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Food Quality: Balancing
Health and Disease
Page left intentionally blank
Food Quality: Balancing
Health and Disease
Handbook of Food Bioengineering,
Volume 13
Edited by
Alina Maria Holban

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
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Typeset by Thomson Digital

Contents
List of Contributors............................................................................................ xiii

Foreword............................................................................................................xv
Series Preface....................................................................................................xvii
Preface for Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease........................xxi
Chapter 1: I mprovement of the Functional and Healthy Properties of Meat Products........1
María J. Beriain, Inmaculada Gómez, Francisco C. Ibáñez, M. Victoria Sarriés,
Ana I. Ordóñez
1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Current Pattern in Meat Consumption......................................................................2
1.2 Meat and Nutritional Value.......................................................................................3
1.3 Meat and Chronic Diseases.......................................................................................5
2 Improvement of Nutritional and Healthy Properties of Meat Products..................... 9
2.1 Lipid Enhancing......................................................................................................10
2.2 Prebiotic Addition...................................................................................................14
2.3 Micronutrients Modifications..................................................................................15
2.4 Other Improvements...............................................................................................16
3 Production of Functional Meat Products................................................................. 16
3.1 Dietary Supplements by Functional Ingredients.....................................................22
3.2 Addition of Functional Ingredients During Processing..........................................30
3.3 Production of Functional Component During Processing......................................42
4 Current Status on the Consumer Acceptance for Functional Meats........................ 51
4.1 Individual Factors....................................................................................................52
4.2 Food Factors............................................................................................................53
4.3 Environmental Factors............................................................................................54
4.4 Consumer Acceptance of Functional Meat Products..............................................54
5 Future Trends........................................................................................................... 56
References................................................................................................................... 57
Chapter 2: Biogenic Amines as Food Quality Index and
Chemical Risk for Human Consumption................................................75
Marion P. Costa, Bruna L. Rodrigues, Beatriz S. Frasao, Carlos A. Conte-Junior
1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 75
2 Composition, Nature, and Function of Biogenic Amines........................................ 76
v
Contents
3 Biogenic Amines in Foods of Animal Origin.......................................................... 78

3.1 Fish and Derivatives................................................................................................78
3.2 Milk and Derivatives...............................................................................................83
3.3 Meat and Derivatives...............................................................................................86
4 Risks to Human Health and Legislation.................................................................. 88
5 Biogenic Amines Analysis....................................................................................... 91
6 Biogenic Amines as Quality Index.......................................................................... 93
7 Conclusions............................................................................................................. 98
References................................................................................................................... 99
Chapter 3: Marine-Based Toxins and Their Health Risk........................................109
Fatih Özogul, Imen Hamed
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 109
2 Seafood Poisoning................................................................................................. 111
2.1 Puffer Fish Poisoning (PEP).................................................................................111
2.2 Scombroid Fish Poisoning....................................................................................118
2.3 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning......................................................................................119
2.4 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning................................................................................121
2.5 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning.............................................................................123
2.6 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning.................................................................................124
2.7 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning..............................................................................125
2.8 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning............................................................................126
2.9 Palytoxin Poisoning..............................................................................................128
3 Other Marine Biotoxins......................................................................................... 129
3.1 Microcystins..........................................................................................................129
3.2 Nodularins.............................................................................................................131
3.3 Anatoxins..............................................................................................................131
3.4 Cylindrospermopsin..............................................................................................131
3.5 Yessotoxin.............................................................................................................132
3.6 Pfiesteria Toxins....................................................................................................132
3.7 Conotoxins............................................................................................................132
4 Health Risk............................................................................................................ 133
5 Treatments of Marine-Based Food Poisoning....................................................... 133
6 Prevention Aspects of Marine Toxin for Humans.................................................. 134
7 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 134
References................................................................................................................. 136
Chapter 4: Olive Oil Antioxidants and Aging.......................................................145
Nadia Sabatini, Enzo Perri, Domenico Rongai
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 145
2 Nutraceuticals and Olive Oil.................................................................................. 147
3 Oleic Acid: A Monounsaturated Fatty Acid with Antiaging Effect....................... 148
4 Olive Oil’s Minor Components and Antiaging Effects.......................................... 149
4.1 Phenolic Compounds............................................................................................149
vi
Contents
5 Tocopherols............................................................................................................ 152
5.1 β-Carotene.............................................................................................................153
5.2 Squalene................................................................................................................153
5.3 Phytosterols...........................................................................................................154
6 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 154
References................................................................................................................. 155
Chapter 5: Heavy Metal Levels in Fish, Molluscs, and Crustacea
From Turkish Seas and Potential Risk of Human Health.......................159
Levent Bat, Elif Arici
1 Background............................................................................................................ 159
2 Fate of Heavy Metals in Marine Ecosystems........................................................ 159
3 Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Human........................................................ 160
4 Importance of Seafood in Turkey.......................................................................... 161
5 Investigation of the Public Health Hazard............................................................. 161
6 Selection of Heavy Metals and Their Toxicity...................................................... 162
6.1 Cd and Its Toxicity................................................................................................162
6.2 Pb and Its Toxicity................................................................................................163
6.3 Hg and Its Toxicity................................................................................................163
6.4 Cu and Its Toxicity................................................................................................164
6.5 Fe and Its Toxicity.................................................................................................164
6.6 Zn and Its Toxicity................................................................................................165
7 Estimation of Dietary Exposure to Heavy Metals................................................. 165
8 Intake Levels Calculation...................................................................................... 165
9 The Mediterranean Sea.......................................................................................... 166
10 Aegean Sea........................................................................................................... 166
11 Sea of Marmara................................................................................................... 167
12 Black Sea............................................................................................................. 168
13 Heavy Metal Levels in Fish Species.................................................................... 168
14 Heavy Metals in Crustaceans............................................................................... 181
15 Heavy Metals in Mollusc..................................................................................... 182
16 Health-Risk Assessment for Fish and Other Seafood Consumption................... 183
17 Conclusions......................................................................................................... 184
18 List of Elements Names and Their Symbols....................................................... 185
19 List of Species’ Latin, English, and Turkish Names and
Their New Names��186
References................................................................................................................. 189
Chapter 6: Trace and Major Elements Content of Cereals and Proteinaceous
Feeds in Greece Analyzed by Inductively Coupled
Plasma Mass Spectrometry................................................................197
Ilias Giannenas, Pavlos Nisianakis, Ioannis Sarakatsianos,
Eleftherios Bonos, Efterpi Christaki, Panagiota Florou-Paneri
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 197
vii
Contents
2 Research Data and Methodology........................................................................... 201

2.1 Sampling of Ingredients and Data Analysis..........................................................201
2.2 Chemical Analysis................................................................................................201
2.3 Major and Trace Element Analysis.......................................................................201
2.4 Analysis of the Research Data..............................................................................204
3 Results................................................................................................................... 204
4 Analytical Methodology on Minerals or Isotopes, and Their
Implications for Characterization of Products With Specific Identity��213
5 Mineral or Trace Element Content of Feedstuffs or Foods After
Genetic Modifications of Plants��215
6 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 219
References................................................................................................................. 219
Chapter 7: The Bioavailability of Nutrients That Have a Health-Promoting
Effect on Nervous System Function.....................................................225
Mariusz Jaworski, Anna Fabisiak
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 225
2 Healthy Lifestyle................................................................................................... 226
2.1 Health-Promoting Lifestyle Factors......................................................................226
2.2 The Structural and Functional Aspect of Nervous System...................................228
2.3 The Structural and Functional Aspect of the Brain...............................................229
2.4 Mediterranean Diet...............................................................................................232
3 Bioavailability of Food Products—Physiological Aspect..................................... 235
3.1 The Bioavailability of Selected Nutrients.............................................................236
3.2 Vitamins................................................................................................................237
3.3 Zinc.......................................................................................................................245
3.4 Phytoestrogens......................................................................................................245
3.5 Fatty Acids (n−3).................................................................................................245
4 Processes and Bioavailability................................................................................ 246
4.1 Losses in Technological Processes and the Possibility of Their Limitations�� 247
5 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 249
References................................................................................................................. 249
Chapter 8: Agroindustrial By-Products and Animal Products:
A Great Alternative for Improving Food-Quality Characteristics
and Preserving Human Health...........................................................253
Panagiotis E. Simitzis, Stelios G. Deligeorgis
1 Oxidation Processes and Antioxidants.................................................................. 253
1.1 Lipid Oxidation.....................................................................................................253
1.2 Antioxidants..........................................................................................................255
2 Utilization of Agroindustrial By-Products in Livestock Diets............................... 259
2.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................259
2.2 Apple By-Products................................................................................................261
2.3 Citrus By-Products................................................................................................263
viii
Contents
2.4 Grape By-Products................................................................................................265

2.5 Olive By-Products.................................................................................................267
2.6 Pomegranate By-Products.....................................................................................268
2.7 Sugar Beet By-Products........................................................................................270
2.8 Tomato By-Products..............................................................................................272
2.9 Other Agroindustrial By-Products........................................................................274
3 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 277
References................................................................................................................. 277
Chapter 9: Development of a Functional Food Security for Parents for
Transgenerational Epigenetic Health Promotion and Disease
Prevention Among Offspring..............................................................291
Ram B. Singh, Anil K. Chauhan, Ravi P. Singh, Meenakshi Singh,
Sanjay Mishra, Fabien De Meester, Krasimira Hristova, Toru Takahashi,
Jan Fedacko, Anna Gvozdjakova, Arunporn Itharat, Ekasit Onsaard, Douglas W. Wilson
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 291
2 Family History and Epigenetic Inheritance........................................................... 293
3 Nutritional Factors in Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance.......................... 294
4 Effects of Micronutrient Supplementation in Parents on Offspring...................... 297
5 Development of a Micronutrient-Added Functional Food.................................... 299
6 Effects of High-Fat Diets in Parents on Offspring................................................. 300
7 Development of Functional Food Package for Parents.......................................... 302
8 Development of a Blend of Oils That is Rich in Protective Nutrients................... 304
9 Fruits, Vegetables, Nuts, and Whole Grains, Including
Legumes and Millets��307
10 Healthy Eating Patterns......................................................................................... 307
11 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 309
References................................................................................................................... 310
Chapter 10: Heated Oil and Its Effect on Health.................................................315
Kamsiah Jaarin, Norliana Masbah, Yusof Kamisah
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 315
2 Thermal Oxidation of Cooking Oil........................................................................ 316
3 Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular Disease........................................................ 318
4 Role of Inflammation in Cardiovascular Disease.................................................. 321
5 Heated Oil and Its Effect on Cardiovascular Risk Factors.................................... 323
5.1 Heated Vegetable Oil and Serum Lipid.................................................................323
5.2 Effects of Heated Edible Oils on Blood Pressure.................................................324
5.3 Heated Oil and Inflammatory Biomarkers............................................................326
5.4 Effects of Heated Oils on Atherosclerosis............................................................327
6 Heated Oil and the Liver........................................................................................ 328
7 Heated Oil and the Kidneys................................................................................... 329
8 Heated Oil and Bone.............................................................................................. 329
9 Discussion.............................................................................................................. 330
References................................................................................................................. 333
ix
Contents
Chapter 11: Contribution of Infant Formula and Tea on Daily Fluoride Intake
and Prevalence of Fluorosis Among Infants and Children��339
Gopalan Viswanathan
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 339
2 Daily Fluoride Intake of Infants............................................................................ 341
3 Tea Consumption and Fluoride Intake in Children................................................ 345
4 Collection and Analysis of Infant Formula and Tea for Fluoride.......................... 350
5 Assessment of Fluoride Intake Through Infant Formula and Tea.......................... 350
5.1 Estimation of Daily Fluoride Intake......................................................................350
5.2 Total Fluoride Intake.............................................................................................351
5.3 Water Contribution on Fluoride Intake From a Particular Diet.............................351
6 Epidemiological Survey and Assessment of Prevalence of Dental Fluorosis........ 351
7 Influence of Infant Formula and Tea on Daily Fluoride Intake............................. 352
8 Prevalence of Fluorosis, Habit, and Frequency of Tea Drinking........................... 354
9 Habit and Frequency of Tea Drinking by Children in Study Villages................... 355
10 Recommendations................................................................................................. 357
References................................................................................................................... 358
Chapter 12: Preventive and Therapeutic Effects of Dietary Fibers Against
Cardiovascular Diseases..................................................................365
Maya Raman, Padma Ambalam, Mukesh Doble
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 365
2 Incidence of Cardiovascular Diseases................................................................... 365
2.1 Global Scenario.....................................................................................................365
2.2 Cardiovascular Diseases and its Various Forms....................................................366
2.3 Treatment Techniques for CVD............................................................................367
2.4 Cardiovascular Diseases Risk Factors and Role of Diet.......................................368
3 Diet and CVD........................................................................................................ 372
4 Dietary Fiber and Its Role on Health..................................................................... 376
4.1 Definition of Dietary Fiber....................................................................................376
4.2 Classification of Dietary Fibers: Types and Sources.............................................377
5 Effect of Dietary Fiber on Major CVD Risk Factors............................................. 381
5.1 Dietary Fiber and Modulation of Cholesterol.......................................................381
5.2 Dietary Fiber and Modulation of Blood Pressure.................................................382
5.3 Dietary Fiber and Their Role in Lowering Oxidative Stress................................382
6 Dietary Fiber, Gastrointestinal Health, and CVD.................................................. 383
7 Physiological and Molecular Mechanism in CVD................................................ 385
8 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 386
References................................................................................................................. 387
Chapter 13: The Role of High Salt Intake in the Development and
Progression of Diverse Diseases.......................................................395
Elż bieta Kompanowska-Jezierska, Krzysztof H. Olszyński
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 395
x
Contents
2 High Salt Diet and Hypertension........................................................................... 396

2.1 Blood Pressure Regulation and Pathomechanism of Hypertension......................396
2.2 High Salt Diet as a Risk Factor in the Development and
Maintenance of Hypertension�� 399
3 High Salt Diet and Cardiovascular Diseases......................................................... 406
4 High Salt Diet and Chronic Kidney Disease......................................................... 408
5 High Salt Diet and Diabetes.................................................................................. 411
6 Two Faces of Salt Intake Reduction...................................................................... 414
6.1 Adverse Effects of Radical Reduction of Salt Intake in Hypertension.................417
6.2 Adverse Effects of Radical Reduction of Salt Intake in
Cardiovascular Diseases�� 417
6.3 Adverse Effects of Radical Reduction of Salt Intake in
Chronic Kidney Disease�� 418
6.4 Adverse Effects of Radical Reduction of Salt Intake in Diabetes.........................419
7 Understanding the Need of and Ways to Limit Salt Overingestion....................... 419
8 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 421
References................................................................................................................. 422
Chapter 14: Spices and Herbs as Therapeutic Foods.............................................433
Irene Dini
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 433
2 Therapeutic Potential of Herbs and Spices............................................................ 433
2.1 Cancer...................................................................................................................434
2.2 Alzheimer’s Disease..............................................................................................434
2.3 The Metabolic Syndrome......................................................................................435
3 The Nutraceutical Potential of Herbs and Spices.................................................. 440
3.1 The Phytochemical Compositions........................................................................441
4 Spices as Functional Foods.................................................................................... 450
4.1 Turmeric................................................................................................................450
4.2 Rosemary..............................................................................................................452
4.3 Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)...............................................................................454
4.4 Holy Basil.............................................................................................................455
4.5 Red Pepper............................................................................................................456
4.6 Fenugreek..............................................................................................................458
4.7 Garlic.....................................................................................................................460
4.8 Onion.....................................................................................................................463
4.9 Guggulipid............................................................................................................464
4.10 Ginseng...............................................................................................................465
References................................................................................................................. 467
Chapter 15: Vitamin D Deficiency in Children: Health Consequences
and Prevention...............................................................................471
Ayşe Sonay Türkmen, Indrani Kalkan
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 471
xi
Contents
2 History................................................................................................................... 472
3 Characteristics of Vitamin D.................................................................................. 473
3.1 Functions of Vitamin D.........................................................................................475
3.2 Vitamin D Deficiency............................................................................................478
3.3 Causes of Vitamin D Deficiency...........................................................................479
3.4 The Conclusions of Vitamin D Deficiency............................................................480
4 Prevention of Vitamin D Deficiency...................................................................... 486
5 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 489
References................................................................................................................. 489
Index...............................................................................................................493
xii
List of Contributors
Padma Ambalam Department of Biotechnology, Christ College, Christ Campus, Vidya Niketan,
Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India
Elif Arici Sinop University, Sinop, Turkey
Levent Bat Sinop University, Sinop, Turkey
María J. Beriain Research Institute on Innovation and Sustainable Development in Food Chain
(ISFOOD), Universidad Pública de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
Eleftherios Bonos Research Institute of Animal Science, Pella, Macedonia, Greece
Anil K. Chauhan Center of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Efterpi Christaki Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
Carlos A. Conte-Junior Department of Food Technology, Federal Fluminense University,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Marion P. Costa Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, Federal
University of Bahia, Ondina, Salvador, Brazil
Fabien De Meester The Tsim Tsoum Institute, Krakow, Poland
Stelios G. Deligeorgis Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Irene Dini Pharmacy Department, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
Mukesh Doble Bioengineering and Drug Design Lab, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of
Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Anna Fabisiak Warsaw School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vistula Group of
Universities, Warsaw, Poland
Jan Fedacko Pavol Jozef Safarik University, Kosice, Slovakia
Panagiota Florou-Paneri Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
Beatriz S. Frasao Department of Food Technology, Federal Fluminense University,
Ilias Giannenas Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
Inmaculada Gómez Research Institute on Innovation and Sustainable Development in Food Chain
Anna Gvozdjakova Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
Imen Hamed Biotechnology Research and Application Centre, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
Krasimira Hristova National Heart Hospital, Sofia, Bulgaria
Francisco C. Ibáñez Research Institute on Innovation and Sustainable Development in Food Chain
Arunporn Itharat Ubon Ratchathani University, Ubon Ratchathani; Department of Applied Thai
Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Thammasat University Center of Excellence in Applied
Thai Traditional Medicine Research (CEATMR), Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
xiii
List of Contributors
Kamsiah Jaarin UKM Medical Center, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; Faculty of Medicine,
Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mariusz Jaworski Warsaw School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vistula Group of
Universities; Department of Teaching and Outcomes of Education, Faculty of Health Science,
Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
Indrani Kalkan Istanbul Aydin University, Istanbul, Turkey
Yusof Kamisah UKM Medical Center, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Elżbieta Kompanowska-Jezierska Department of Renal and Body Fluid Physiology, Mossakowski
Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Norliana Masbah UKM Medical Center, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Sanjay Mishra IFTM University, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pavlos Nisianakis Centre of Biological Research for the Armed Forces, Penteli, Athens, Greece
Krzysztof H. Olszyński Behavior and Metabolism Research Laboratory, Mossakowski Medical
Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Ekasit Onsaard Ubon Ratchathani University, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand
Ana I. Ordóñez Research Institute on Innovation and Sustainable Development in Food Chain
Fatih Özogul Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova
University, Adana, Turkey
Enzo Perri CREA-OLI Research Centre for Olive Growing and Olive Oil Industry, Città
Sant’Angelo, Pescara, Italy
Maya Raman Bioengineering and Drug Design Lab, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Bruna L. Rodrigues Department of Food Technology, Federal Fluminense University,
Domenico Rongai CREA-OLI Research Centre for Olive Growing and Olive Oil Industry, Città
Nadia Sabatini CREA-OLI Research Centre for Olive Growing and Olive Oil Industry, Città
Ioannis Sarakatsianos Third Military Veterinary Hospital, Thermi, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
M. Victoria Sarriés Research Institute on Innovation and Sustainable Development in Food Chain
Panagiotis E. Simitzis Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Meenakshi Singh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Ram B. Singh Halberg Hospital and Research Institute, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ravi P. Singh Center of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ayşe Sonay Türkmen Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Karaman, Turkey
Toru Takahashi Graduate School of Human Environmental Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan
Gopalan Viswanathan Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Tamil Nadu, India
Douglas W. Wilson Centre for Ageing and Dementia Research, Swanssea, Wales, United Kingdom
xiv
Foreword
In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been
developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that
today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made
to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have
entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a
great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting
alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the
context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological
influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better
and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the
Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on
the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use
of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or
bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged
with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for
human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated
with their use, and most important, their economic impact.
The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and
biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world
food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved
preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In
the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed
the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known
and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available
information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could
seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation
for the population as a whole.
The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive
collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of
food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and
have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of
xv
Foreword
basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly
dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could
benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because
of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations,
images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most
novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers
working in the field of bioengineering.
Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications
are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool
to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being
amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea
of the “food of the future.”
Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)
Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,
Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,
Bucharest, Romania
xvi
Series Preface
The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent,
investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and
preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for
innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the
basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and
technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a
healthy and satisfied population.
Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent
information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out
of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative
available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we
present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with
the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies
and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as
genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly
dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and
applicable regulations.
While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive
for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient
sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists
and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly
investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food
industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine
delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to
food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food
textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents),
food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors;
anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable
polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and
bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).
xvii
Series Preface
The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each
volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each.
The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:
Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis
Volume 2: Food Bioconversion
Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation
Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food
Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives
Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods
Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes
Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods
Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation
Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation
Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health
Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry
Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease
Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry
Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases
Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity
Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods
Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption
Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering
Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design
The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food
production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved
in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects
related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented
by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive
pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we
xviii
Series Preface
aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative
processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in
the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by
Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the
methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of
the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand,
in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods
of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In
volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered
plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7,
Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—
flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and
artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most
utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches
for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In
volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting
technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods
are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination
and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society:
Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights
the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the
field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally,
volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge
and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and
potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry,
up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the
future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are
highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within
this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current
regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative
and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of
traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend
has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for
Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely
on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this
progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering,
offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with
important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for
Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved
and smart biopolymers for the food industry.
xix
Series Preface
All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer
basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer
valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is
useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a
useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or
as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.
This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial
representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any
nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in
the dynamic field of food bioengineering.
Alina M. Holban
University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Alexandru M. Grumezescu
Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
xx
Preface for Volume 13: Food Quality:
Balancing Health and Disease
Food intake represents one of the major factors to control our well-being and health.
Depending on the quality and quantity of ingested foods, the health condition can be changed.
This aspect may impact on the development of various diseases or to control the progression
and prognostic of other health conditions. In our era, a great attention is given to the dietary
input in all age groups (children, adults, and elders), as their nutritional requests have been
proved to be slightly different. In recent years, industrial companies have made impressive
progress in developing faster production methods; better processing technologies; and more
sensitive detection techniques for food quality. This progress could be quantified by the
currently imposed standards in food production and processing. This led to the development
of personalized formulations to fulfill nutritional requirements of a particular group of
individuals, in terms of age or clinical condition. These food formulations have brought
important advantages in life quality of many individuals and have the potential to balance
health and disease. Despite the huge technological progress and the obtained benefits for
particular categories of individuals, the current trend in food industry seems to reduce
the naturalness in processed foods and to reduce the availability of traditional products.
Nowadays, traditional and small producers fight to maintain authentic foods on a highly
industrialized market.
In this context, the purpose of this book was to reveal new achievements in food industry to
control and increase food quality, while promoting a positive impact on human health. Also,
health-related risks, which may be associated with the consumption of various natural or
processed foods, are discussed here.
The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Turkey, Italy,
Poland, India, Malaysia, United Kingdom, Bulgaria, Japan, Slovakia, Thailand, Greece,
Brazil, and Spain.
In Chapter 1, Improvement of the Functional and Healthy Properties of Meat Products,
Beriain et al. provide an updated and critical review regarding the impact of meat quality
(beef, pig, foal, and lamb) on consumers health.
xxi
Preface for Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease
Chapter 2, Biogenic Amines as Food Quality Index and Chemical Risk for Human
Consumption, prepared by Costa et al., discusses about the biological properties of biogenic
amines (BAs), which could be found in foods. The BAs analyses are very important as they
are considered indicators of food quality and safety, being applied as quality index for meat,
fish, and dairy products.
Chapter 3, Marine-Based Toxins and Their Health Risk, prepared by Özogul and Hamed,
describes main marine toxins and their health effects upon ingestion. Also, the molecular and
biochemical roles and modulated pathways within host cells and organs are dissected.
Chapter 4, Olive Oil Antioxidants and Aging, prepared by Sabatini et al., gives an overview
of most recent studies together with molecular mechanisms concerning the antiaging,
antioxidant, and nutraceutical properties of virgin olive oil and each of its major and minor
compounds.
Chapter 5, entitled Heavy Metal Levels in Fish, Molluscs, and Crustacea From Turkish Seas
and Potential Risk of Human Health, prepared by Bat and Arici, discusses about current
regulations and procedures to control pollutants levels and heavy metals in edible sea
organisms in countries with a great fish and seafood industry, such as Turkey. Authors are also
highlighting major pollution sources and health effects of such pollutants.
Chapter 6, Trace and Major Elements Content of Cereals and Proteinaceous Feeds
in Greece Analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, prepared by
Giannenas et al., dissects the impact of multivariate analysis of trace or major elements
to be applied as a useful tool for feed differentiation, focusing on the characterization of
feed, or food products certified as protected designation of origin or protected geographical
indication.
Chapter 7, The Bioavailability of Nutrients That Have a Health-Promoting Effect on Nervous
System Function, prepared by Jaworski and Fabisiak, highlights the impact of the current
lifestyle, stress, and improper diet that may affect the quality of life on one hand, and
psychological functioning on other hand. The chapter summarizes current research findings
on relationship between nutrition and neurological functioning in the context of changing
their bioavailability during technological processes.
In Chapter 8, Agroindustrial By-Products and Animal Products: A Great Alternative for
Improving Food-Quality Characteristics and Preserving Human Health, Simitzis and
Deligeorgis empathize on uncovering the causes associated with the etiology of several
diseases affecting human health, while utilizing enriched foods. Enrichment of foods with
bioactive compounds, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA), or antioxidant agents (vitamins, polyphenols, flavonoids, etc.) appear to improve
quality characteristics and protect consumer health against oxidation effects, while other
by-products may trigger hazardous effects.
xxii
Chapter 9, Development of a Functional Food Security for Parents for Transgenerational

Epigenetic Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Among Offspring, prepared by Chauhan
et al., discusses about noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), which have become a worldwide
problem due to food security and lack of physical activity. The rapid increase may be due
to interaction of genes/memes and environment, having adverse effects on the epigenome.
Recent researches indicate Mediterranean-style foods and multiple micronutrients, being
inversely associated with risk of NCDs; cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), type 2 diabetes, and
obesity in adult life.
Chapter 10, Heated Oil and Its Effect on Health, prepared by Jaarin et al., describes the
detrimental effects of repeatedly heated oil on human health. Heating produces harmful
products of lipid peroxidation, which have been proved to be responsible for the pathogenesis
of many diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer.
In Chapter 11, Contribution of Infant Formula and Tea on Daily Fluoride Intake and
Prevalence of Fluorosis Among Infants and Children, Viswanathan talks about the chronic
intake of fluoride rich water and food and early risk of fluorosis, and dissect the potential
contribution of infant formula and tea on daily fluoride intake for finding ways to reduce and
optimize the daily fluoride intake. Excess fluoride intake can cause adverse effects on the
developing brain; thereby reduction in intelligence of children and affects the thyroid gland
and kidney functions.
In Chapter 12, Preventive and Therapeutic Effects of Dietary Fibers Against Cardiovascular
Diseases, Raman et al. emphasize on the therapeutic role of dietary fibers and major
components in the prevention of cardiovascular and other relevant diseases. Importance is
given to in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies to bring forth the significance of dietary fibers
as a nutraceutical food.
Chapter 13, The Role of High Salt Intake in the Development and Progression of
Diverse Diseases, prepared by Kompanowska-Jezierska and Olszyński, discusses about
how the course and outcome of multiple diseases is worsened by high salt intake, often
but not always via elevation of arterial blood pressure. Recent findings indicate an urgent
need for reduction of worldwide salt consumption, agreeing upon the idea that this
would substantially reduce mortality in cardiovascular diseases and also help alleviate
progression of many other diseases, such as heart failure, chronic kidney disease,
and diabetes.
Chapter 14, Spices and Herbs as Therapeutic Foods, written by Dini, discusses how spices
and herbs may be used for the prevention of various deficiencies and against diseases. Some
herbs and spices may be classed as a functional food, with a range of health benefits beyond
basic nutrition, such as reduction of the risks of heart diseases, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and
Alzheimer.
xxiii
In Chapter 15, Vitamin D Deficiency in Children: Health Consequences and Prevention,

Türkmen and Kalkan review the most common health issues associated with vitamin D
deficiency in children, health consequences, and prevention.
Alina M. Holban
University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Alexandru M. Grumezescu
Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
xxiv
CHAPTE R 1
Improvement of the Functional and Healthy

Properties of Meat Products
María J. Beriain, Inmaculada Gómez, Francisco C. Ibáñez,
M. Victoria Sarriés, Ana I. Ordóñez
Research Institute on Innovation and Sustainable Development in Food Chain (ISFOOD),
Universidad Pública de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
1 Introduction
Meat is referred to as edible parts of the terrestrial animals, including muscle and byproducts
as viscera and blood. Marine mammals also are included as meat in some cultures inhabitants
next to the seas. In any case, it is required that food products be considered suitable and
safe for human consumption (FAO, 2005). Meat products are products resulting from the
processing of muscle and fat as main ingredients. Along with the main ingredients, a wide
range of nonmeat substances is used to obtain processed meat products. Some of them are
necessary (salt and seasonings) and others are specific for products. The type of technological
treatment (grounding, drying, heating, curing, or fermenting) provided a variety of
semiprocessed or processed meat products.
In anthropological terms, the human diet has varied among time periods. It can be assumed
that the pattern of meat consumption during humankind history evolved in four periods:
the first period could be characterized as a scavenger and opportunist hunter; the second
one, as a systematic hunter; the third one, humans started to domesticate animals for local
consumption; during the fourth and last period men exploited intensively livestock farming.
Overall, this dietary change resulted in a reduced consumption of meat and increased
domesticated grains. Concomitantly, a lifestyle based in progressive sedentary lifestyle and
overfeeding is accompanied by an increase in “civilization diseases” (Larsen, 2003).
The register of animal species for human consumption is relatively large, both wild and
domesticated species. Beef, buffalo, horses, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, ostriches, and
game animals are eaten as meat. The majority of meat production worldwide in 2013 was
porcine (112.7 · 106 tonnes), chicken (95.5 · 106 tonnes), bovine (63.7 · 106 tonnes), ovine
(8.6 · 106 tonnes), turkey (5.5 · 106 tonnes), caprine (5.4 · 106 tonnes), and equine (0.8 · 106
tonnes). Asia, Europe, and Northern America basically are large meat producers. By contrast,
Food Quality
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811442-1.00001-8 1 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Chapter 1
Table 1.1: The contribution of world area to global meat production from selected livestock
species in 2013.
Areas Pigs Chickens Beefs Sheeps Turkeys Goats Horses
Africa 1,304,128 4,711,771 5,694,271 1,687,934 166,031 1,301,339 16,741
Northern America 12,486,933 18,473,758 12,754,389 90,280 2,801,474 2 56,000
Central America 1,464,100 3,664,876 2,264,038 61,121 17,506 40,540 89,245
South America 5,371,205 19,340,329 15,617,999 242,076 657,397 73,491 76,595
Asia 64,448,557 32,208,934 14,373,105 4,254,075 105,928 3,805,643 348,006
Europe 27,121,641 15,896,325 10,140,072 1,130,148 1,692,379 112,260 140,698
Oceania 498,264 1,255,952 2,901,429 1,110,589 23,870 27,329 27,896
Total 112,694,828 95,551,945 63,745,303 8,576,223 5,464,585 5,360,604 755,181
Data are expressed as tonnes of meat (FAO, 2015).
Africa, Central America, and Oceania have the lowest production (Table 1.1). In this chapter
domestic animals are only considered as meat source.
1.1 Current Pattern in Meat Consumption
After a subsistence economy stage, the dietary transition is characterized by quantitative growth
in consumption of plant foods. Then a nutritional transition came and it was characterized by
a radical change in dietary pattern. The greater the incomes, the higher intake of animal based
foods. Indeed, over the last 50 years, meat consumption rose worldwide from 23.1 kg per
person per year in 1961 to 42.20 kg per person per year in 2011 (Sans and Combris, 2015).
That is, the increase in revenues is accompanied by an increase in meat protein consumption.
Meanwhile, Mathijs (2015) evaluated the relationship between meat intake and incomes
worldwide, showing no clear relation between both. However, it was revealed the existence of
a set of high-income countries in which meat consumption is relatively low. More detail reveals
that in some cases the relationship between income and meat consumption is not as expected
by nutrition transition theory. For example, high-meat consumption (>10% of energy intake)
is observed in low-income countries (Uganda, Guinea, or Tanzania). Conversely, some high-
income countries (Germany, Japan, or Belgium) have low-meat intake. So, the consumption of
meat is a two-sided story: in developing countries, consuming meat means positive effects for
health, while in developed countries consuming too much meat has negative health impacts.
Meat consumption also has been influenced by the crises linked to food safety. The crisis
series started with the so-called mad-cow crisis (bovine spongiform encephalopathy disease,
BSE) in 1986 in the United Kingdom. The incident spread in later years to Belgium (1993),
Netherlands (1997), Denmark (2000), France (2000), Germany (2000), Portugal, Switzerland,
Spain (2000), Italy (2001), and Canada (2003). BSE was related to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease,
so consumers developed a fear of beef and meat consumption dropped drastically. In 1999 a
stock of animal feed was contaminated accidentally with dioxin in Belgium. The result was
the contamination of poultry and pig farms. It was known as the Belgian dioxin crisis. The
Improvement of the Functional and Healthy Properties of Meat Products 3
chicken and pork consumption decreased more than 50%. Other crises that have affected meat
consumption are the avian influenza originated in 1997 in Asia and the Irish pork crisis of
2008 by dioxin contamination. As a result consumers became concerned about certain food
substances and they started to fear of certain foods (Bánáti, 2011). For all the aforementioned,
meat consumption is influenced both by health and safety factors.
1.2 Meat and Nutritional Value
According to the process treatment, meat products can be classified into fresh meat and
processed meats. To obtain fresh meat from muscle, previously a tenderization process
in carcass from some species is required. Chemical composition of fresh meat can vary
substantially, depending on factors, such as species, race, age, feeding management, and retail
cuts. Water is the major component (>60% of raw weight) and carbohydrates as glycogen are
reduced (except in liver). The protein content ranged from 17% to 22% (Table 1.2). It is also
important to note that meat proteins have been distinguished by their essential amino acids
content and their high digestibility. The digestibility is also determined by collagen content,
about 5% of protein (Barron-Hoyos et al., 2013).
Fat content differs significantly not only between species, but also from individuals of the
same species (Table 1.1). It depends also on the anatomical site. The loin is the leanest
portion in both beef and pork while the breast is generally the leanest part in poultry meat.
When the fat content is less than 10% it is considered lean meat or low-fat meat. Age and
sex are the major factors that change profile of FAs of beef meat. Generally, C18:0 (stearic
acid) is higher in bulls and steers than heifers and cows. A relevant data with regard to this
FA is that no significant effects have been detected for C18:0 on biomarkers of cardiovascular
risk (Hammad et al., 2016). Several studies have shown that the FA profile of meat can be
significantly influenced by feed. Significant differences were found between pasture and
grain-fed animal’s FA composition with higher polyunsaturated FA concentrations in pasture
fed groups (Venkata Reddy et al., 2015). Contrary to popular assumption, saturated fatty
acids (SFA) are not predominant in pork meats. The most abundant FAs in pork are C18:1
(oleic acid), C16:0 (palmitic acid), and C18:2n−6 (linoleic acid, LA) (Ros-Freixedes and
Estany, 2014). In Mediterranean lamb SFA reaches 47.5% of total proportion. However,
C18:1 is the most abundant, followed by C16:0 and C18:0 (Kaić et al., 2016).
It is also possible to find trans FAs in meat that are derived mainly from bacterial isomerization of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen. They consist of a mixture of FAs that are known
as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). CLA is a group of isomers with double bonds in configurations
trans (t) and cis (c). A wide spectrum of isomers with variations in positions and geometry exists,
but the most common are t7,c9; t8,c10; c9,t11; t10,c12; and c11,t13. In meat about 80% of the
CLA is the c9,t11 isomer (rumenic acid, RA). The highest CLA concentrations were found in
lamb (4.3–19.0 mg/g lipid), beef (1.2–10.0 mg/g lipid) and turkey (2–2.5 mg/g lipid). The CLA
content of pork, chicken, and horses is usually lower than 1 mg/g lipid (Schmid et al., 2006).
4
Chapter 1
Table 1.2: Nutritional composition of several meats.
Fat (%) Cholesterol Energy
Water (%) Protein (%) Total SFA MUFA PUFA (mg/100 g) (kcal/100 g
Beef Steak 61.3–70.6 19.4–22.1 6.5–18.5 2.4–7.5 2.6–7.9 0.3–0.7 65–86 153–249
Sirloin 66.1–69.4 20.3–20.6 9.5–12.7 3.5–5.1 4.7–5.4 0.4–0.5 68–75 174–201
Loin 61.5–64.0 19.3–20.6 15.5–17.1 6.3–6.9 6.6–7.4 0.5–0.6 80–82 224–237
Carcass 57.3–58.2 17.3–17.5 22.6–24.1 9.2–9.8 9.8–10.5 0.8–0.9 74 278–291
Liver 70.4–70.8 20.4–20.5 3.6–4.1 1.2 0.5 0.5–0.8 254–275 133–135
Chicken Thigh, skinless 76.2 19.7 4.1 1.1 1.5 0.9 94 121
Breast, skinless 73.9 22.5 2.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 73 120
Goat 75.8 20.6 2.3 0.7 1.0 0.2 57 109
Horse 72.6 21.4 4.6 1.4 1.6 0.7 52 133
Lamb Shoulder, blade 61.9–63.4 16.6–17.1 18.9–20.9 8.0–8.9 7.8–8.5 1.5–1.7 71–72 244–259
Leg 67.2–74.1 18.6–20.6 4.5–13.5 1.6–5.8 1.8–5.5 0.4–1.1 64–67 128–201
Liver 70.8–71.4 20.4–20.7 4.9–5.0 1.5–1.9 0.8–1.1 0.8–0.9 371–386 136–139
Pork Lean cuts 72.9–73.2 21.2–22.4 3.4–4.9 1.2–1.6 1.5–2.0 0.4–0.5 64–66 127–134
Leg, loin, shoulder 65.1–74.4 20.0–22.5 3.4–15.0 1.1–5.6 1.5–6.1 0.5–1.6 60–67 127–216
Carcass 49.8 13.9 35.1 12.4 15.9 3.8 74 376
Liver 71.1 21.4 3.7 1.2 0.5 0.9 301 134
Turkey Thigh, skinless 75.6 20.6 3.7 2.4 3.0 2.5 83 161
Breast, skinless 74.9 23.7 1.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 57 114
Data are expressed on raw product (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015).
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"It must be true, Robwood. Neither you nor Taat could have killed
him, and Taat's got the film to prove it."
Robwood unstrapped himself and pushed himself to the
companionway with some determination.
"Well, I'm not going to take over the ship and I'm not going to put you
in irons," he said spiritedly. "I couldn't handle the ship on a twenty-
four-hour basis for the next hundred and eighty-six days, and I'd
rather think Makki killed himself."
He paused at the top of the companionway.
"Don't forget," he said. "The Earth transit ought to be at midpoint in a
couple of hours."
Then he disappeared below.
Lefler took the magnetized pencil from the memorandum pad and
wrote a reminder: "E.T. midpoint. Should check 28:16:54."
Lefler leaned back gloomily in the control chair. Had he killed Makki?
It seemed the only way it could have happened, unless Makki had,
indeed, committed suicide. And he just didn't think Makki had.
The chronometer said 1839. Exactly twenty-four hours ago, he had
awakened from a nightmare and had come up to find Makki dead in
this same chair. It seemed a century.
He glanced idly back at the memorandum pad. 28:15:64. He'd have
to make an entry in the log in a little under two hours. How could he
check accurately when the time of entry into transit was estimated?
Twenty-four plus two. Twenty-six.
He sat bolt upright, straining at his straps. He snapped down the
communicator button.
"Robwood, come back up here!" he bellowed.
Unbuckling himself hastily, Lefler headed across the room toward the
heat-gun rack.
Taat was playing solitaire, waiting patiently for Robwood, when Lefler
and Robwood came down to the centerdeck together.
Lefler pointed a heat-gun at Taat.
"Go below and get the irons, Robwood," he said. "Taat, I'm sorry, but
I'm arresting you for the murder of Makki."
Taat raised an eyebrow and continued shuffling cards.
"I don't think you want to do anything like that, Robwood," he said
mildly. "Do you?"
Robwood hesitated and cast an anxious glance at him, but turned
and headed for the companionway to the storage deck.
"You've convinced him, have you, Lefler?" said Taat. "I didn't believe
you were guilty, but this makes me think you are."
Lefler said nothing, but held the gun steadily on Taat. Taat appeared
relaxed, but Lefler sensed a tension in him.
"What makes you think I did it, Lefler?" sparred Taat. The light glinted
from his spectacles as he turned his eyes from Lefler's face to watch
the shuffling cards.
"Two things," said Lefler. "If I'd killed him in a half-asleep daze, I
wouldn't have put gloves on him to make it look like suicide. Second,
your film started at 1500—a strangely precise hour—and Makki was
killed before then."
"The first point is good psychology," conceded Taat. "Since Robwood
couldn't have done it, I'll admit it looks like suicide. But your second
point doesn't hold water. Medical examination is accurate almost to a
fine point on the time of death so soon afterward."
"Medical evidence may not lie, but the examiner can, Taat," said
Lefler.
The clank of the chains resounded up the companionway. Robwood
was coming back. The spring in Taat uncoiled.
With a single sweep, he hurled the deck of cards at Lefler's head and
surged upward. Lefler lost his balance and fell sidewise as he dodged
the improvised missile. But even as he lost his equilibrium, he
pressed the trigger of the heat-gun and brought it downward in a fast
chop.
The straps that held Taat to his chair were his doom. The searing
beam swept across them, freeing him but at the same time blasting a
six-inch swath across his stomach. Taat screamed hoarsely as the
beam swung past him and burned along the floor of the centerdeck.
Lefler regained his balance and floated to Taat's side, pushing aside
the cards that drifted in a swirling cloud about the room. Robwood
appeared from below, the manacles in his hands.
"Your third point wins the day," gasped Taat, his hands writhing over
his mangled abdomen. "I won't last long, but if you'll get me to the
control room I'll radio a confession that'll clear you and Robwood
completely."
"Help me get him to a bunk, Robwood," ordered Lefler, grasping Taat
by the arms. "Taat, you'll have to tell us what to do for you."
"No use," groaned Taat. He managed a ghastly smile. "I unbuckled
your bunk straps to throw you off course, Lefler, but I don't want you
to think I was trying to blame it on you. I was trying to make it look like
Makki killed himself."
"But why, Taat?"
"It wasn't just that Makki cheated me," replied Taat with some
difficulty. "I'd saved several thousand dollars to build a little clinic in
Mars City—something I've dreamed of all my life. That's why I let
Makki talk me into investing—I needed just a little more. But the
business was almost worthless. He stole most of my money. I was
arguing with him about it in the control room, when he drew the gun
and threatened to kill me. He was strapped down. I wrestled with him,
and he was killed in the scuffle. That's it."
They maneuvered Taat into a bunk and tried to arrange the straps to
avoid the gaping wound in his stomach. Taat raised his hand weakly
and removed his spectacles. He blinked up at Lefler.
"I didn't think you knew enough about medicine to tell how long a man
had been dead," he said.
"I don't," said Lefler. "But you set the time of Makki's death at 1830
hours. You said you could tell.
"The Earth transit started at 1612, Taat. I've known Makki all my life. If
he'd been alive then, he'd have recorded it in the log. And he didn't.
"I just figured the only man who had any reason to lie deliberately
about the time of Makki's death was the man who shot him."
Lefler looked at the centerdeck chronometer. It was 2025.
"Do what you can for him, then bring him up to the radio, Robwood,"
he said. "I've got to get up to the control room and record the
midpoint of the Earth transit."
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Handbook of Food Science and Technology 1 Food

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List of Contributors............................................................................................ xiii

3 Biogenic Amines in Foods of Animal Origin.......................................................... 78

2 Research Data and Methodology........................................................................... 201

2.4 Grape By-Products................................................................................................265

2 High Salt Diet and Hypertension........................................................................... 396

Chapter 9, Development of a Functional Food Security for Parents for Transgenerational

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