and utilization of DHA,
and fats EPA, and MCT; food emulsifier and anti-oxidant development; oil
industry absorption reduction of fried foods; etc.
Condiments Meat soup production; nucleotide-type flavor enhancers; organic iodine-
industry supplemented salt; etc.
Fermented Post-processing of fermented foods; flavor changes during post-
food industry fermentation; comprehensive utilization of biomass and residues; etc.
Source identification of exogenous toxicants and their prevention;
Food safety
identification of endogenous toxicants and their elimination; etc
Food Formulation of inspection standards; rapid analysis; biosensor development;
inspection fingerprint preparation of products; etc.

Due to the rapid development of food chemistry, some important reactions, including the
Millard reaction, caramelization, lipid auto-oxidation, starch gelatinization and aging,
polysaccharide hydrolysis and modification, protein hydrolysis and denaturation, pigment
discoloration, vitamin degradation, metal-catalyzed reactions, enzyme-catalyzed reactions, fat
hydrolysis and transesterification, lipid thermo-oxidative decomposition and polymerization,
flavor compound changes, action mechanisms of food additives, generation of harmful
ingredients as well as postharvest physiology, are identified in foods. The knowledge on these
reactions greatly enhances the development of the food industry.

1.2.2. Role of Food Chemistry in Human Nutrition and Health

It has been more than two centuries since proteins, carbohydrates and lipids were
identified as the three major nutrients for human. The two most important attributes of foods
are to provide consumers with nutrition and sensory satisfaction. One of the objectives of
food chemistry is to investigate the nutrition and flavor composition in food materials and
processed foods and the interactions of the components occurred during processing and
storage and effects of these interactions on food nutrition and palatability. The modern food
6 Dongfeng Wang

chemistry should not only ensure the healthcare and enjoyment attributes of food
components, but also guide consumers on rational diet selection. The concept of nutrition has
evolved significantly due to social development and the change of the healthy status of
consumers. How to reduce the incidences of diet-related diseases, such as cardio-
cerebrovascular diseases, cancers, and diabetes, has turned to be a new major task of food
industry. In addition to the healthcare attribute, foods should also provide desirable flavors so
that consumers enjoy the eating process. The emergence of biotechnologies and new food
processing technologies guarantees the safety of foods.
Contamination of foods by pollutants is currently a worldwide concern due to global
environmental deterioration. The analysis and identification of trace and ultramicro
substances are of vital importance to the nutrition value and the control of toxicants of foods.
The development of food chemistry has been associated with the healthy status and
civilization level of human.

1.3. Research Methods of Food Chemistry

Each type of food contains a large number of components and is thereby a much complex
system. Hence, the research methods of food chemistry are quite different from those of
common chemistry subjects. In food chemistry, the knowledge on the chemical composition,
physicochemical properties, and changes of food components must be associated with the
nutrition, enjoyment, and safety of foods. The experimental design of food chemistry should
reveal the complex composition of food systems and the changes of the nutrition value,
enjoyment, and safety of foods during processing and storage. The interactions between food
components and their changes occurred during storage and processing (such as ultra-high
pressure, high temperature, freezing, presence or absence of oxygen) are extremely complex.
Hence, many researches are carried out in simplified and stimulated models, which must be
then verified in real food systems.
The experiments of food chemistry include mainly physicochemical experiments and
sensory evaluation experiments. Physicochemical experiments reveal the composition of
foods and the structures of the components, including nutrients, toxicants, and flavors; while
sensory experiments evaluate the texture, flavor, and color changes of foods through visual
inspection.
Foods or food materials undergo a series of changes during storage, transport, processing,
and sales. The changes include: enzymatic and chemical reactions in raw and fresh materials;
changes caused by water activity variance; component decomposition, polymerization, and
denaturation under violent conditions (high temperature, high pressure, mechanical actions);
oxidation induced by oxygen or other oxidants; photochemical reactions; and migration of
packaging materials to foods. Of the changes, non-enzymatic browning, lipid oxidation and
hydrolysis, protein hydrolysis and denaturation, protein cross-linking, oligosaccharide and
polysaccharide hydrolysis, and change of the presence form of natural pigments and their
degradation, are the most important reactions for the food industry. Of the reactions, some are
desired, but some are unexpected and must be avoided during processing (Table 1-2). The
mechanisms and control of these reactions constitute the key contents of food chemistry.
 Introduction 7

Table 1-2. Part reactions occurred during food processing and storage and their
influences on foods [3, 4]

Reaction Examples Influence on foods

Nonenzymic Color development in
browning bakery foods
Oxidation Oxidation of lipids,
vitamins, an phenols
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis of lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates
Desired or undesired color, smell, taste; loss of
nutrition; harmful ingredients.
Change color; desired flavor or off-odors and
toxicants
Increased soluble solids content; texture
changes; desired color, flavor, taste, and
nutrition; toxicity loss of certain components

Isomerization cis-trans isomerization of Discoloration; formation or loss of certain

lipids functions
Polymerization Foam and insoluble brown Discoloration; loss of nutrition; off-odor
precipitate forming in development; toxicants formation
frying
Protein Egg white coagulation; Improved nutrition; toxicity loss of certain
denaturation enzyme inactivation components

The research fruits and methods of food chemistry have been widely absorbed by the
food industry and greatly promote the development of the food industry. In the last decades,
some new subjects and research areas, such as structural chemistry, free radical chemistry,
membrane separation, edible package, microencapsulation, extrusion, superfine comminution,
bioactive packaging, supercritical extraction, molecular distillation, membrane catalysis, bio-
reactor, toxicant chemistry of foods, molecular nutrition, and nutria-genomics, have been
established. These new technologies and subjects will undoubtedly facilitate the rapid
development of the food industry, which in turn benefits the improvement of the food
chemistry subject.

REFERENCES
[1] Wang, DF. Food Chemistry.1st edition. Beijing: Chemistry Industry Press; 2007
[2] Damodaran, S; Parkin, KL; Fennema, OR. Fennema’s Food Chemistry. 4th edition.
New York: CRC Press; 2007.
[3] Kan, JQ. Food Chemistry. 1st edition. Beijing: China Agricultural University Press;
2002.
[4] Wang, Z. Food Chemistry. 1st edition. Beijing: China Light Industry Press; 2005.
In: Food Chemistry ISBN: 978-1-61942-125-7
Editors: D.Wang, H. Lin, J. Kan et al. © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

WATER

Jianqian Kan1 and Guoqing Huang2

1
College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
2
College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University,
Qingdao, China

ABSTRACT
Water is an important component in many foods. Its content and occurrence status
significantly affect the flavor, texture, and stability of foods. This chapter deals with the
various physical and chemical properties of water and ice and the interactions with other
components in foods. Water occurs in multiple states due to interactions with solutes and
the interactions significantly affect the bioavailability of water to chemical reactions and
microorganisms.
To distinguish the differences between water content and its bioavailability, the term
water activity (aw) is proposed and its application in food stability predication are
detailed. The relationship between water content and aw can be presented by moisture
sorption isotherm (MSI), which is very useful in designing the concentration and
dehydration processes of foods.
In addition to aw, molecular mobility (Mm) has also been proposed to predict food
stability. Its definition and its effect on food stability are also a concern of this chapter.
Water is a predominant constituent in many foods (Table 1). Water in proper amount,
location, and orientation profoundly influences the structure, appearance, and taste of
foods and their susceptibility to spoilage.
Because medium water supports chemical reactions and water is a reactant in
hydrolytic processes, the removal of water from foods retards many reactions and inhibits
the growth of microorganisms, thus improving the shelf lives of a number of foods.
Through physical interaction with proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and salts, water
contributes significantly to food texture.
Water is essential to life: as an important governor of body temperature, as a solvent,
as a carrier of nutrients and waste products, as a reactant and reaction medium, as a
lubricant and plasticizer, as a stabilizer of biopolymer conformation, as a likely facilitator
of the dynamic behavior of macromolecules, including their catalytic (enzymatic)
properties, and in other ways yet unknown.
10 Jianqian Kan and Guoqing Huang

Table 1. Water contents of some foods [1]

Water content Water content

Food Food
(%) (%)
Pork, raw, composite of lean 53~60 Cereal flour 10~13
Beef, raw, retail cuts 50~70 Honey 20
Chicken, all classes, raw Avocado, bananas, peas
74 74~80
meat without skin (green)
Beets, broccoli, carrots,
Fish, muscle proteins 65~81 80~85
potatoes
Asparagus, beans
bananas 75 (green), cabbage, 90~95
cauliflower, lettuce
Berries, cherries, pears 80~85 Bread 35~45
Apples, peaches, oranges,
85~90 Biscuits 3~8
grapefruit
Rhubarb, strawberries,
90~95 Tea 3~7
tomatos
Butter, margarine 15 Edible oil 0
Milk powder 4

1. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AND ICE

1.1. The Water Molecule and Its Association

1.1.1. The Water Molecule

The water molecule is comprised of two hydrogen atoms interacting with the two sp3
bonding orbitals of oxygen, forming two covalent σ bonds. A schematic orbital model of a
water molecule is shown in Figure 1.a and the appropriate van der Waals radii are shown in
Figure 1.b.

Figure 1. Schematic model of a single HOH molecule: (a) sp3 configuration, and (b) van der Waals radii
for a HOH molecule in the vapor state [1].
 Water 11

In the vapor state, the bond angle of an isolated water molecule is 104.5°. The O-H
internuclear distance is 0.96 Å and the van der Waals radii for oxygen and hydrogen are 1.40
and 1.2 Å respectively.

1.1.2. Association of Water Molecules

Each water molecule has an equal number of hydrogen-bond donors and receptor sites
and is able to hydrogen-bond with a maximum of four water molecules. The resulting
tetrahedral arrangement is shown in Figure 2. The two unshared electron pairs (n-electrons or
sp3 orbitals) of oxygen act as H-bond acceptor sites and the H-O bonding orbitals act as
hydrogen bond donor site. The dissociation energy of this hydrogen bond is about 11-
25kJ/mol.
As mentioned above, each water molecule can hydrogen bond with at most four water
molecules and the resultant three-dimensional structure is quite stable. This structure is quite
different from those formed by other small molecules that also involved in hydrogen bonding
(such as NH3 and HF). Ammonia has three hydrogen-bond donors and one hydrogen-bond
receptor, while HF has one hydrogen and three receptor sites. Both the two chemicals do not
have equal numbers of donor and receptor sites and therefore can form only two dimensional
hydrogen-bonded networks. The above mentioned polarization of H-O bonds is transferred
via hydrogen bonds and extends over several bonds. Therefore, the dipole moment of a
complex consisting of increasing numbers of water molecules is higher as more molecules
become associated and is certainly much higher than the dipole moment of a single molecule.
Proton transport takes place along the H-bridges. It is actually the jump of a proton from one
water molecule to a neighboring water molecule. In this way a hydrate H3O+ ion is formed
with an exceptionally strong hydrogen bond (dissociation energy about 100kJ/mol). A similar
mechanism is valid in transport of OH- ions, which also occurs along hydrogen bridges
(Figure 3).

Figure 2 Hydrogen bonding of water molecules in a tetrahedral configuration. Open circles are oxygen
atoms and closed circles are hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen bonds are represented by dashed lines [1].

Figure 3. Proton transport in water [2].

12 Jianqian Kan and Guoqing Huang

Table 2. Coordination number and distance between two water molecules [2]

Coordination number O-H…O Distance

Ice (0°C) 4.0 0.276 nm
Water (1.5°C) 4.4 0.290 nm
Water (83°C) 4.9 0.305 nm

Table 3. Comparisons of the melting and boiling points of methanol, dimethyl ether, and
water

Formula Fp/°C Kp/°C

H 2O 0.0 100.0
CH3OH -98 64.7
CH3OCH3 -138 -23

1.2. Structures of Water and Ice

1.2.1. The Structure of Water (Liquid)

Due to the strong tendency of water molecules to associate through H-bridges, liquid
water is highly structured as ice, but not sufficiently established to produce long-range
rigidity. The major difference between liquid water and ice lies in the coordination number
and the distance between neighboring water molecules (Table 4).
The degree of intermolecular hydrogen bonding among water molecules is temperature
dependent. Ice at 0°C has a coordination number of 4.0, with nearest neighbors at a distance
of 2.76 Å. As the temperature increases, the coordination number increases from 4.0 in ice at
0°C, to 4.4 in water at 1.50°C, then to 4.9 at 83°C. Simultaneously, the distance between
nearest neighbors increases from 2.76 Å in ice at 0°C, to 2.9 Å in water at 1.5°C, then to 3.05
Å at 83°C.
The increase in the distance between nearest neighbors during ice-water transformation
decreases the water density, while the increase in the coordination number increases water
density. The maximum water density is observed in 3.98°C and then declines gradually. The
hydrogen-bound water structure can be changed in the presence of dissolved salts or
molecules with polar and/or hydrophobic groups. For example, in salt solutions the n-
electrons occupy the free orbitals of the cations, forming ―aqua complexes‖.
Other water molecules then coordinate through H-bridges, forming a hydration shell
around the cation and disrupting the natural structure of water. In addition, hydration shells
are also formed by polar groups through dipole-dipole interaction or H-bridges, again leading
to the disruption of the structure of water. The three-dimensional hydrogen-bound structures
of ice and water impart them with unique properties and extra energy is needed for disrupting
the structures. Table 3. lists the comparisons of the melting and boiling points between
methanol, dimethyl ether, and water.
 Water 13

Figure 4. Unit cell of ordinary ice at 0°C. Circles represent oxygen atoms of water molecules. Nearest-
neighbor internuclear O-O distance is 2.76 Å; θ is 109° [3].

1.2.2. The Structure of Ice

Ice is the orderly organized crystal of water molecules. The O-O internuclear distance
between nearest neighboring water molecules in ice is 2.76 Å and the O-O-O bond angle is
about 109°, which is very close to the perfect tetrahedral angle of 109°28'. As shown in
Figure 4, each water molecule is associated with four other water molecules 1, 2, 3, and W'.
Because pure water contains H3O+, OH–, and negligible isotope variants (such as those
containing 16O, 1H, 17O, 18O, and 2H) in addition to ordinary water molecules, actual ice is not
present as the perfect crystal shown in Figure 4.
Due to the presence of H3O+, OH– and their dislocation, ice crystals suffer both
orientational and ionic defects. Only at temperatures near -180°C or lower will all hydrogen
bonds be intact, and as the temperature is raised, the mean number of intact (fixed) hydrogen
bonds will decrease gradually.
The amount and kind of solutes present in foods influence the quantity, size, structure,
location, and orientation of ice crystals. The four major ice structures are hexagonal forms,
irregular dendrites, coarse spherulites, and evanescent spherulites. The hexogonal form,
which is most highly ordered, is found exclusively in foods, provided extremely rapid
freezing is avoided and the solute is of a type and concentration that does not interfere unduly
with the mobility of water molecules.

2. STATES OF WATER IN FOODS

2.1. Water-Solute Interactions

Mixing of solutes and water results in altered properties of both water and solutes.
Hydrophilic solutes change the structure and mobility of adjacent water, and water causes
changes in the reactivity, and sometimes structure, of hydrophilic solutes. Hydrophobic
groups of added solutes interact only weakly with adjacent water. Interactions between water
and specific classes of solutes are considered below.
14 Jianqian Kan and Guoqing Huang

2.1.1. Interaction of Water with Ions and Ionic Groups

Ions and ionic groups of organic molecules hinder the mobility of water molecules to a
greater degree than do any other types of solutes. The strength of electrostatic water-ion
bonds is greater than that of water-water hydrogen bonds, but is much less than that of
covalent bonds.
The normal structure of pure water (based on a hydrogen-bonded, tetrahedral
arrangement) is disrupted by the addition of dissociable solutes. Water and simple inorganic
ions undergo dipole-ion interactions. The example in Figure 5. involves hydration of the NaCl
ion pair.
In a dilute solution of ions in water, second-layer water is believed to exist in a
structurally perturbed state because of conflicting structural influences of first-layer water and
the more distant, tetrahedrally oriented ―bulk-phase‖ water. In concentrated salt solutions,
water structure would be dominated by the ions.
The ability of a given ion to alter net structure is related closely to its polarizing power
(charge divided by radius) or simply the strength of its electric field. Ions that are small
and/or multivalent (mostly positive ions, such as Li+, Na+, H3O+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, Al3+, F–,
and OH–) have strong electric fields and are net structure formers.
These ions strongly interact with the four to six first-layer water molecules, causing them
to be less mobile and pack more densely than HOH molecules in pure water. Ions that are
large and monovalent (most of the negatively charged ions and large positive ions, such as
K+, Rb+, Cs+, Cl–, Br–, I–, NO3– , BrO3–, IO3– and CIO4– have rather weak electric fields and
are net structure breakers, although the effect is very slight with K+. These ions disrupt the
normal structure of water and fail to impose a compensating amount of new structure.
Ions, through their varying abilities to hydrate (compete for water), alter water structure,
influence the permittivity of the aqueous medium, and govern the thickness of the electric
double layer around colloids, profoundly influence the ―degree of hospitality‖ extended to
other nonaqueous solutes and to substances suspended in the medium. Thus, conformation of
proteins and stability of colloids (salting-in, salting-out in accord with the Hofmeister or
lyotropic series) are greatly influenced by the kinds and amounts of ions present.

Figure 5. Likely arrangement of water molecules adjacent to sodium chloride. Only water molecules in
plane of paper are shown [3].
 Water 15

2.1.2. Interaction between Water and Neutral Groups Possessing Hydrogen-Bonding

Capabilities
Interactions between water and nonionic, hydrophilic solutes are weaker than water-ion
interactions and about the same strength as those of water-water hydrogen bonds. Therefore,
solutes capable of hydrogen bonding might be expected to enhance or at least not disrupt the
normal structure of pure water. However, in some instances it is found that the distribution
and orientation of the solute's hydrogen-bonding sites are geometrically incompatible with
those existing in normal water. Thus, these kinds of solutes, such as urea, frequently have a
disruptive influence on the normal structure of water. It should be noted that the total number
of hydrogen bonds per mole of water may not be significantly altered by addition of a
hydrogen-bonding solute that disrupts the normal structure of water. This is possible since
disrupted water-water hydrogen bonds may be replaced by water-solute hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonding of water can occur with various potentially eligible groups (e.g.,
hydroxy1, amino, carbony1, amide, imino groups, etc.). This sometimes results in ―water
bridges‖, where one water molecule interacts with two eligible hydrogen-bonding sites on one
or more solutes. A schematic depiction of water hydrogen bonding (dashed lines) to two
kinds of functional groups found in proteins is shown in Figure 8. A more elaborate example
involving a three-HOH bridge between backbone peptide units in papain is shown in Figure
9.

Figure 8. Hydrogen bonding (dotted lines) of water to two kinds of functional groups occurring in
proteins [3].

Figure 9. Examples of a three-molecule water bridge in papain; 23, 24, and 25 are water molecules [4].
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Die Frage der alten Steinkreuze, die uns hier an dem Buch allein
interessiert, ist durchaus einseitig vom kirchlich-legendären
Standpunkt aus behandelt. Wie fast alle übrigen Altertümer im
slawischen Sprachgebiet, so bringt der Verfasser auch sämtliche
Steinkreuze, die er auf seinen Reisen antraf oder sonstwie in
Erfahrung brachte, ohne weiteres mit den beiden Slawenaposteln in
Verbindung. Selbst der Name »Heilige Quelle, Heiliges Wasser,
Heiliger See, Heiliger Hain«, der allerorten einmal wiederkehrt,
genügt ihm als Beweis, daß Cyrill und Methodius dort die Heiden
getauft und das Christentum verkündet haben. Weder hier noch bei
Kirchen- und Klosterbauten aus älterer Zeit wird auch nur der
geringste Versuch gemacht, einen geschichtlichen Nachweis
irgendwelcher Art zu erbringen. Ohne weitere allgemeine oder
einzelne Begründung behandelt er infolgedessen auch jedes alte
Steinkreuz als Zeugnis dafür, daß einer der Heiligen an der Stelle
geweilt und gepredigt oder wenigstens auf Missionsreisen
vorübergekommen sei. Bei dieser vorgefaßten Meinung erwähnt er
nicht einmal die nächstliegende und offenkundige Tatsache, daß
jene Kreuzsteine nur in gewissen Gegenden vom Volksmunde als
Cyrill- und Methodiuskreuze bezeichnet werden.
 Phot. K. Sippel, Plauen i. V.
Abb. 99 Kemnitzbachtal bei Plauen i. V.
Anderseits gibt er aber ebensowenig die erforderlichen
Erklärungen dafür, daß genau die gleichen Steinkreuze weit über
den geschilderten Wirkungskreis der Slawenapostel in ganz Europa
von Spanien bis zum Kaukasus, von Norditalien bis in den hohen
Norden, ja vielleicht sogar auf brasilianischem Boden in Südamerika
zu finden sind; er gibt auch keine Deutung für ihre Mannigfaltigkeit
an Größe, Alter, Form, Inschrift und Waffenschmuck, die einen
gemeinsamen kirchlichen Ursprung um 800 nach Christi völlig in
Frage stellt. Das Vorhandensein von mehreren hundert deutscher
und slawischer Urkunden aus dem zwölften bis siebzehnten
Jahrhundert läßt dagegen mindestens für einen erheblichen Teil
dieser vermeintlichen »Cyrill- und Methodiussteine« einen weit
späteren und viel weltlicheren Ursprung vermuten.

Abb. 100 Mügeln bei Oschatz

Der orthodoxe Prälat Dr. Přicryl verfällt bei seiner Behandlung der
Steinkreuzfrage also in denselben Fehler, wie der sächsische
evangelische Pfarrer Helbig, der 1906 auf Grund einer
engbegrenzten Kenntnis von etwa hundert sächsischen
Steinkreuzen, die Theorie verfocht, sie als Grenzzeichen kirchlicher
Hoheitsgebiete hinzustellen. Er schwieg sich bis heute über
dieselben Fragen aus, an denen die slawische Heiligenlegende
scheitert. Nachdem die Zahl der bekannten sächsischen Steinkreuze
aber durch weitere Forschungen mehr als verdreifacht ist und noch
viele Tausend gleichartiger Denkmäler in Europa verzeichnet worden
sind, ist es mit der einst heißumstrittenen Grenzzeichentheorie von
selber zu Ende gegangen. In ähnlicher Weise fällt also die Annahme
Dr. Přicryls, daß seine fünfzig Kreuze in Mähren, Böhmen und
Sachsen samt und sonders auf Cyrill und Methodius hinweisen
sollen, auch in sich zusammen, falls sich der Verfasser nicht mit den
übrigen europäischen und überseeischen Funden und mit den
widersprechenden urkundlichen Belegen in wissenschaftlich
einwandfreier Weise auseinandersetzt.
 Abb. 101 Liebstadt

Daß die übrige Behandlung der Steinkreuzfunde bei so unsicherer

Grundlage keinen allzugroßen geschichtlichen Wert beanspruchen
kann, mag nach einigen Beispielen beurteilt werden, die ich aus
bekannten sächsischen Gegenden wähle, die aber natürlich auch
anderwärts zu ergänzen wären. So ist folgendes zu lesen, S. 118:
»Nach den Denkmalen zu urteilen, begab sich das heilige
Bruderpaar um den Cernoboh über Löbau nach Bautzen.« – S. 122:
»Zwischen Flins bei Bautzen und dem Heiligen See (Baselitzer
Teich) bei Kamenz fand ich zehn Steinkreuze, die von der liebevollen
Aufnahme der heiligen Slawenapostel Zeugnis ablegen.« – S. 126:
»Mit dem Steinkreuz in Arnsdorf und dem Steinkreuz vor Zittau ist
die Rückreise der heiligen Slawenapostel nach Welejrad
angedeutet.« – S. 130: »Steinkreuze bezeichnen den apostolischen
Weg des heiligen Methodius von Lebus nach Dresden.« – Auf diese
Weise würden sich auf der sächsischen Steinkreuzkarte, die meinen
ersten Veröffentlichungen in Heft 6 von 1914 beilag, die
verschiedensten Missionsreisen im Zickzackkurs einzeichnen
lassen.
Auch hinter viele Einzelschilderungen von Steinkreuzen muß man
bei näherer Prüfung ein großes Fragezeichen machen, denn neben
erweislich unrichtigen Angaben wird manche Sage als geschichtliche
Wahrheit aufgetischt, wenn sie sich dazu eignet, die »beiden Zierden
der Menschheit« als Heidenbekehrer zu verherrlichen oder den
Ruhm des Slawentums im allgemeinen zu mehren.
Nach alledem möchte ich mein Urteil über das Přicrylsche Buch,
soweit es die Steinkreuzforschung betrifft, dahin zusammenfassen,
daß es uns mit einigen Dutzend neuer mährischer Standorte – ohne
nähere Beschreibung der Kreuze – flüchtig bekannt macht, an der
Lösung des Steinkreuzproblems aber genau in dem Maße
irreführend und verwirrend beteiligt ist, wie seinerzeit die
Helbigschen Aufsätze.
Wenn man diese literarischen Veröffentlichungen des letzten
Jahrzehntes also nochmals überblickt, so läßt sich zwar
erfreulicherweise eine wachsende Tätigkeit bei der örtlichen
Aufsuchung der Steinkreuze feststellen, von nennenswerten
Fortschritten bei der wissenschaftlichen Forschung und Deutung, ist
mir aber nichts zur Kenntnis gekommen.
Für die allgemeinere volkstümliche Ausbreitung des Interesses an
der alten germanischen Sitte, erschien es mir schließlich schon
früher bemerkenswert, daß das Steinkreuz in der darstellenden
Kunst und der Literatur vielfach als charakteristisches Begleitstück
deutscher Landschaft in phantasievoller Weise erwähnt oder
abgebildet wird. Zu den damals erwähnten Proben (vgl. Bd. VI,
Heft 11, Seite 299 und Abb. 77 aus Kaulbachs Reineke Fuchs) ließe
sich eine lange Reihe weiterer Beispiele bis herauf zu Liliencron und
Löns anführen.
Wichtiger als die einzelne Aufzählung solch dichterischer oder
künstlerischer Verwertung aus neuer Zeit, erscheint mir aber die
dauernde Ergänzung der alten Urkundsverzeichnisse, soweit sie
sächsische Ortschaften betreffen. Neben den von Meiche
wiedergegebenen, aus Leipzig usw., seien deshalb zwei unbekannte
aus dem westlichen Erzgebirge genannt, die 1487 in Zwickau und
1490 in Schneeberg das Setzen eines Steinkreuzes als
Totschlagsühne verlangen und in Herzogs Chronik von Zwickau
1845, II. Teil, S. 149, sowie in Christian Meltzers Stadt- und
Bergchronik von Schneeberg, 1716, S. 1166, abgedruckt sind. Im
weiteren Verlauf der Forschung wird sich auch für solche
Sühneverträge oder Wahrsprüche, die von mir bereits 1914
aufgezählt wurden, eine Fortsetzung der listenmäßigen
Zusammenstellung nützlich erweisen, damit die urkundliche Seite
der Sache zu den Funden an Ort und Stelle in bestimmte Beziehung
gebracht werden kann. Wenn der Sühnegedanke wohl auch nicht
der Ursprung und der alleinige Zweck der gesamten Steinkreuzsitte
gewesen ist, so dürfte er doch fast ein halbes Jahrtausend lang und
bis zum Ausgang der Sache am Anfang des achtzehnten
Jahrhunderts den Hauptgrund für die Errichtung der überwiegenden
Mehrzahl abgegeben haben. Ich bitte also bei archivalischen Studien
nebenbei auf solche Gerichtsurteile weltlicher oder geistlicher
Stühle, auf Wahrsprüche städtischer oder fürstlicher Machthaber,
Sühneverträge und Vergleichsurkunden aller Art zu achten und mich
durch Quellenangabe und Auszüge freundlichst auch auf diese
papiernen Fundstätten aufmerksam zu machen.
Damit schließe ich die textliche Darstellung meiner bisherigen
Forschungen zur sächsischen Steinkreuzkunde; neben weiteren
Nachträgen hoffe ich, meine nach Tausenden zählenden
Steinkreuzfeststellungen im übrigen Europa auch einmal in
schriftstellerischer Weise veröffentlichen zu können.
 I. Vorhandene Steinkreuze
a) Nachträge zu früher genannten Kreuzen

Gesteinsart
Nr. Standort Maße
Ergänzungen
3 Auerbach i. V.: Zwei Kreuze aus
der Ufermauer
herausgenommen und gleich
den anderen beiden (Nr. 4) im
Stadtpark 1921 aufgestellt.
Beide standen auf oder neben
der alten Göltzschbrücke, die
1883 abgebrochen wurde.
34 Crostwitz bei Kamenz: Am
selben Platz im Dorfe beim
zugeschütteten Teich 1922
wieder aufgestellt.
45 Großer Garten, Dresden: Im
August 1920 böswilligerweise
in Stücke zerschlagen. Mit
Zement ausgebessert und
flach auf den Boden gelegt.
63 Gorknitz bei Pirna: Ausgegraben
und am selben Orte 1920 neu
aufgestellt. Mitteilungen X,
Heft 4/6, S. 85.
70 Gröbern bei Meißen: Aus der 78 : 56 : 15 Sandstein
Scheunenmauer im Gutshofe
herausgenommen und am
Dorfplatz aufgestellt.
128 Liebstadt: Das stehende Kreuz 88 : 48 : 23
 war zerbrochen und wurde
auf Stadtkosten 1919 neu
aufgestellt. – Das liegende an
der Wegweisersäule nach
Bertelsdorf wurde gehoben
und neu aufgestellt.
141 Mügeln bei Oschatz: In der
Südostecke des Friedhofes
bei der Totengräberwohnung
neu aufgestellt.
153 Oberau bei Meißen a. E.:
Ausgegraben und am selben
Orte neu aufgestellt.
187a Rochlitz: Im Museum. Drei
Kreuze aus der Rochlitzer
Gegend.
222 Weißig bei Dresden: Am Bahnhof
weggenommen und nördlich
der Straße unter alten
Bäumen in der Wiese neu
aufgestellt.

b) Neuentdeckte Kreuze

Nr. Standort Maße Gesteinsart

232 Bockwen bei Meißen: An der 122 : 84 : 35 Sandstein
Straße Bockwen–Reichenbach
(alter Bischofsweg Meißen–
Briesnitz–Stolpen). 1922
ausgegraben und neu
aufgestellt.
233 Böhla bei Großenhain: Beim 120 : 42 : 20 Sandstein
Birkenwald an der Straße nach
 Ortrand, etwa 800 m westlich
von Böhla. Krummer Säbel.
234 Dippoldiswalder Haide: In 72 : 56 : 22 Sandstein
Forstabteilung 54 mitten in
jungem Bestand, etwa 180 m
nördlich der Straße Malter–
Wendischcarsdorf. Erhabenes
symmetrisches Kreuz auf der
Vorderseite.
235 Fischheim bei Wechselburg a. 64 : 55 : 19 Porphyr
M.: Im Herbst 1923 wieder
ausgegraben und am
schmalen Fußweg, der vor der
Steudtener Schänke von der
Dorfstraße abzweigt und
östlich an den Fischheimer
Gütern entlang führt, neu
aufgestellt. Messer auf der
Vorderseite.
236 Fürstenwalde bei Lauenstein: 87 : 69 : 21 Sandstein
Östlich der alten Teplitzer
Straße und 600 m südlich des
Harthewaldes an einem
Feldwege. Inschrift: 1622 G. S.
und Bild einer Schere.
»Leichenstein«.
[8]
237 Geyersdorf bei Annaberg: Ein
Kreuz und ein Bruchstück am
Dorfplatz neben der
ehemaligen Schule.
238 Gospersgrün bei Treuen i. V.: 50 : 42 : 22 Granit
Zwei Kreuze am sogenannten 40 : 85 : 24 Granit
oberen Teich beim
Straßenkreuz.
239 Grillenburger Wald: Auf 98 : 57 : 2 Sandstein
Forstabteilung 48 im
Nordwestteil. Längere
verwitterte Inschrift von 1592.
240 Haberfeldwald bei Lauenstein: 120 hoch Gneis
Auf Forstabteilung 56 nahe der
Grenze. Inschrift: E. T. 16...
241 Kemnitzbachtal bei Plauen i. V.: 54 : 58 : 20 Granit
Auf der Bachbrücke im Zuge
der Straße Geilsdorf–
Staatsstraße Plauen–Hof bei
Zöbern. Im Jahre 1915 nach
der
Frühjahrsüberschwemmung im
Bach gefunden. Inschriften:
1862, 1870.
242 Kürbitz bei Plauen i. V.: In der 92 : 60 : ? Granit
Außenwand der
Friedhofsmauer südwestlich
der Kirche eingemauert. Zwei
senkrechte Striche. 1923 beim
Wegebau verschüttet.
[8]
243 Limbach bei Reichenbach:
Oberhalb der Pfarre.
(Mitteilung der
Straßenbaubehörde von
1916.)
244 Löbau: Bei Ausschachtungen an 105 : 85 : 28 Sandstein
der Kittlitzer Landstraße in 3 m
Tiefe gefunden und am
Schnittpunkt der
Mücklichstraße mit der
Ziegelstraße aufgestellt.
Runde Aushöhlung in der Mitte
des Kreuzes.
245 Markranstädt: Im Vorgarten an 105 : 54 : 16 Sandstein
dem von der Lützener Straße
abzweigenden Weg nach
Schkeitbar. Spieß oder
Schwert.
246 Markranstädt: An der Weggabel
der Zwenkauer Straße und
des Lausaner Wegs.
Antoniuskreuz.
247 Meißen a. E.: Seit etwa dreißig 165 : 102 : 31 Sandstein
Jahren aufgestellt im Hofe des
Franziskaner-Klosters
(Museum) am Heinrichplatz.
Früher am Schweizerhaus
beim Eingange des
Rauhentales im Triebischtal.
248 Pirna a. E.: Westlich der 145 : 105 : 30 Sandstein
Malzfabrik auf dem Gelände
der alten Dresdner Landstraße
1922 im Acker ausgegraben.
Unterteil ergänzt. Fünf
achtfach geteilte Kreuze im
Kreis.
249 Porschdorf bei Bad Schandau: 59 : 53 : 26 Sandstein
Im obersten Ortsteil vor Haus
32.
250 Röhrsdorf bei Meißen: Vor dem 87 : 56 : 21 Sandstein
nordöstlichen
Friedhofspförtchen als
Kriegerdenkmal aufgestellt.
1896 bei Aufgrabungen in 3 m
Tiefe unter der Dorfstraße
gefunden.
251 Schönau bei Borna, Bez. Leipzig: 50 : 30 : 25 Porphyr
 Bruchstück. Vorderseite Beil;
Rückseite: Schwert ohne Griff.
[8]
252 Schönau bei Bergen östlich
Plauen: Im Dorfe. (Mitteilung
der Straßenbaubehörde.)
253 Schrebitz bei Mügeln, Bez. 66 : 52 : 21 Granit
Leipzig: Antoniuskreuz. Vor
dem Gute Nr. 63 am Gasthof.
254 Thümmlitzwald bei Leisnig: Im 72 : 63 : 24 Sandstein
Forstort 29 einige Schritte
nordwestlich vom Griesenweg.
»Beatenkreuz«.
255 Stadt Wehlen a. E.: Um 1900 70 : 39 : 12 Sandstein
beim Umpflastern des
Pfarrhofs neben der alten
abgebrochenen Kirche
gefunden. Im Pfarrgarten
vorläufig aufgestellt. Inschrift
1750.
[8]
256 Wiesa bei Annaberg: In der
Grundmauer des Hauses Nr.
65 auf der nach der Dorfstraße
gelegenen Seite eingemauert.
[8]
257 Zaulsdorf bei Oelsnitz i. V.: Beim
Dorfe. (Mitteilung der
Straßenbaubehörde von
1916.)

II. Verschwundene Steinkreuze

Zahl
Nr. Ort der Erwähnung
Kreuze
19 Falkenstein i. V. – Das Kreuz war mit der Zeichnung
eines ungespannten Bogens und
eines Pfeils versehen. (Mitteilung
von Lehrer L. Viehweg in Bad
Elster von 1919.)
28 Helmsdorf – Abgebildet in »Über Berg und Tal«,
1904, S. 300.
33 Königsbrück 1 Das fünfte der dortigen Kreuze (Nr.
109–111) ist 1908 beim Bau
eines Schuppens am
Krankenhaus mit in die Erde
geworfen worden.
68 Falkenstein i. V. 1 Bis zum großen Brand der achtziger
Jahre in einer engen Gasse nach
Grünbach zu. Mitteilung von
Fräulein E. v. Cotta.
69 Gottleuba, am 1 Nach einer Aktennotiz vom Jahre
Hellendorfer 1500 an einen Bauer als
Weg Schleifstein verkauft worden.
70 Kamenz 1 Vgl. Störzner: Was die Heimat
erzählt. S. 252 und 285.
71 Nieder- 1 Beim Aufgang zum Schloß auf dem
Reinsberg b. Mühlgrundstück in der Nähe des
Nossen Mühlgrabens. Mitteilung von W.
Krumbiegel, Klotzsche.
72 Schöneck i. V. 3 Bis 1882 auf einer Wiese vor der
Stadt. Mitteilung von Fräulein E.
v. Cotta.
73 Trieb bei 1 Früher an der Falkensteiner Straße.
Falkenstein i. Beim Bau eines Bauernhauses
V. als Mauerstein verwendet.
Heimatschutzakten betr.
Kulturdenkmale, S. 39.
74 Unterlauterbach 1 Beim Dungerschen Gute. Beim
Straßenbau zerschlagen worden.
Heimatschutzakten betr.
Kulturdenkmale, S. 39.

III. Literaturverzeichnis
Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches into the Natural History
and Geology of the Countries visited during the voyage of H. M.
S. Beagle: Round the world. London. Verlag John Murray 1860.
Seite 26 enthält eine Notiz vom 19. April 1832 über einen
Ausflug von Rio de Janeiro: »The road is often marked by
crosses in the place of milestones, to signify where human
blood has been spilled«.
Vogtländischer Anzeiger und Tageblatt vom 13. August 1916,
S. 14. Beschreibung der Kreuze von Kürbitz und
Kemnitzbachtal.
Neues Archiv für Sächsische Geschichte und
Alterstumskunde. XL, Heft 1/2, S. 189. Zur
Steinkreuzforschung. Von Alfred Meiche. Besprechung der
Arbeit von Dr. Kuhfahl, in Mitteilungen 1914 bis 1916, mit
Angabe neuer Sühneurkunden usw.
Dresdner Anzeiger vom 20. April 1919. Dr. Kuhfahl: Zur
Steinkreuzforschung. Ebenda vom 6. Mai 1914, Dr. Kuhfahl:
Aus dem Sagenkreis der alten Steinkreuze. Ebenda vom 11.
Mai 1924 mit illustrierter Beilage: Alte Steinkreuze im Dresdner
Weichbild, von Dr. Kuhfahl.
Monatsschrift für Photographie, März 1919, Berlin. Dr. Kuhfahl.
Photographische Steinkreuzforschung.
Emil Obst, Über Mord- und Sühnekreuze in den Muldenkreisen
Bitterfeld und Delitzsch. 2. Auflage. Selbstverlag. Bitterfeld
1921.
Dr. Franz Přicryl, Denkmale der Heiligen Konstantin und
Methodius in Europa. Wien 1920. Verlag von Heinrich Kirsch.
Max Walter, Ernsttal, Baden. Steinkreuze des hinteren Odenwalds
in »Vom Bodensee zum Main«, Heimatblätter Nr. 25. 1923.
Wilhelm Lange, Über Steinkreuze in Touristische Mitteilungen aus
beiden Hessen usw. 1909 Nr. 2 und 3, 1910 Nr. 5.
(Besprechung hessischer Standorte.)
Gustav Metscher, Märkische Sühnekreuze in Deutsche Zeitung
vom 23. Juli 1921.
Karl Zimmermann, Zur Steinkreuzforschung, in Mitteilungen des
Nordböhmischen Vereins für Heimatforschung. Leipa 1919, Heft
2 bis 4, S. 80. (Besprechung der Dr. Kuhfahlschen Arbeit von
1914 bis 1915. Kleinere Nachrichten.)
E. Mogk, Zur Deutung der Steinkreuze in Mitteilungen des Vereins
für Sächsische Volkskunde. 1919, Heft 12.
R. Krieg, Die Steinkreuze im Harz. Zeitschrift »Der Harz«,
September 1922, S. 113.
Rottler, Kreuzsteine und Steinkreuze im Bezirk des Landbauamts
Bamberg in »Deutsche Gaue«. 1920, Heft 407 bis 410.
Max Hellwig, Steinerne Zeugen mittelalterlichen Rechts in
Schlesien (Steinkreuze, Bildstöcke, Staupsäulen, Galgen,
Gerichtstische). Liegnitz 1923, Selbstverlag. 8°, 34 S. 13
Bildertafeln.
Über Berg und Tal. 1924. Die alten Steinkreuze der Sächsischen
Schweiz, von Dr. Kuhfahl.
Rund um den Geisingberg, Monatsbeilage des Boten vom
Geising. Januar, Februar und März 1924. Mord- und
Sühnekreuze, von A. Klengel, Meißen a. E. Allgemeine
Schilderung der Steinkreuzsitte, sowie Einzelbeschreibung der
Erzgebirgischen Standorte im Umkreis vom Geising.

IV. Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der

Steinkreuzabbildungen
 nach Dr. Kuhfahl seit 1914
Abbildungen Nr. 1 bis 25 in Heft 6, Bd. IV, Nr. 26 bis 65 in Heft 1, Bd.
V, Nr. 66 bis 77 in Heft 11, Bd. VI, Nr. 78 bis 101 im vorstehenden
Heft
26 Auerbach i. V.
39 Auligk bei Pegau
34 Basteiwald bei Rathen
45 Bautzen
8 Bautzen (Kreuzstein)
69 Beutha bei Hartenstein
78 Bockwen bei Meißen
82 Böhla bei Großenhain
14 Boritz bei Riesa
46 Börnersdorf bei Lauenstein
33 Borsbergwald bei Pillnitz
25a Burk bei Bautzen
59 Burkhardswalde, siehe Sachsendorf
5 Chursdorf bei Penig
62 Claußnitz bei Burgstädt
65 Colditz
52 Colditzer Wald
85 Crostwitz bei Kamenz
21 Demitz bei Bischofswerda
93 Dippoldiswalder Haide
37 Dohna bei Pirna
22 Dresden, Großer Garten
32 Eichgraben bei Zittau
78 Fischheim bei Wechselburg a. M.
43 Frauenhain bei Großenhain
42 Gatzen bei Pegau
74 Geising
 56 Glashütte
55 u. 83 Gorknitz bei Pirna
98 Gospersgrün bei Plauen i. V.[10]
53 Gottleuba
81 Gräfenhain bei Königsbrück (Kreuzstein)
7 Gränze bei Kamenz (Kreuzstein)
95, 96 Grillenburger Wald
72 Gröbern bei Meißen
28 Großcotta bei Pirna
22 Großer Garten, Dresden
9 u. 10 Großraschütz bei Großenhain
4 Großröhrsdorf bei Pirna
20 Grünstädtel bei Schwarzenberg
11 Hausdorf bei Kamenz
65a Heidenholz bei Börnersdorf
17 Hertigswalde bei Sebnitz
19 Höckendorf bei Königsbrück
25 Jahnshain bei Penig
76 Jauernick Bez. Görlitz[9] (außerhalb Sachsens)
40 Kamenz
99 Kemnitzbachtal bei Plauen i. V.[10]
68 Klaffenbach bei Chemnitz
47 Kleinwolmsdorf bei Radeberg
66 Knatewitz bei Oschatz
64 Königsbrück
58 Kreckwitz bei Bautzen
97 Kürbitz bei Plauen i. V.[11]
16 Langenhennersdorf bei Pirna
71 Leppersdorf bei Radeberg
101 Liebstadt
79 Löbau
15 Lommatzsch
 2 Luga bei Bautzen
67 Mannewitz bei Pirna
92 Meißen a. E.
100 Mügeln bei Oschatz
35 Nauleis bei Großenhain
27 u. 49 Neukirch bei Königsbrück
24 Niederschlottwitz bei Dippoldiswalde
75 u. 84 Oberau bei Meißen
12 Oberfrauendorf bei Dippoldiswalde
38 Oberseifersdorf bei Zittau
51 Oehna bei Bautzen
23 Ölsen bei Pirna
36 u. 66 Ölzschau bei Bad Lausigk
1 Oschatz
31 Oßling bei Kamenz
3 Oybin
90 Pirna a. E.
89 Porschdorf bei Bad Schandau
54 Radibor bei Bautzen
48 Ralbitz bei Kamenz
94 Rathendorf bei Penig
30 Reinholdshain bei Dippoldiswalde
80 Röhrsdorf bei Meißen a. E.
18 Rosenthal bei Königstein
59 Sachsendorf bei Wurzen (Burkhardswalde)
63 Schmerlitz bei Kamenz
13 Schönau bei Borna
29 Schönfeld bei Pillnitz
87 Schrebitz bei Mügeln
61 Schwand bei Plauen
57 Seifersdorf bei Radeberg
50 Thoßfell bei Plauen i. V.
 91 Thümmlitzwald bei Leisnig
6 Waltersdorf bei Liebstadt
88 Stadt Wehlen
44 Weifa bei Niederneukirch
70 Zittau
41 Zschoppelshain bei Mittweida

Fußnoten:
[1] Vgl. Mitteilungen Bd. IV, Heft 6, S. 202.
[2] Mitteilungen Bd. IV, Heft 6, S. 202.
[3] Vgl. Mitteilungen X 4/6 S. 85.
[4] Dresdner Lokalvisitation samt derselben Instruktion
10599/1539 Blatt 134 b.
[5] Vgl. auch Mitteilung des Vereins für Sächsische Volkskunde
1899. Heft 12, Seite 11.
[6] Nr. 25/1923, Verlag von C. F. Müller, Karlsruhe.
[7] Verlag von Heinrich Kirsch, vorm. Mechitharisten-
Buchhandlung, Wien 1920.
[8] Genauere Angaben und Photographien erbeten.
[9] Aufnahme von Rittergutsbesitzer von Craushaar auf Jauernick.
[10] Aufnahme von Curt Sippel, Plauen i. V.
[11] Aufnahme von Werner Rosenmüller, Hamburg.