American government 2017-2018 Ralph

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 Concept Clips
Expanded to now include audio, Concept Clips are engaging
videos that walk students through the more difficult concepts in
the American government course (such as the Electoral College,
Supreme Court procedures, or how to evaluate a public opinion poll).

Interactive Data Analysis

Help your students consume political data in a meaningful way.
Students in the American Government course now have the ability
to interact with political data visualizations to gain insight into
important factors that shape our political process. Students can
review electoral turnout over time or contemplate how demographic
shifts in the American population will impact future elections. These
interactive charts and maps are paired with auto-grade and critical
thinking questions to enhance student understanding.

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87% 75%
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impact their “extremely helpful” in
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To learn more about American Government visit the McGraw-Hill Education

American Government page: bit.ly/MHEAmGov
AM GOV
2017–2018
JOSEPH LOSCO
Ball State University

RALPH BAKER
State College of Florida
AMGOV 2017–2018, FIFTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2015, 2013, and 2011. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Losco, Joseph, author. | Baker, Ralph, 1942- author.
Title: Am gov 2017–2018 / Joseph Losco, Bowen Center for Public Affairs, Ball
State University, Ralph Baker, State College of Florida.
Other titles: American government 2017-2018
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, 2016.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016040834 | ISBN 9781259444937 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: United States—Politics and government—Textbooks. | BISAC:
POLITICAL SCIENCE / Government / National.
Classification: LCC JK276 .L67 2016 | DDC 320.473—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016040834
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an
endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information
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AM GOV Brief Contents
1 Citizenship: In Our Changing Democracy 1

2 The Constitution: The Foundation of Citizens’ Rights 16

3 Federalism: Citizenship and The Dispersal Of Power 40

4 Civil Liberties: Citizens’ Rights versus Security 66

5 Civil Rights: Toward a More Equal Citizenry 102

6 Public Opinion 136 (© Robyn Beck/Getty Images)

7 Political Participation: Equal Opportunities and Unequal

Voices 161

8 Interest Groups in America 189

9 Parties and Political Campaigns: Putting Democracy into

Action 218

10 Media: Tuning in or Tuning Out 249

11 Congress: Doing the People’s Business 283

(© Robert W. Kelley/The LIFE Images Collection/
Getty Images)
12 The Presidency: Power and Paradox 322

13 Bureaucracy: Citizens as Owners and Consumers 362

14 The Courts: Judicial Power in a Democratic Setting 388

15 Public Policy: Responding to Citizens 417

16 Foreign and Defense Policy: Protecting American Interests

in the World 444
(© Getty Images RF)

Brief Contents • v
Contents
Citizenship: In Our Changing THE BIRTH OF A NATION 21
1 Democracy 1 The Articles of Confederation: A Document Whose Time
Had Come and Gone 21
Millennials: Finding their Voices 1
The Road to Philadelphia 23
POLITICS, POWER, AND PARTICIPATION 3 Constitutional Convention 23
Types of Government 4 Regional Tensions: Slavery and the Three-fifths
Political Power 5 Compromise 24
Participation and Democracy 6 CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES 25
AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEALS 8 Liberal Democratic Principles 26
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE AMERICAN CITIZENRY 9 Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances 27
Growing Diversity 9 Federalism 27
Growing Older 10 CONSTITUTIONAL CONSTRUCTION 28
Growing Apart 10 THE FIGHT FOR RATIFICATION 29
THE FUTURE OF CITIZENSHIP 12 Antifederalist Opposition 29
The Battle in the States 30

2
The Constitution: The Foundation of Making Good on a Promise: The Bill of Rights 31
Citizens’ Rights 16 CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE 33
A Couple’s Fight for Constitutional Rights 16 Amending the Constitution 33

THE FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 17 Institutional Adaptation 35

Early Colonization 18 Judicial Review 35

The Colonists Respond to Economic Pressures 19 Expanding the Franchise 36

Colonists Mobilize for Action: The Continental Congress 20 THE CONSTITUTION AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT TODAY 37
Declaration of Independence 20

3
Federalism: Citizenship and the
(© Sandy Macys/Alamy Stock Photo)
Dispersal of Power 40
Pot Wars 40

THE DIVISION OF POWER 42

Prevailing Models for Dispersing Power 42
The Federalist Solution 42
THE EVOLUTION OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL
RELATIONS 45
The National Government Asserts Itself: 1789–1832 45
Dual Federalism, Disunion, and War: 1832–1865 47
Federalism in the Age of Commerce: 1865–1932 47
The New Deal and the Growth of National Power:
1932–1937 49
 Cooperative Federalism: 1937–1960s 49 Congress and Religious Freedom 73
Creative Federalism: 1960s–1970s 50 Establishment Clause 74
New Federalism and the Devolution of Power: Religion and Public Schools 76
1980–Present 51 Religious Use of Public School Facilities and Funds 76
FEDERAL–STATE RELATIONS 54 Prayer in School 77
Fiscal Relations 54 Aid to Religious Schools 77
Political Relations 56 Government Endorsement of Religion 77
Constitutional Issues 57 FREEDOM OF SPEECH 78
INTERSTATE RELATIONS 61 Political Speech 78
Cooperation and Competition 61 Campaign Speech 79
Innovation in the States 61 Commercial Speech 81
FEDERALISM AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT TODAY 64 Symbolic Speech 81
Boundaries of Free Speech 82
Civil Liberties: Citizens’ Rights
4 versus Security 66
Obscenity 82
Defamation 82
Champions of our Rights 66 Hate Speech 83
HERITAGE OF RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES 69 FREEDOM OF THE PRESS 83
The Constitution and Rights 69 Prior Restraint 84
The Bill of Rights 70 Government Control of Media Content 84
Incorporation 71 Special Rights 85
The Modern Emphasis on Rights 71 FREEDOM OF ASSEMBLY AND ASSOCIATION 85
FREEDOM OF RELIGION 72 Freedom of Assembly 86
Free Exercise Clause 73 Freedom of Association 86

(© Amos Aikman/Getty Images)

Contents • vii
RIGHT TO KEEP AND BEAR ARMS 87 The Civil War and Reconstruction 107
RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED 88 Segregation 108
The Fourth Amendment: Searches and Seizures 89 Voting Barriers 110
The Fifth Amendment: Self-Incrimination 90 NAACP 110
The Sixth Amendment: Right to Counsel 91 Modern Era of Civil Rights 111
The Sixth Amendment: Trial by Jury 93 Civil Rights Mobilization 112
The Eighth Amendment: Cruel and Unusual Civil Rights Legislation 113
Punishment 94 Retrospective 114
RIGHT TO PRIVACY 96 INTERPRETING EQUALITY 114
Abortion 96 Judicial Tests 115
The Right to Die 97 Affirmative Action 115
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL Racial Classifications 116
LIBERTIES 99
Current Impact on Education 116
Continuing Controversy 117
Civil Rights: Toward a More Equal
5 Citizenry 102
OTHER MINORITY GROUPS 118
Native Americans 118
Housing Discrimination in America 102
Hispanic Americans 119
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND CIVIL RIGHTS 106 Asian Americans 121
Slavery 106 Disabled Americans 122
Dred Scott 107 American Seniors 122

(© Bettmann/Corbis via Getty Images)

viii • AM GOV
 Gay and Lesbian Americans 123
WOMEN AND CIVIL RIGHTS 126
Women’s Mobilization Eras 127
Early Women’s Movement: 1840–1875 127
The Suffrage Movement: 1890–1920 128
The Second Women’s Rights Movement: 1961–Present 128
Current Issues 130
Workplace Equity 130
Sexual Harassment 131
Women’s Role in the Military 132
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND CIVIL RIGHTS 133

(© AP Photo/Chris Pizzello)
Public Opinion 136
6 Public Opinion in Black and White 136 Trust in Government 153
UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC OPINION IN THE CONTEXT OF Political Efficacy 154
AMERICAN POLITICS 138 Support for Democratic Values 154
The Nature of Public Opinion 138 Political Ideologies 154
Changes in Assessing and Using Public Opinion 139 PUBLIC OPINION AND PUBLIC POLICY 157
HOW POLITICAL OPINIONS PUBLIC OPINION AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT TODAY 158
ARE FORMED 140
The Process of Socialization 140 Political Participation: Equal
Agents of Political Socialization 140 7 Opportunities and
GROUP DIFFERENCES IN POLITICAL OPINIONS 144 Unequal Voices 161
Racial and Ethnic Identity 144 Millennials Rising 161
Gender 145
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: OPPORTUNITIES, COSTS,
Geography 146 AND BENEFITS 163
MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION 147 CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION 164
Dimensions of Public Opinion 147 Amount of Information Conveyed 165
Types of Polls 148 Variation in Frequency and Strength of Messages
POLLING TECHNIQUES 148 Conveyed 166

Who Is Asked? Selecting the Sample 148 INGREDIENTS FOR INVOLVEMENT 166

What Is Asked? Paying Attention to the Questions 151 Access to Resources 166

THE CONTENT OF AMERICAN PUBLIC Political Engagement 169

OPINION 151 Mobilization 170
Political Knowledge 152 VOTING 171
Confidence in Government Institutions 153 Who Votes? Who Doesn’t? 172

Contents • ix
VOTERS IN THE ELECTORAL PROCESS: HOW AMERICANS THE ROOTS OF INTEREST GROUP POLITICS IN
DECIDE 176 AMERICA 193
Party Choice 176 Interest Groups on the Rise 193
Issues 177 The Advocacy Explosion 194
Candidate Characteristics 179 WHOSE INTERESTS ARE REPRESENTED? 196
OTHER FORMS OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION 180 Who Has the Numbers? 196
Beyond Voting: Activities That Require More Time 180 Who Has the Money? 196
Beyond Voting: Activities That Require More Skill 182 Whose Interests Are Not Represented? 198
Beyond Voting: Activities That Require Money 183 WHY JOIN? 198
THE IMPACT OF PARTICIPATION PATTERNS ON Monetary Incentives 198
POLICY 185
Social Incentives 199
PARTICIPATION AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT Idealist Incentives 199
TODAY 186
Assessing Motives 199

Interest Groups in America 189 INTEREST GROUP STRATEGIES 200

8 LOBBYING AND OTHER TACTICS 201
Courting the Gun Lobby in their Race for the White Lobbying 201
House 189
Financing Campaigns 206
ORGANIZED INTERESTS: Accessing the Courts 210
WHO ARE THEY? 192
Grassroots Mobilization 211
Neighbors or Adversaries? 192
Coalition Formation 214
Distinctive Features 192
Protests 214
INTEREST GROUPS AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
TODAY 215

Parties and Political Campaigns:

9 Putting Democracy into
Action 218
The Best-Laid Plans . . .   218

POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTORAL POLITICS 220

The Nature of Parties in America 220
Why Two Parties? 221
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
OF OUR TWO-PARTY SYSTEM 224
The Evolution of American Political Parties: Five Party
Systems 224
1968 to Present 226
(© Scott Olson/Getty Images)

x • AM GOV
 Party Realignment 227
Parties Today: Poles Apart 228
BUILT TO WIN: PARTY STRUCTURE 231
National Committees 231
Congressional and Senatorial Campaign
Committees 234
State Committees 234
Local Party Organizations 235
Working Together 236
THIRD PARTIES AND INDEPENDENT
CANDIDACIES 236
CANDIDATES AND ELECTORAL POLITICS 238
Show Me the Money 238
Where Does All the Money Go? 242
Candidates and the Parties 242
Candidate Communication and Voter
Mobilization 244
PARTIES, POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS, AND CIVIC
ENGAGEMENT TODAY 246
(© Reuters/Evan Semo)
Media: Tuning in or Tuning Out 249
10 Trumping the Media 249
EVOLVING CIVIC LIFE AND MEDIA CHANGES 252
Early Days 252
Partisan Press 252
Penny Press 253
Yellow Journalism 253
Broadcast Media 254
The Media Today 255
THE MEDIA ENVIRONMENT
IN AMERICA 259
Private Ownership 259
Government Regulation 259
Ownership Limits 260
Content Regulation 260
Emphasis on Entertainment 260
Adversarial Journalism 261
Political Bias? 262
Contents • xi
 Midterm Elections 291
Redistricting 292
DOING THE JOB: RESPONSIBILITIES AND BENEFITS 295
Representing the People 295
Pay and Perks 296
Keeping in Touch with Voters: Home-Style Politics 297
WORKING WITH OTHERS 298
Dealing with Organized Interests 298
(© Ethan Miller/Getty Images)
Personal Staff 299
Professional Congressional Committee and Agency
MEDIA AND POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS 264 Staff 300
Free Media 265 Colleagues 300
Presidential Debates 265 Getting Along 302
Paid Media 268 KEYS TO POLITICAL POWER 302
The Internet 269 The Committee System 302
Game Coverage 270 Party 305
Character Issues: Probing Personal Lives 271 Position 306
Election Night Coverage 271 Procedures 310
GOVERNMENT COVERAGE IN THE MEDIA 273 THE POWERS OF CONGRESS 311
Covering the President 273 Lawmaking 311
Covering Congress 276 Declaring War 314
Covering the Supreme Court 277 Impeachment 315
THE MEDIA AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT TODAY 277 Investigation and Oversight 316
Budgeting 317
Congress: Doing the People’s
11 Business 283
Senatorial Powers 317
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND CONGRESS TODAY 319
Order in the House . . . 283

The Presidency: Power and

ORIGIN AND POWERS OF CONGRESS 285
CIVIC LIFE AND CONGRESSIONAL CHANGE 286
Building the Institution 287
The Era of Reform 287
The Resurgent Executive Branch 288
The Rights Revolution and Partisan Polarization 288
GETTING ELECTED 289
Resources 290
The Incumbency Factor 290
12 Paradox 322
Insurgency and its Aftermath 322
ORIGIN AND POWERS OF THE PRESIDENCY 324
Constitutional Provisions 324
Crafting the Office: From Washington to Roosevelt 325
The Modern Presidency 326
THE PATH TO THE PRESIDENCY 327

xii • AM GOV
GETTING ELECTED 327 ASSESSING PRESIDENTIAL POWER AND ITS
LIMITS 357
Fundraising 327
Primary Sweepstakes 329 THE VICE PRESIDENCY 358

Party Conventions 331 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND THE PRESIDENCY TODAY 359

The General Election 332

PRESIDENTIAL POWER 337 Bureaucracy: Citizens as Owners
Chief Executive 337 13 and Consumers 362
Commander in Chief 341 Student Loans, Debt, and Bureaucracy 362
Chief Diplomat 343
BUREAUCRATIC CHANGES AND EVOLVING CIVIC
Chief of State 345 LIFE 365
Lawmaker 346 Growth of Bureaucracy 365
PRESIDENTIAL ROLES 348 The Early Bureaucracy 366
Party Leader 349 The Reform Era 367
Economic Leader 349 Bureaucracy Today 367
Opinion Leader 350 THE NATURE OF BUREAUCRACY 368
THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH 351 FEDERAL BUREAUCRATS AND THEIR WORK 369
Cabinet 351 Who Are They? 369
Executive Office of the President 352 What Do They Do? 372
PRESIDENTIAL STYLE 355 Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy 375

(© George Diebold/Photographer’s Choice /Getty Images RF)

Contents • xiii

(© Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images)
SOURCES OF BUREAUCRATIC POWER 378
External Support 379
Expertise and Discretion 379
Longevity and Vitality 382
Leadership 383
CONTROLLING BUREAUCRATIC POWER 383
Congressional Controls 383
Presidential Controls 384
Judicial Controls 385
Whistle-Blowing 386
THE BUREAUCRACY AND CIVIC
ENGAGEMENT 386
The Courts: Judicial Power in a
14 Democratic Setting 388
The Supreme Court and Partisan Conflict 388
NATIONAL COURT STRUCTURE 391
District Courts 393
United States Courts of Appeals 393
United States Supreme Court 393
Specialized Courts 394
NATURE OF THE JUDICIAL PROCESS 394
Common Law 394
Judicial Review 395
Civil and Criminal Law 395
Judicial Requirements 396
Real Cases and Controversies 397
xiv • AM GOV
CHANGING NATURE OF THE SUPREME COURT 398
The Early Court 398
The Court, Business, and Social Welfare 399
The Court and Personal Rights 399
SUPREME COURT DECISION MAKING 399
Agenda Decisions 400
Voting Decisions 401
Explaining Decisions 403
Implementing Decisions 403
Understanding Decisions 404
SUPREME COURT SELECTION 406
Nomination 407
Nomination Criteria 407
Senate Confirmation 410
LOWER COURT SELECTION 411
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND THE JUDICIARY 412
15 Public Policy: Responding to
Citizens 417
Whatever Happened to the Middle Class? 417
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC POLICY 419
POLICYMAKING AND EVALUATION 419
Problem Recognition 419
Agenda Setting 420
Policy Formation 420
Policy Adoption 421
Policy Implementation 421
Policy Evaluation 422
Explaining Policy Outcomes 422
DOMESTIC POLICY 423
Protecting the Environment 423
Helping the Poor 428
ECONOMIC POLICY 433
Fiscal Policy 434
Monetary Policy 437
Global Economic Policy 440
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND PUBLIC POLICY TODAY 442
 Foreign and Defense Policy: TOOLS OF FOREIGN POLICY 460
16 Protecting American Interests Military Power 460
in the World 444 Diplomacy 461
The Quest for Security in an Uncertain Foreign Aid 462
World 444
Working with International Partners 463
DEFENSE AND FOREIGN POLICY IN HISTORICAL CONFRONTING THE FUTURE 464
PERSPECTIVE 445
The Terrorist Threat 465
Finding a Place in the World 446
The Nuclear Threat 467
Becoming an International Power 446
Threats Posed by Regional Conflicts 468
The Nuclear Age 447
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND FOREIGN POLICY
The Growing Threat of Terrorism 449 TODAY 471
DEFENDING U.S. INTERESTS IN A CONSTANTLY
CHANGING WORLD 451 Appendix
Defining National Interests 451 The Declaration of Independence 475
Understanding Nation-State Dynamics: Foreign Policy The Constitution of the United States of America 477
Theories 452
Federalist No. 10 (James Madison) 492
MAKING FOREIGN POLICY 453
Federalist No. 51 (James Madison) 495
The Primacy of the Executive Branch 453
Glossary 497
Congress’s Role 457
Endnotes 506
Other Actors 459
Index 525
The Public’s Role 459

(© Christopher Furlong/Getty Images)

Contents • xv
What’s in AM GOV

AM GOV was created with one simple premise in mind:

Students will learn only if the content is engaging and
current, if the design is visually attractive, and if the
price is affordable.
With this premise in mind, we, the authors, set out
to discover from you—students and faculty—how best
to create a program that students would read and fac-
ulty would eagerly assign. We interviewed dozens of
faculty and hundreds of students at colleges through-
out the country. Students told us they wanted resources
with innovative visual appeal, interactive digital tech-
nology, an integrated approach, and relevant content
designed according to the way they learn. Instructors
told us they wanted a way to engage their students
without compromising on high-quality content.
We listened. The result is AM GOV, an American
government program that started a revolution. Our
goal in AM GOV is to engage students in the story of
Ralph Baker, State College of Florida, and Joseph Losco, Ball State
University. people’s relationship to government and how an active
and informed citizenry is essential in making democ-
racy meaningful. We want students to recognize how their choices about govern-
ment affect their lives.
AM GOV marries our commitment to scholarly content with the value that cur-
rency, presentation, adaptive technology, and reasonable price have for students.
Frequent updates of both political events and scholarship keep the program vital
and relevant. We gave AM GOV this visually rich design because our research
taught us that, in our visual culture, it makes student learning excel and American
government memorable. Students even gave AM GOV its name.
And we continue to listen. Using the latest technology to track student usage
and comprehension, AM GOV pinpoints those content areas students find most
challenging with heat maps. This technology is used to help us rework presen-
tations to make the material more comprehensible and meaningful to students.
Available adaptive technologies, like LearnSmart® and SmartBook®, put students in
control of the learning experience, allowing them to learn from peer responses and
create a personal reading experience that’s all their own.
You started AM GOV. You convinced us that there had to be a better way to get
across the fundamental concepts of American democracy and what it means to be
an American citizen.
We listened. And we continue to learn from you.

xvi • AM GOV
 About the Authors

Joseph Losco is professor of political science at Ball State University and Director
of the Bowen Center for Public Affairs. He teaches courses in political theory and
American government. Losco has published in the areas of public policy and politi-
cal theory. His publications include Political Theory: Classic and Contemporary
Readings (Oxford Press) and Human. Nature and Politics, co-edited with Albert
Somit (JAI Press). At the Bowen Center, Losco directs the annual Hoosier Survey of
public opinion and shares responsibility for the Voting System Technical Oversight
Program (VSTOP) which conducts voting system studies for the Indiana Secretary of
State. His research has been funded by grants from the Pew Charitable Trusts and
the U.S. Election Assistance Commission. Losco received his B.A. and M.A. from
Pennsylvania State University and his Ph.D. from Temple University. He has been
married to his wife Marcia for over 40 years and has a son, Michael, who practices
international arbitration law in New York City.
Ralph Baker is an Adjunct Professor of Political Science at the State College of
Florida where he teaches courses in Introduction to American Government. Before
moving to Florida, he was a political science professor at Ball State University spe-
cializing in American government, constitutional law, constitutional liberties, judicial
politics, criminal justice policy, and media and politics. Raised in central Illinois, he
attended Bradley University for his undergraduate degree and the University of
Illinois for his M.A. and Ph.D.
He is the author of numerous books and articles including the The Criminal
Justice Game, Evaluating Alternative Law Enforcement Policies, Determinants of
Law Enforcement Policies, State Policy Problems, and Women Government Officials
in Indiana and articles concerning the Supreme Court, gender policy, the chilly cli-
mate in academia, media and politics, and police professionalism. With Joe Losco,
Baker produced over twenty political science videos that resulted in Telly Awards
for “ The 1996 Campaign,” “The 2000 Campaign,” and an Axiem Award for “Case
Studies in American Government.”
At Ball State University, Baker won the Outstanding Teacher Award and served
several terms as the President of the Indiana Political Science Association.

About the Authors • xvii

 Foundational Content and
AM GOV is a relatable, informative, and visual introduction to American politics.
Designed with today’s students in mind, AM GOV is a concise, magazine style pro-
gram that teaches students how to think critically, and politically. With an emphasis
on current events, AM GOV engages its readers through approachable content and
digital tools that are proven to help students better understand and connect with the
concepts and language used in the American Government course.

Better Data, Smarter Revision, Improved Results

Students helped inform the revision strategy:
STEP 1. Over the course of three years, data points showing concepts that caused
students the most difficulty were anonymously collected from McGraw-Hill
Education’s Connect® American Government’s LearnSmart for AM GOV.

STEP 2. The data from LearnSmart was provided to the authors in the
form of a Heat Map, which graphically illustrated “hot spots” in the
text that impacted student learning (see image to left).
STEP 3. The authors used the Heat Map data to refine the content
and reinforce student comprehension in the new edition. Additional
quiz questions and assignable activities were created for use in
Connect American Government to further support student success.
RESULT: Because the Heat Map gave the authors empirically based
feedback at the paragraph and even sentence level, they was able to
develop the new edition using precise student data that pinpointed
concepts that caused students the most difficulty.
Heat map data also informs the activities and assessments in Connect
American Government, McGraw-Hill Education’s assignable and assessable
learning platform. Where the Heat map data shows students struggle with
specific learning objectives or concepts, we created new Connect assets—
Concept Clips, Applied Critical Thinking (ACT), and NewsFlash current event
activities—to provide another avenue for students to learn and master the
content.
For example, less than 50% of students showed mastery of the Learning
Objective: Explain the legislative process.
In response we added:
• A new Concept Clip - How does a bill become a law?
• A new ACT assignment – Who is your member of the House of Representatives?
• A related NewsFlash current event article
Fueled by LearnSmart, SmartBook is the first and only adaptive reading experi-
ence currently available.
Make It Effective. SmartBook creates a personalized reading experience by high-
lighting the most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time. This
ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is returned to the student as the most
value added minute possible.
Make It Informed. The reading experience continuously adapts by highlight-
ing content based on what the student knows and doesn’t know. Real-time reports
xviii • AM GOV
Digital Tools Designed for Today’s Student
quickly identify the concepts that require more attention from individual students—or
the entire class. SmartBook detects the content a student is most likely to forget and
brings it back to improve long-term knowledge retention.

Informing and Engaging Students on

American Government Concepts
Using Connect American Government, student can learn the course material more
deeply and study more effectively than ever before.
At the remember and understand levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, Concept Clips help
students break down key concepts in American Government. Using easy-to-under-
stand audio narration, visual cues, and colorful animations, Concept Clips provide a
step-by-step presentation that aid in student retention. New Concept Clips for this edi-
tion include the following:
• Explaining ideology
• Constitutional compromises
• Right of privacy
• Restrictions on voting
• Political socialization
• Realignment of parties
• Interest groups
• Legislative process
• Presidential powers
• Supreme Court procedures
Also at the remember and understand levels
of Bloom’s, Newsflash exercises tie current
news stories to key American government
concepts and learning objectives. After interacting with a contemporary news story,
students are assessed on their ability to make the connections between real life
events and course content. Examples include the 2016 election results, transgender
bathroom bills, and aftermath of Justice Antonin Scalia’s death.
At the apply, analyze, and evaluate levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, critical
thinking activities allow students to engage with the political process and learn
by doing.
Examples are:
- Quiz: What is your political ideology?
- Poll: Americans Confidence in the Police
- Research: Find your Senator
- Infographic: Compare the Courts
Interactive Data Analysis activities should be added here at the apply, analyze,
evaluate levels.
Examples include:
- U.S. Population by Race
- Confidence in Government Institutions
- Independent Expenditures by Election
- Incumbency Advantage
Preface • xix
 Another way students are able to learn by doing is through Government in Action,
an award-winning education game where students play the role of a congressperson,
from running for election to pass legislation. Government in Action weaves in every
aspect of the American government course as students compete for political capital,
approval, and awareness. Student play to learn and campaign to win to develop a fun-
damental understanding of American democracy.

Approachable Content
AM GOV presents content in approachable and meaningful way designed to engage
students.
• NEW Thinking It Through Activities: Our discussions at the American
Government symposia conducted across the country as well as surveys made it
clear that critical thinking is an essential skill for which instructors need additional
support. Every chapter now concludes with an activity tied to a learning objective
for the chapter that challenges students to go beyond the basics to think through
a problem and formulate possible solutions, examples include Chapter 7 “Describe
the factors that contribute to political participation” and Chapter 10 “Describe the
role of the media in political campaigns.”
• Citizenship Quizzes: In these quizzes, students are invited to take the U.S.
Citizenship Test to check their understanding of institutions such as the courts,
behavior such as voting rights, and number of amendments in the Constitution.
• Current Controversy: These features examine controversial issues, ranging
from “Transgender Individuals in the Military” to “Failing to Fill Federal Court
Vacancies.”
• Challenges Ahead: These features examine the political challenges following
the 2016 elections and beyond. Topics range from “Living in a Surveillance
Society” to “Tamping Down Cost of Campaigns” to “The Fight for LGBT Rights in
the States.”
• Global Perspectives: These features compare the United States to other nations
by interpreting charts and graphs. Topics range from “Changing Patterns of Political
Participation” to “Defense Spending.”
As mentioned, the authors revised in response to student heat map data that
pinpointed the topics and concepts with which students struggle the most. This
heat-map-directed revision is reflected primarily in Chapters 2, 4, 11, and 14. Overall
content changes include the November 2016 election results and the following
revisions:
Chapter 1—Citizenship in Our Changing Democracy
• Revised chapter opening vignette Millennials: Finding Their Voices
• Updated examples to explain theories of power
• Global Perspectives: new data on trust in government
• Updated Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: After Millennials with discussion
of Generation Z
• Updated figures on education and lifetime earnings

xx • AM GOV
Chapter 2—The Constitution: The Foundation of Citizens’ Rights
• New chapter opening vignette: A Couple’s Fight for Constitutional Rights, Focus on
Obergefell v. Hodges
• New chart detailing the structure and content of each article of the Constitution to aid
retention and recall
• Updates on recent attempts to amend the Constitution
• Greater exposition and simplification of language explaining the key events that led
to the U.S. Constitution such as why the Framers chose a federal form of government
• Provided more recent examples like same sex marriage to illustrate the relation-
ship among the states in the American federal system
• Added definition of inherent powers to help clarify the definition of implied powers

Chapter 3—Federalism: Citizenship and the Dispersal of Power

• Updated chapter opening vignette on marijuana legalization in states
• New Portrait of an Activist box: Chicago VOYCE (Voices of Youth in Chicago Education)
• Simplified section on federal grants and mandates
• Updated Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: The Fight for LGBT Rights in
States Is Far From Over since Obergefell v. Hodges

Chapter 4—Civil Liberties: Expanding Citizens’ Rights

• New chapter opening vignette: Champions of Our Rights on issues of civil right and
civil liberties describing free speech champions of the past and present
• New data on knowledge and support of the First Amendment
• New case on freedom of religion
• Added data on religious affiliations
• New free speech cases involving specialty plates and mandatory union dues, and
donation seeking in judicial elections
• Revised section on campaign speech
• Updated search and seizure cases
• Refined United States’ world incarceration rate comparisons
• Updated review of right to counsel and cruel and unusual punishment cases
• New Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: Living in a Surveillance Society
• Clarified abortion issue with coverage of Texas abortion case

Chapter 5—Civil Rights: Toward a More Equal Citizenry

• Revised chapter opening vignette: Housing Discrimination in America
• New Portrait of an Activist box: Lilly Ledbetter as advocate of equal pay for women
• Clarified today’s affirmative action policy with discussion of Fisher case
• Explained importance of Supreme Court’s same sex marriage case
• New Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: current issue of voter suppression
• Updated role of women in military
• Updated information on gender gap in presidential elections
• Added discussion question on relationship between civil rights and civic engagement
• New Current Controversy box: “The CIA: A Necessary Evil?”

Preface • xxi
 Chapter 6—Public Opinion
• New chapter opening vignette: Public Opinion in Black and White—Focusing on
Black Lives Matter and Race Relations
• Simplified discussion of life cycle effects and generational effects
• Updated information about role of voluntary associations, opinion formation, and
engagement
• Updated media examples in section dealing with media and public opinion
• New Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond: Is Polling in Crisis?
• New Data on generational differences in political knowledge
• New data on confidence in government
• New data on trust in government
• New data on political toleration
• Information on Britain’s exit from the European Union
• New data on ideology and ideological leanings by generation
• New Current Controversy box: That’s Disgusting! Does Sensitivity to Disgusting
Images Reveal Your Ideological Preferences?
Chapter 7—Political Participation: Equal Opportunities and Unequal Voices
• Updated chapter opening vignette: Millennials Rising—with more recent examples
of millennial mayors
• Demographic profile of nonvoters
• Update on voter registration laws and impact on turnout
• New data on turnout rate in select Western democracies
• New data on party identification
• New data on issues Americans find most important
• Updated section on Candidate Characteristics to discuss 2016 campaign
Chapter 8—Interest Groups in America
• New chapter opening vignette: Aiming for the White House—describes the efforts
of the 2016 Republican presidential candidates to curry favor with the National Rifle
Association
• New Portrait of an Activist box: Marian Wright Edelman as an interest group advo-
cate for the Children’s Defense Fund
• Updated revolving number of former officials working as lobbyists
• Clarification of different types of lobbying done in Washington, D.C.
• Described the role of Super PACs in the 2016 presidential election
• Explained the role of dark money in presidential elections
• Clarified the relationship between a presidential campaign and a supportive PAC
• Updated contributions of groups by sector to Republicans and Democrats
Chapter 9—Parties and Political Campaigns
• New chapter opening vignette: The Best Laid Plans—factional elements within the
political parties in 2016
• Update on party demographic alignment and political sorting
• Update on party identification

xxii • AM GOV
 • New Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: Tamping Down the Cost of Campaigns
• Updated discussion of party organization
• Updated section on money in political campaigns including impact of funding
changes in wake of Citizens United
• Update on use of media in 2016 campaign
Chapter 10—Media: Tuning In or Tuning Out
• New chapter opening vignette: Trumping the Media—how Donald Trump worked
the media during the race for the Republican nomination
• Updated the growing role of the Internet as a campaign news source
• Updated percentage of Americans using social networking sources
• Updated the media environment in the
United States
• New Global Perspective box on the World’s Most Censored Countries and discus-
sion of the most censored media institutions in the world
• Discussed the role and impact of the media in the 2016 election
• Recounted the media’s coverage of the presidential debates
• Explained the 2016 election night coverage by the media
• Updated data on whether Americans believe the media protects democracy
• New Current Controversy box on Millenials and the News
Chapter 11—Congress: Doing the People’s Business
• New chapter opening vignette: Order in the House—the ascension of Paul Ryan as
Speaker
• Updates on 2016 House and Senate elections including financing and election
results
• New Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: To Diversify Congress, Expand the
Pipeline, discussing ways to expand diversity
• New Portrait of Activist box: Meet Sara Agate, Fellow at the Congressional Hispanic
Caucus Institute
• Updated discussion of partisan polarization in
Congress
• Revised and added key terms to clarify the enumerated powers granted to
Congress
• Added charts on House and Senate Leadership Positions
• Updated section on Congressional powers to reflect actions of 114th Congress
• Refined the section on the congressional budget process
• Refined discussion of the effect of electoral reform on civic engagement
• Updated and revised sections on the importance of money in congressional elec-
tions and the different types of funding with new examples
• Revised the section on efforts to reform lobbying abuse and clarified examples
• Refined the coverage of the influence of committee staff on members
• Refined the trustee model of representation coverage
• Revised and added key terms to clarify the enumerated powers granted to
Congress

Preface • xxiii
 • Added key term, advice and consent, to clarify the president’s role in making
treaties
• Reworked the sections on the differences in states’ redistricting procedures and
impact of racial gerrymandering
• Refined the section on the legislative veto
Chapter 12—The Presidency: Power and Paradox
• New chapter opening vignette: Insurgency and Its Aftermath—the results after
both parties are fractured
• Coverage of 2016 presidential election including funding, primaries, conventions,
general election, battleground states, and overall results
• Updates on presidential powers reflecting Obama’s initiatives as well as
Congressional and court reactions including United States v. Texas (2016)
• New Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond: Promises, Promises on campaign
promises
• Updates on presidential success with Congress
• Updates on presidential foreign policy action with regard to ISIL and Syria
• Updates on presidential approval ratings
• Updates on Obama’s use of the media
• Latest poll results by scholars and public on ranking U.S. presidents
Chapter 13—Bureaucracy: Citizens as Owners and Consumers
• Updated chapter opening vignette: Student Loans, Debt, and Bureaucracy—
discussing various aspects of the student loan issue
• New Current Controversy box on the role of the CIA in the bureaucracy
• Updated 2016 salary table for federal employees
• New Portrait of an Activist box on Julián Castro as a bureaucrat and rising political
star
• Updated Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond box: Government Shutdowns dis-
cusses the continuing dysfunction within Congress to pass annual budgets
• Updated attacks by 2016 presidential candidates on the bureaucracy

Chapter 14: The Courts—Judicial Power in a Democratic Setting

• Updated chapter opening vignette: Supreme Court and Partisan Conflict, discuss-
ing the justice vacancy
• New Portrait of an Activist box: Stephen Schapiro took redistricting for state con-
gressional seats in Maryland to the Supreme Court
• Discussed the Scalia vacancy and the 2016 responses to select a successor
• Included a student portrait on the bringing of a redistricting case before the
Supreme Court
• New Current Controversy box on Failing to Fill Federal Court Vacancies
• Related the judicial selection process to the Scalia vacancy
• Updated the Challenges Ahead 2017 and Beyond Box on the popular support
numbers for the U.S.
• U.S. Supreme Court

xxiv • AM GOV
Chapter 15—Public Policy: Responding to Citizens
• New chapter opening vignette: Whatever Happened to the Middle Class?
• Enhanced discussion of policymaking process, especially policy evaluation
• Updates on climate change, including discussion of Paris Agreement
• New data on world greenhouse emissions and fossil fuel emissions
• Updated data on poverty in U.S.
• Expanded section and new data on income inequality
• New Portrait of an Activist: Muriel Woods and the Spirit of Volunteerism
• Updated data on U.S. budgets and deficits
Chapter 16—Foreign and Defense Policy: Protecting American Interests in the
World
• New chapter opening vignette: The Quest for Security in an Uncertain World
• Updates on threats from ISIL
• Updates on Obama foreign policy
• Global Perspectives new data on global defense expenditures
• Reworked section on roots of Middle East conflict
• New Current Controversy: Should Transgender Individuals Be Allowed to Serve in
the Military?
American Government Symposia
Since 2006, McGraw-Hill Education has conducted several symposia in American
Government for instructors from across the country. These events offered a forum
for instructors to exchange ideas and experiences with colleagues they might not
have met otherwise. They also provided an opportunity for editors from McGraw-Hill
Education to gather information about what instructors of American Government need
and the challenges they face. The feedback we have received has been invaluable
and has contributed—directly and indirectly—to the development of AM GOV. We
would like to thank the participants for their insights:

Melvin Aaron, Los Angeles City College
Yan Bai, Grand Rapids Community College
Robert Ballinger, South Texas College
Nancy Bednar, Antelope Valley College
Jeffrey Birdsong, Northeastern Oklahoma A&M
College
Amy Brandon, San Jacinto College-North
Jane Bryant, John A. Logan College
Dan R. Brown, Southwestern Oklahoma State
University
Monique Bruner, Rose State College
Anita Chadha, University of Houston–Downtown
John Clark, Western Michigan University–Kalamazoo
Kathleen Collihan, American River College
Steven Collins, Oklahoma State University–
Oklahoma City
John Davis, Howard University
Kevin Davis, North Central Texas College
Paul Davis, Truckee Meadows Community College
Vida Davoudi, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Robert De Luna, Saint Philips College
Jeff DeWitt, Kennesaw State University
Kevin Dockerty, Kalamazoo Valley Community
College
Cecil Dorsey, San Jacinto College–South
Hien Do, San Jose State University
Jay Dow, University of Missouri–Columbia
Manar Elkhaldi, University of Central Florida
Karry Evans, Austin Community College
Pearl Ford, University of Arkansas–Fayetteville
John Forshee, San Jacinto College–Central
Ben Riesner Fraser, San Jacinto College

Preface • xxv
 Daniel Fuerstman, Dutchess Community College
Marilyn Gaar, Johnson County Community College
Jarvis T. Gamble, Owens Community College
Michael Gattis, Gulf Coast Community College
William Gillespie, Kennesaw State University
Dana K. Glencross, Oklahoma City Community
College
Larry Gonzalez, Houston Community
College–Southwest
Nirmal Goswami, Texas A&M University–Kingsville
Daniel Gutierrez, El Paso Community College
Richard Gutierrez, University of Texas, El Paso
Michelle Kukoleca Hammes, St. Cloud State
University
Cathy Hanks, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Wanda Hill, Tarrant County Community College
Joseph Hinchliffe, University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign
John Hitt, North Lake College
Mark Jendrysik, University of North Dakota
Brenda Jones, Houston Community College–Central
Franklin Jones, Texas Southern University
Lynn Jones, Collin County Community College
James Joseph, Fresno City College
Jason Kassel, Valdosta State University
Manoucher Khosrowshahi, Tyler Junior College
Rich Kiefer, Waubonsee Community College
Robert J. King, Georgia Perimeter College
Melinda Kovacs, Sam Houston State University
Chien-Pin Li, Kennesaw State University
Fred Lokken, Truckee Meadows Community College
John Mercurio, San Diego State University
Janna Merrick, University of South Florida
Joe Meyer, Los Angeles City College
Eric Miller, Blinn College
Kent Miller, Weatherford College
Charles Moore, Georgia State University
Eduardo Munoz, El Camino College
Kay Murnan, Ozarks Technical Community College
Carolyn Myers, Southwestern Illinois College
Blaine Nelson, El Paso Community College
xxvi • AM GOV
Theresa Nevarez, El Paso Community College
James A. Norris, Texas A& International University
Kent Park, U.S. Military Academy at West Point
Eric Rader, Henry Ford Community College
Elizabeth Rexford, Wharton County Junior College
Tara Ross, Keiser University
Carlos Rovelo, Tarrant Community College–South
Ryan Rynbrandt, Collin County Community College
Ray Sandoval, Richland College
Craig Scarpelli, California State University–Chico
Louis Schubert, City College of San Francisco
Edward Senu-Oke, Joliet Junior College
Mark Shomaker, Blinn College
Thomas Simpson, Missouri Southern University
Henry Sirgo, McNeese State University
Amy Smith, North Lake College
Daniel Smith, Northwest Missouri State University
John Speer, Houston Community College–Southwest
Jim Startin, University of Texas at San Antonio
Sharon Sykora, Slippery Rock University
Tressa Tabares, American River College
Beatrice Talpos, Wayne County Community College
Alec Thomson, Schoolcraft College
Judy Tobler, Northwest Arkansas Community College
Steve Tran, Houston Community College
Beth Traxler, Greenville Technical College
William Turk, University of Texas–Pan American
Ron Vardy, University of Houston
Sarah Velasquez, Fresno City College
Ron VonBehren, Valencia Community
College–Osceola
Albert C. Waite, Central Texas College
Van Allen Wigginton, San Jacinto College–Central
Charlotte Williams, Pasadena City College
Ike Wilson, U.S. Military Academy
Paul Wilson, San Antonio College
John Wood, University of Central Oklahoma
Robert Wood, University of North Dakota
Larry Wright, Florida A&M University
Ann Wyman, Missouri Southern State University
Kathryn Yates, Richland College
 Chapter 1
Citizenship
In Our Changing Democracy

WHAT’S TO COME
3 Politics, Power, and Participation
8 American Political Ideals
9 The Changing Face of the American
Citizenry
12 The Future of Citizenship

MILLENNIALS: FINDING THEIR

VOICES
“It’s about lying, cheating, getting nothing done.
That’s not how I want to spend my time.”1
That’s how Todd, a high school junior, responded
to researchers asking if he had ever thought
about running for political office. Todd’s attitude
toward our political system reflects the views
of many young people today. And while Todd’s Senator Bernie Sanders (D-VT) attracted strong support from youth in his bid for
the 2016 presidential nomination. (© Robyn Beck/Getty Images)
views may seem unsurprising given the negative
images of political leaders portrayed in the media,
it seems strangely at odds with the enthusiasm young people showed just eight years ago for the candidacy of
Barack Obama. What has happened?
In 2008, young Americans turned out to vote in the largest numbers since 1972, the first election in which
18-year-olds were eligible. They demonstrated an enthusiasm for politics that raised expectations among scholars
who had bemoaned a decades-long decline in civic participation by young people. Youth activism in 2008 was
fueled by many factors, including an exciting political campaign that included viable African American and female
candidates for president, an innovative outreach program that incorporated social media tools popular with the
young, serious discussion of policies like education and the environment that resonated with young people, and
optimism about the future of the country and of the generation that was coming of age politically.
 Over the course of the past several years, however, political enthusiasm and optimism among the young faded.
Voter turnout in 2012 among 18- to 29-year-olds fell by 6 percentage points over 2008, with nearly two million fewer
young voters going to the polls. Youth turnout in the midterm election of 2014 barely reached 20 percent, the lowest
rate in forty years.2 The Great Recession, disappointment over President Obama’s job performance, and impatience
with political stalemate in Washington took their toll on the political inclinations of the young. The unemployment rate
for young adults between ages 18 and 29 surged to a record high, dashing the dreams of many young people and
leaving students increasingly anxious about paying off student loans. About half of young adults say that President
Obama failed to bring the change he promised to Washington. And a majority of young people now believe the
United States is headed in the wrong direction.3

As You READ
• What kinds of citizen involvement fuel democracies?
• What ideals fuel American democracy?
• What are some of the changes and challenges facing America today?

Yet Millennials, young people born in the 1980s and 1990s, who are attending college or who are college aged,
remain more civic-minded in many ways than their immediate predecessors in Generation X. More ethnically and
racially diverse than previous college generations, they volunteer in their communities at higher rates; they are more
tolerant of life style differences; more supportive of equal opportunities for all; and less likely to support military
solutions to international problems than their elders.4 They are also more likely to express support for nontradi-
tional forms of participation. For example, 41 percent of young people engage in some form of participatory politics,
defined as interactive, peer-based acts through which individuals and groups seek to exert both voice and influence
on issues of public concern. Largely conducted through the use of social media, these activities allow young people
to disseminate their views, mobilize like-minded others, and circumvent traditional gatekeepers of information.5 They
are also prone to register their political views through the marketplace; fully one-third have used their buying power
expressly to reward or punish companies for social policies.6 Members of racial and ethnic minorities display their
own participatory strengths. For example, Hispanics are more likely than their white counterparts to attend political
protests; African American youth are more likely than their non-black contemporaries to contact radio stations, TV
stations, and newspapers to express political opinions.7
When it comes to electoral politics, however, a majority of Millennials have been turned off by what they see and
hear in the political arena. In one study, 60 percent said they believe elected officials are motivated by selfish rea-
sons. Only 15 percent reported that they believe politicians are interested in helping people like themselves.8 As a
result, they actively avoid politics.9 Yet it is the Millennials who will bear the brunt of political decisions made today.
They face an uncertain future threatened by fiscal debt, rising levels of economic inequality, and environmental
crisis. For that reason, it is more important than ever that Millennials sustain active interest and participation in the
political process and that we find ways to overcome disparities in income, education, ethnicity, and gender to ensure
that all sectors of society get a fair hearing.
There is a bit of good news. Researchers have found that the more young people know about the political system,
the more likely they are to become politically active. Those who are more active politically are able to see beneath
sensationalist headlines to understand how the power of the political process can transform lives for the better.
These young people are more likely to follow political events in the news, to discuss politics with friends and family,
and to say they have considered running for office. And while young people have turned away from electoral politics,
they are more apt than their elders to show support for political issues through the formation of new groups that take
on special causes like “Black Lives Matter.” This move away from traditional, elite-driven forms of participation is not
limited to American youth, but is a global phenomenon that may signify a new era of political activism.10

2 • AM GOV
 Throughout this text, we will introduce you to young people making a difference in the traditional political arena
as well as through new forms of political participation. It is our hope that by providing examples of youth who are
changing the face of American politics and promoting greater understanding of the role and purpose of the politi-
cal systems in our lives, you too will take a greater interest in exercising the powers you have as a citizen to effect
change. In a democracy people rule either directly or through elected leaders, and citizenship is a two-sided coin:
It confers rights and protections on members of the political community, but in return it requires allegiance and
involvement. Each of us must weigh the costs and benefits of participation. The benefits may be policies we sup-
port; the costs involve our time and attention. Often, involvement is only achieved through the active encourage-
ment of others.
As you will see throughout this book, citizenship today is in a precarious state. For much of the past half-century,
voter turnout has remained well below that of other advanced democracies, and the level of trust between citizens
and elected national leaders has reached historic lows.11 We believe that citizenship today is at a crossroads: We can
strengthen the reciprocal bonds of trust between citizen and government, or we can watch these bonds continue to
fray. We can either work at finding solutions to the pressing problems that endanger our future or watch these prob-
lems worsen. There are signs that young people are ready to open a dialogue about how to construct a more vibrant
democracy that works for all citizens. That is the central hope of this book. ■

POLITICS, POWER, AND

PARTICIPATION
We all live in communities in which we participate in a wide range of activities with our
neighbors. We attend school board meetings with some and go to church services with oth-
ers. We play softball with neighborhood friends, and our siblings may attend scout meetings
with others. These relationships make up civic life, the constellation of relationships that civic life Participation in the
keep us connected with others and make our communities vital places to live and work. By collective life of the community.
voluntarily participating in civic life, we build what is called social capital, bonds of trust social capital Bonds of trust and
and reciprocity between citizens that form the glue holding societies together. No one forces reciprocity between citizens that
us to attend a community meeting or to volunteer for environmental clean-up activities, or to form the glue that holds modern
contribute to a community foundation; but when we do, our communities are better for it and societies together.
we feel a stronger connection to our neighbors. government The body (or bodies)
Civic life includes institutions of government—the body or bodies charged with making charged with making official
official policies for citizens. Citizens participate in government by acts like voting, attending policies for citizens.
political meetings, and campaigning for candidates they support for office. politics Process by which we
Politics is the process by which we choose government officials and make decisions choose government officials and
about public policy. In a democracy, citizens play a primary role in this process, but—like make decisions about public policy.
being a good neighbor—it is a role they must choose to play. Americans are not forced to
leave the pleasures and obligations of private life to engage in political or community ser-
vice. Yet the vitality of our social and political institutions depends on our willingness as
citizens to step outside of our private lives and to work with others voluntarily in making our
neighborhoods safe, our communities strong, and our government work effectively for all.
If our engagement in voluntary associations with others builds social capital and gives
rise to civic and political involvement, then is it better to be engaged in more voluntary
associations? Some social scientists regard the number and kind of voluntary associations
sustained in society as a sign of a nation’s well-being.12 That is why some of them, like
Harvard’s Robert Putnam, worry about what they see as a decline in civic activities ranging
from attendance at school board meetings to meeting with one’s neighbors. Drawing upon
data showing a decline in the number of Americans coming together for a host of activi-
ties from PTA meetings to family dinners, Putnam argues that a decline in civic life has led

1 Citizenship • 3
 Citizen Activities in a Democratic Society
PRIVATE LIFE
Individual activities
Family
School
Work
Functions
Cultivates personal
relationships, serves
individual needs—e.g.,
getting an education,
earning a living
Citizens have many opportunities to participate in the civic life of their communities.
direct democracy Form of
government in which decisions
about public policy extend to the
entire citizenry.
representative democracy Form
of government in which popular
decision making is restricted to
electing or appointing the public
officials who make public policy.
majority rule The requirement that
electoral majorities determine who is
elected to office and that majorities
in power determine our laws and
how they are administered.
Whistle-blower Edward Snowden
released data he purloined as an
NSA contractor showing massive
government monitoring of phone
messages, leading to a national
dialogue about the limits of
government authority and how best
to balance the interests of personal
freedom and national security.
Snowden fled to Russia to escape
prosecution in the U.S. (© The
Guardian via Getty Images)
4 • AM GOV
to falling interest in political activities
from attending campaign rallies to vot-
CIVIC LIFE ing. Some critics challenge Putnam’s
Civic engagement activities findings, noting that participation in
Nonpolitical activities Political participation new forms of civic activity like soccer
leagues has replaced older associations
Recycling Voting and that young people have turned to
Fellowship meetings Attending political meetings
Service activities Political campaigning
electronic networking rather than face-
to-face encounters in building social
Provides community Fulfills demands of
capital.13 Still others claim that global-
services and acts as democratic citizenship ization and the pace of life are simply
a training ground for altering the ways citizens interact with
political participation
government. Today’s citizens, these
critics claim, are more critical of tradi-
tional forms of participation like voting
and supporting a political party, prefer-
ring instead more expressive and individualistic activities like boycotting companies that
pollute the environment.14 They are more prone to take advantage of new technologies to
make their voices heard than to rely on older forms of political expression.
No matter which vision of civic health we choose to embrace, it still matters mightily
who controls the levers of political power in government. Institutions of government impact
almost every facet of our daily lives from the quality of the water we drink to the type and
quality of education we receive. Therefore, it is important that the choice of individuals
controlling those levers be distributed widely and fairly. Democracy thrives when citizen
participation is robust. But political and civic involvement is not evenly spread across the
entire population. This has serious consequences for ensuring an equal voice for all citizens.
Your authors believe there is ample reason for optimism about the future of civic life in
America; but there is vast room for improvement as well, and we will highlight some prom-
ising avenues in the chapters that follow.
Types of Government
Governments may take a variety of forms, but a key distinction between them is how widely
power is shared among the citizens. In a monarchy or dictatorship, a single person exer-
cises absolute power. By contrast, in a direct democracy, political decision making extends
to the entire citizenry. Some ancient Greek city-states, for example, made decisions about
the use of power in open-air assemblies involving thousands of citizens. Only free males,
however, were counted as citizens. Few modern nations employ direct democracy; most
free nations prefer instead to restrict popular decision making to electing or appointing offi-
cials who make public policy. This type of government is properly called a representative
democracy. Citizens in a representative democracy hold public officials accountable
through periodic elections and the rule of
law. America’s representative democracy is
characterized by majority rule and protec-
tions for minority rights. Electoral majori-
ties determine who is elected to office, and
majorities in power determine our laws and
how they are administered. However, certain
rights, like freedom of speech and religion,
are beyond the reach of majority control.
A majority of citizens may not deny to a
minority those rights which are protected
for all. We will discuss these features of our
political system in more detail in Chapter 2.
Democratic societies also enshrine cer-
tain individual rights and place limits on the
actions government officials can undertake.
For example, our Constitution’s Fourth Amendment outlaws unreasonable searches and seizures.
Of course, potential clashes between government authorities and individual rights are legion.
Sometimes government actions presumably undertaken for our own protection may threaten
individual rights. Revelations by whistle-blower Edward Snowden unearthed a massive
effort to monitor phone messages undertaken by the National Security Agency, which the
government said was necessary to protect the nation from potential terrorist attacks. Civil
libertarians, and many Americans generally, however, believed the government went too far,
leading to a national dialogue about the limits of government authority and how best to bal-
ance the interests of personal freedom and national security. We will have many occasions to
discuss controversies like this throughout this text.

Political Power
The legitimate use of force and political power by a representative government rests
upon either explicit contracts establishing the relationship between governors and the
governed—such as the U.S. Constitution—or upon certain shared values and standards that
citizens have come to accept over time. Although citizens may not agree with specific gov-
ernment policies, they will support as legitimate, or lawful, policies founded upon accepted
contracts and standards. For example, many Americans opposed the U.S. invasion of Iraq
following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, but few disputed the right of the presi-
dent and Congress to wage war. Most Americans accept their duty to pay a fair share in
taxes; but they would surely balk if the government tried to confiscate all of our wealth.
Even in democratic societies, questions frequently arise about who exercises real political minority rights Protections beyond
power by influencing or controlling the institutions of government. One school of thought, the reach of majority control
guaranteed to all citizens.
the ruling elite theory, argues that wealthy and well-educated citizens exercise a dispropor-
tionate amount of influence over political decision making, despite the existence of institu- political power The ability to
tions that encourage widespread participation. These individuals are more likely to have get things done by controlling
or influencing the institutions of
access to government officials or to become government officials themselves. They are also
government.
more informed about political issues and more interested in the outcome of these issues. The
wealthy have a vested interest, for example, in reducing the amount of taxes they pay and ruling elite theory View positing
that wealthy and well-educated
creating favorable political and economic conditions for their investments. Some versions
citizens exercise a disproportionate
of ruling elite theory, however, suggest that elites actually are an important force for social amount of influence over political
advancement.15 Empirical studies demonstrate that wealthier and better-educated citizens decision making.
show a greater commitment to values such as fair play, diversity, and respect for civil liber-
pluralism View positing that
ties than those with less income or education. They are also more alert to threats to basic various groups and coalitions
democratic values and more likely to insist on enforcement of individual rights. constantly vie for government favor
A competing theory called pluralism asserts that various groups and coalitions con- and the ability to exercise political
stantly vie for government favor and the ability to exercise political power, but none enjoys power but none enjoys long-term
dominance.
long-term dominance.16 In this view, groups that get their way today may be on the losing
end tomorrow.
When a group of like-minded citizens is determined to change public policy or to
fight a proposed policy that it finds threatening, it can organize into interest groups that
employ a wide array of tactics from supporting candidates who promise to advance their
cause to developing sophisticated public relations campaigns and legal challenges to rally
support (see Chapter 8). For example, for years opponents of same-sex marriage pre-
vailed in outlawing the practice in most states. Over the years, LGBT groups were able
to mobilize support for their cause and to challenge these laws in court. In 2015, the U.S.
Supreme Court, reflecting a swift change in political attitudes toward the LGBT commu-
nity, legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. As long as the rules guiding interest group
competition are fair and fairly enforced, pluralists claim, no one group is permanently
disadvantaged.
A recent study testing these competing theories proposed a hybrid theory that its authors
believe comes closest to describing the actual flow of power in America. Researchers came
to the conclusion that economic elites and organized groups representing business interests
have substantially greater independent impact on government policies than average citizens.
Yet, it is often the case that the preferences of these economic elites and those of ordi-
nary citizens coincide. In such cases, both groups win when the policies favored by the

1 Citizenship • 5
The recent economic downturn
has only intensified the growth in
income inequality that has been
under way for several decades.
(Left: © RosalreneBetancourt
4/Alamy Stock Right: © Radius
Images/Alamy Stock Photo)
biased pluralism View that holds
power and public policies tilt largely
in the direction of the well off.
6 • AM GOV
elite are enacted. But when elite proposals and the interests of ordinary Americans con-
flict, it is often the economic elite who come out on top. The authors conclude that power
in America—at least in recent years—is best characterized as a kind of biased pluralism
in which the wealthy play a larger role in determining policies—especially economic
policies—than do typical citizens, but that both wealthy and average Americans are well
served when their interests intersect.17 What is worrisome, however, is that income inequal-
ity is on the rise with wealth becoming concentrated into fewer and fewer hands. As a result,
the interests of the wealthy and the average American may begin to diverge more sharply
while the influence of the wealthy continues to rise.
In this book, we are most concerned about increasing popular participation in ways that
bring us closer to achieving genuinely pluralistic outcomes. Some sectors of the American
population already participate at very high levels and can be sure their voices are heard, if
not always heeded. Others are barely heard at all; throughout this book, we will identify
ways to increase their volume.
Participation and Democracy
Active citizen participation is a cornerstone of democratic theory. The Greek philoso-
pher Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) felt that citizens should not simply sit back and enjoy the
benefits of society; they must also take responsibility for its operation. In his time, policy
decisions were formulated by assemblies of free citizens numbering in the thousands.
Enlightenment thinkers who influenced the Framers of our Constitution generally agreed
that democratic success depends on widespread participation. British philosopher John
Locke (1632–1704) argued that the power of the government comes from the consent of
its citizens and that consent is only possible when the citizenry is informed and engaged.
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), in his more radical moments, called for periodic citizen
uprisings to reinvigorate the spirit of democracy. Much of American history confirms
the importance of citizen participation. Throughout our nation’s history, many Americans
fought long and hard to gain the opportunity to participate in democratic practices that
were previously closed to them.
 globalPerspectives
Declining Social Trust Around the World—Is This the Beginning of a New
Generation of Critical Citizens?

M
Trust in National Government
any factors influence the bonds of trust between
How Much Do You Trust the National Government to
citizens and governments that are vital for effective
Do What Is Right?
governance. The chart above tracks levels of trust
Change in
reported by college-educated adults ages 25 to 64 in the ten 2015 2014 Net Ratings
nations with the largest economies.
Most nations—especially in the West—have surprisingly 37%
Brazil 3
low levels of trust in their national leaders. They seem to have 34%
experienced “a flight from politics, or what the Germans call
82% 29
Politikverdrossenheit: a weakness about its debates, disbelief India
53%
about its claims, skepticism about its results, cynicism about
its practitioners.”* Political scientist Pippa Norris believes 28% 4
Italy
widespread cynicism about government signals the emer- 24%
gence of a new type of “critical citizen, dissatisfied democrats 40% -5
Japan
who adhere strongly to democratic values but who find exist- 45%
ing structures of representative government invented in the 41%
USA 4
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to be wanting. . . .Ӡ But 37%
these younger, well-educated citizens are not apathetic; they
43% 1
are more responsive to nontraditional means of participation United Kingdom
42%
like demonstrations or product boycotts than more traditional
methods like voting because these alternate approaches pro- 49% -2
Canada
mote a greater sense of social solidarity. 51%
50%
Questions: Germany 1
49%
1. What factors do you believe explain generally low levels of
France 42% 10
trust in most of the world’s richest nations? 32%
2. What short-term factors might account for the changes in
each country from 2014 to 2015? China 82%
6
3. Does the graph support Pippa Norris’s arguments? Why or 76%
why not?
0
*Pippa Norris, “Introduction: The Growth of Critical Citizens?” in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical
Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government (New York: Oxford University Press, Source: Edelman Trust Barometer, 2014 and 2015. Accessed on August
1999), 6. See also Ronald Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic,
and Political Change in 43 Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997). 24, 2015, http://www.edelman.com/2015-edelman-trust-barometer-2/
†Norris, 27. trust-and-innovation-edelman-trust-barometer/global-results/

direct initiative Procedure that

enables citizens to place proposals
Many states provide expanded opportunities for citizen participation. A procedure called for laws and amendments directly
“initiative,” available in twenty-four states, enables citizens to draft their own laws and on the ballot for voter approval.
propose constitutional amendments for voter approval if the sponsors of the measure gather indirect initiative Citizen-initiated
enough signatures. There are two types of initiatives: direct initiatives, available in some procedure for placing proposals
states, allow proposals backed by a sufficient number of citizen signatures to go directly on on the ballot, requiring legislative
action before submission to voters.
the ballot; indirect initiatives are first submitted to lawmakers for approval before being
submitted to the voters. Similarly, twenty-four states allow for popular referendum, which popular referendum A device that
allows citizens to approve or repeal
allows citizens to approve or repeal measures already on the books. Legislative referen- measures already acted on by
dum is another form of referendum, available in all fifty states, that requires legislative legislative bodies.
bodies to take some proposed measures directly to the voters for approval before taking legislative referendum Ballot
effect. Changes in state constitutions usually fall into this category. Finally, eighteen states measure aimed at securing voter
permit recall, in which citizens can remove and replace a public official before the end of approval for some legislative
a term. Wisconsin held recall elections in 2012 for several legislators and the governor fol- acts, such as changes to a state’s
lowing an unpopular effort by these political leaders to limit collective bargaining rights for constitution.
public employees. recall Procedure whereby citizens
A free society relies heavily upon the voluntary activities of free individuals outside of can remove and replace a public
official before the end of a term.
government as well. Our nation accomplishes many of its social needs through the work

1 Citizenship • 7

It is estimated that over 61 million
Americans volunteer their time
each year to help those less
fortunate than themselves. (© Dan
Lamont/Corbis via Getty Images)
ideology Ideas, values, and beliefs
about how governments should
operate.
liberal democracy Ideology
stressing individual rights and
expressing faith in popular control
of government.
John Locke (1632–1704) argued
that the power of the government
comes from the consent of its
citizens. (© Bettmann/Corbis via
Getty Images)
8 • AM GOV
of charitable organizations, religious congregations, and profes-
sional groups. Thousands of charities and foundations provide
money and personnel for programs ranging from support for the
arts to sheltering the homeless. Volunteers power these organi-
zations by devoting their time and energy to improve the quality
of life in our communities. As we will see, these organizations
also serve as training grounds for developing the skills we need
to become full and active participants in our nation’s political sys-
tem. Government can encourage civic voluntarism by establishing
networks of volunteers like AmeriCorps, the nation’s domestic
community service program. Though such programs have typi-
cally received strong bipartisan support, some believe that pro-
viding government incentives for volunteering diminishes the
genuine spirit of giving. Whether or not volunteer activities are
sponsored by government, free democratic societies depend on the readiness of individuals
to take the time to get involved. They rely on the leadership skills of citizens to help find
acceptable solutions to problems. They also require adopting a set of principles or ideals that
extol the worth and contributions of citizens.
AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEALS
Ideas, values, and beliefs about how governments should operate are known as ideolo-
gies. Some ideologies like communism, for example, call for an expansive role of gov-
ernment in the everyday life of citizens. Other ideologies, like liberal democracy, the
ideology that guided the Framers of our constitution, call for a more limited role for
government.
In our liberal democracy, the primary role of government is to protect individual rights.
It rests upon three essential notions: natural rights, the formation of a social contract by con-
sent of the governed, and majority rule. The most influential advocate of this ideology was
John Locke. A physician by training, Locke became involved in the politics of Whig radicals
who challenged the authority of the British Stuart monarchy in the late seventeenth century.
These radicals, who favored placing more power into the hands of an elected Parliament,
succeeded in pulling off a bloodless revolution in 1688.
Locke speculated that humans at one time probably had little need for authority because
there was little competition for resources. Resources were plentiful, and most individuals
found ways to avoid conflict. Each individual, to the extent possible, guarded his or her
own life, liberty, and property to which he had a God-granted natural right. Over time,
however, populations grew, creating competition for diminishing resources. Conflicts
over ownership of property led to the need for a neutral arbiter to settle disputes
peacefully. That arbiter was government. Locke believed that free and equal persons
willingly entered into social contracts to establish governments in order to avoid the
“incommodities” of war and conflict with others. On our own, we have a limited capac-
ity to protect our life, liberty, and property. If we band together in government, we
come to each other’s aid in the protection of these natural rights.
In his Second Treatise of Government, Locke articulated the underlying phi-
losophy of liberal democracy.18 He argued that humans are born naturally free
and equal; no one is born subject to another’s will, and no one can control
another without that person’s consent. People place themselves under the
control of a government because of the mutual advantages it offers its
citizens. Under such an arrangement, majority rule provides a reason-
able basis for making decisions. In this way, each member of the com-
munity has an equal voice in decision making, and decisions reflect the
consensus of most citizens. Governments, however, derive authority from
the consent of those who form them, and they hold our allegiance only if
they protect our life, liberty, and property better than we could on our own. If
government becomes a threat to citizens’ rights, the social contract fails, and the people have
the option of dissolving it and beginning anew.
The authors of our Declaration of Independence drew heavily on the ideas of Locke in
drafting that document and making the case for independence from British rule. Ideas alone,
however, do not make history; they must be advanced by proponents with the skills and
determination to see them achieved. American history offers many examples of individuals political participation Taking part
like Susan B. Anthony and Martin Luther King, Jr., who worked tirelessly to bring oppor- in activities, aimed at influencing
the policies or leadership of
tunities for political participation like voting and running for office to a wider and more government.
diverse population than originally envisioned by the Framers.

THE CHANGING FACE OF THE

AMERICAN CITIZENRY
As we seek ways to increase the engagement of today’s citizens, we must be aware that our
citizenry is rapidly becoming older and more diverse. At the same time, the gap between
those with substantial resources and those with few is increasing. Forces of globalization are
intensifying these divisions.

Growing Diversity
When the U.S. Constitution was ratified at the end of the eighteenth century, more than four
million white Europeans and their descendants lived in the United States. (This figure does
not include Native Americans, as estimates of their total population during this period vary
greatly; nor does it include over a half million black slaves and an estimated sixty thousand
free blacks.) Today the U.S. population is 320 million, drawn from all corners of the world.
Hispanic Americans are the nation’s fastest-growing minority group, now making up over
16 percent of the population. African Americans are a close second at about 13 percent, and
Asian Americans represent about 5 percent of the population. A growing number represent
multiethnic roots. Despite the progress
these groups have made in securing civil
rights, many are still not well integrated The People in Your Neighborhood Most
into American civic life.
The U.S. Census Bureau estimates
Likely Look Like You
that minorities from all backgrounds,
now roughly one-third of the U.S. popu- People Who Live in Your Neighborhood: More Racially Diverse,
People
More Alike Who Economically
Live in Your Neighborhood:
(with Growing More Income Racially Diverse,
Segregation)
lation, are expected to become the major-
More Alike Economically (with Growing Income Segregation)
ity in 2042. The combined minority People living in People living in
Living in
population in Texas, California, Hawaii, Living
Racially in
diverse* People living in** Predominantly**
Predominantly People living in
and New Mexico already exceeds Racially
Neighborhoods diverse* Predominantly
Lower Income** Predominantly**Upper Income
Neighborhoods Lower Income
Neighborhoods Upper Income
Neighborhoods
the white non-Hispanic population in Neighborhoods Neighborhoods
these states. 1980 NA 23% 9%
1980 NA 23% 9%
Fifty years ago, just over a third of all 2000 26% NA NA
Americans lived in the suburbs; today 2000 2010
26%
30%
NA
28%
NA
18%
that figure is about 55 percent. Once the 2010 30% 28% 18%
preserve of mostly non-Hispanic whites, Neighborhood ethnic diversity is on the rise, but so is income segregation.
the suburbs today are growing increas- *Data from 50 largest metro areas. Diverse defined as non-white population between 20-60% of pop.
ingly racially and ethnically diverse. *Data Source:
Source:
from 50 largest
Myron
Myron
the Institute
Orfield metro
forOrfield
areas. Luce,
and Thomas
and Thomas
Metropolitan
Diverse defined Racially
America’s
Luce, America’s
Opportunity
as non-white population
Diverse
RaciallyofDiverse
at the University
Suburbs:between
Suburbs:
Minnesota
20-60%
Opportunities
Opportunities
Law School,
andofChallenges.
July 20,and
pop.
Challenges.
2012,
Report of
Reportonof
p. 2. Accessed
According to a recent report, the number the Institute7,for
September Metropolitan
2013 at: Opportunity at the University of Minnesota Law School, July 20, 2012, p. 2. Accessed on
of diverse suburbs in the nation’s fifty September 7, 2013 at:
http://www.law.umn.edu/uploads/e0/65/e065d82a1c1da0bfef7d86172ec5391e/Diverse_Suburbs_FINAL.pdf.
http://www.law.umn.edu/uploads/e0/65/e065d82a1c1da0bfef7d86172ec5391e/Diverse_Suburbs_FINAL.pdf.
largest metropolitan areas increased to **Based on census tracts from 942 metropolitan and metropolitan statistical area.
1,376 in 2010, a 37 percent jump since **Based on census
Source: Paul Taylor tracts from 942
and Richard Fry,metropolitan and metropolitan
The Rise of Residential statistical
Segregation area. Washington, DC: Pew Research
by Income.
2000 with the greatest diversity found Source:Center,
Paul Taylor
Center, August andAccessed
1, 2012. Richard Fry,
on The Rise of Residential
September Segregation by Income. Washington, DC: Pew Research
7, 2013 at http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/08/01/the-rise-of-
August 1, 2012. Accessed on September 7, 2013 at http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/08/01/the-rise-of-
residential-segregation-by-income/.
in the nation’s older suburbs. During the residential-segregation-by-income/.

1 Citizenship • 9
 same period, the share of metropolitan area residents who live in predominantly white
suburbs (more than 80 percent white) slipped from 26 percent to 18 percent. However, the
study also points out that diverse suburbs often have a hard time staying that way as popula-
tions continue to migrate. Many central cities remain racially divided with some minority
groups facing apartheid levels of segregation and civic dysfunction.19
While many neighborhoods may be experiencing greater racial diversity, these same
neighborhoods may be becoming less diverse economically. Largely as a result of growing
income inequality, the share of neighborhoods across the United States that are predomi-
nantly middle class or mixed income had fallen to 76 percent in 2010, down from 85 percent
in 1980. At the same time, the share that are majority lower income had risen to 28 percent
in 2010, up from 23 percent in 1980, and the share of majority upper income neighborhoods
had grown from 9 percent in 1980 to 18 percent in 2010.20 This pattern of growing income
segregation can breed distrust, and it makes it harder to solve some of the social and eco-
nomic problems facing our nation.
The past few decades have also witnessed a greater openness about sexual preferences
that has produced a more politically active gay and lesbian community. In recent years,
same-sex partners have pressed for the same rights as those afforded married couples, and
the Supreme Court has legalized same-sex marriages in the United States. Still, many states
continue to discriminate against LGBT individuals when
it comes to employment, housing, and the use of public
The GRAYING accommodations like access to public housing. The battle

of America by gays for the right to the same protections as heterosex-

uals is likely to continue in a nation increasingly polar-
ized over the role of government in personal choice. In
general, young Americans are more accepting of racial,
ethnic, and gender differences than are their elders.21

Growing Older
The elderly population is expected to double by 2050,
when one in five Americans will be over age 65 (see
“The Graying of America”). The aging of the popula-
tion poses some special problems. The Social Security
and Medicare Boards of Trustees project substantial
shortfalls for Social Security and Medicare as fewer able-
bodied working-age adults work to support the needs of
the growing number of elderly Americans. How will we
meet this growing need for financial support and medi-
cal services? No doubt the elderly, who vote in much
higher numbers than young people, will exert political
Average Annual Growth Rate pressure to keep or even increase their benefits. How will
of the Elderly Population: 1990–2050 the younger generation respond? Given the scale of the
100,000,000
Number of Persons 65+

90,000,000 coming elder boom, will young people still be willing to

80,000,000 support generous government programs that provide for
70,000,000 the needs of elderly Americans?
60,000,000
50,000,000
40,000,000
30,000,000 Growing Apart
20,000,000
10,000,000 When the U.S. Constitution was written, social class
0 divisions among Americans were much more visible
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 than they are today. They manifested themselves through
Age 65–74 Age 75–84 Ages 85+ distinctions in dress, social stature, and political power.
For example, while workmen wore functional clothing of
Projections show Americans living longer and longer lives with fewer
washable unbleached linen, gentlemen regularly sported
workers paying into the social programs that support them. The nation has
not yet tackled how to address this challenge. wool coats and jackets, donning powdered wigs on special
occasions. More than two centuries later, class divisions
Source: © Photodisc/Getty Images RF are not so obvious. According to a recent inquiry into class
10 • AM GOV
 CHALLENGES AHEAD 2017 and Beyond
AFTER MILLENNIALS
Most of today’s college students are part of what has been disparities in wealth. As a result, they may be more career-
termed the Millennial generation. driven and adept at navigating the rapidly changing world
Born between 1984 and the early 2000s, your genera- of the Uber economy in which they work part-time for sev-
tion has been studied and dissected by pollsters, market eral employers simultaneously and are responsible for their
researchers, and politicians perhaps more than any gen- own retirement and medical benefits.
eration before. These entities know your tastes in music, Armed with even more technology and the means for
how to attract your fashion dollars, track your Twitter feeds, instantaneous communication and mass mobilization, how
and know your political preferences and likely voting hab- will this new generation shape your political world? Will they
its. They know how many of you have piercings, sleep with turn further inward and escape into personalized worlds
a cell phone by your bed, live with your parents, and see that connect them only to like-minded thinkers? Or will they
work as only a means and not an end. Much of this informa- use these tools to build bridges across social divides to cre-
tion comes from polling; much more comes from monitoring ate a more robust community of the future?
your communications on social media.
But the Millennial generation is coming to an end.
Demographers are already tracking your successors. The
generation born after 2004 will shape your destiny much as
you will shape the destiny of your elders as you enter the
Move Over Millennials
workforce and take over the reins of power in Washington Millennials Generation Z
and state capitals around the nation. So, what do we think TV Icon Hannah Horvath Alex Dunphy
this post-Millennial generation might look like? “Girls” “Modern Family”
First, they will be even more diverse than your class-
mates. The number of Hispanic Americans, who currently Music Lady Gaga Lorde
have eclipsed African Americans as the largest minority Social Media Facebook Snapchat, Whisper
group, will continue to grow while the percentage of African
Web Star PewDiePie, Lele Pons, Vine
Americans is likely to stay about the same. The number of
YouTube
white Americans will continue to diminish with potentially
important political ramifications. And the number of mixed Style Olsen Twins Tavi Gevinson
race members of this new generation will skyrocket. Influence
Futurists are already speculating about life for young Clothes American Apparel Shop Jeen
people of this new generation, a group some demogra-
First Gadget iPhone iPhone
phers and social scientists have dubbed Homelanders; oth-
ers, Generation Z. This generation grew up in the shadow Personal interests change as the generations change.
of 9/11 and doesn’t recognize a world without strict gov-
ernment security and surveillance mechanisms. For them,
*Life Course Associates. Accessed on September 8, 2013 at http://www
the main purpose of government is to keep us safe.* .lifecourse.com/about/method/def/homeland-generation.html
They have not experienced good times economically, Source: Alex Williams, “Move Over Millennials: Here Comes generation Z,”
only the consequences of investment bubbles and vast The New York Times, September 18, 2015, p. ST 1.

in America, “Today the country has gone a long way toward an appearance of classlessness. . . .
Americans of all sorts are awash in luxuries that would have dazzled their grandparents.
Social diversity has erased many of the old markers.”22
In a world where even the wealthy wear jeans and sweat suits, it is increasingly difficult social class The perceived
to tell someone’s status by looking at his or her clothes. During the boom years at the begin- combination of wealth, income,
ning of this century, easily available credit and the flattening of prices for technology gave education, and occupation that
contributes to one’s status and
many Americans access to high-end consumer items. Today, the percentage of U.S. residents power in society.
with cell phones exceeds 91 percent, and the number of wireless devices in use in America
actually exceeds our total population with many people using more than one device.23
Yet the gap between rich and poor is growing. According to the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, the United States ranks fourth among the organi-
zation’s thirty-four member nations in income inequality and poverty. (Only Mexico, Chile,
and Turkey rank higher.) Rich households in America are leaving behind both middle- and
lower-income groups. The top 10 percent of income earners took home more than half of the
nation’s total income in 2012, with the top 1 percent alone taking in more than one-fifth of all
income, the highest levels recorded since 1913, when the government first started tracking
1 Citizenship • 11
 How Education Makes a Difference in Lifetime
Earnings
Percent Earnings Increase By Education Beyond
High School
300%
250%
200%
150%
100%
50%
0%
Some Associate Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral Professional
College, No Degree Degree Degree Degree Degree
Degree
The American dream has changed based on recent statistics. The lower your education level the less
you earn, yet the more education you pursue, the higher the cost. So the economically disadvantaged
must choose debt or low wages and unfortunately, sometimes end up with both.

Source: College Board, Lifetime Earnings By Education Level. Accessed on November 1, 2015 at http://trends.collegeboard.
org/education-pays/figures-tables/lifetime-earnings-education-level

such data. And the wealthy have recovered much more quickly from the recent recession
than the middle or lower classes, whose incomes have stagnated with few appreciable gains
since the 1970s.24 Moreover, the challenges to climbing the economic ladder are steeper
than many people imagine. In a study comparing nine economically developed countries in
Europe and America, the United States scored lowest on intergenerational upward mobil-
ity, with the possible exception of the United Kingdom.25 One researcher concludes: “the
chances of ending up rich if you were born to a low-income family [in the United States]
are on the order of just one percent.”26 These are the types of concerns that helped fuel the
Occupy Wall Street movement over the past few years and gave rise to support for candi-
dates like Bernie Sanders in the 2016 presidential campaign.
Throughout much of the twentieth century, many working-class Americans could count
on a career in one of the nation’s skilled industries like steel or auto manufacturing. Labor
unions organized workers in these fields, enhancing their job security and income and pro-
pelling them into the middle classes. Over the past thirty years, however, employers have
transferred many of these jobs overseas where they can employ cheaper labor. Between 2000
and 2010 alone, the United States lost more than five million manufacturing jobs, amounting
to nearly one-third of its manufacturing employment.27 While there are signs that the pace of
job loss in manufacturing may be slowing, it is increasingly clear that the well-paying jobs of
the future for American citizens will emphasize high levels of financial acumen, technologi-
cal proficiency, and creativity. This shift places great emphasis on access to education for
career advancement and financial security. (See chart on How Education Makes a Difference
in Lifetime Earnings.) At the same time, however, the cost of a college education is skyrock-
eting while government resources to help students cover those costs are shrinking.
Social class adds another dimension to our consideration of civic engagement. We will see
in forthcoming chapters that political activity is not spread evenly across all social classes.
Those who vote, run for office, contribute to political campaigns, and engage in a wide array
of political and civic activities are disproportionately individuals with more wealth. As a
result, the wealthy are more likely to be heard by political actors in the corridors of power.

THE FUTURE OF CITIZENSHIP

A number of ideas are surfacing about how we might alter and improve the civic engagement
and political participation of American citizens today. Some states now require students
to perform community service in order to graduate from high school. More colleges and

12 • AM GOV
 Reasons for Not Voting, 18- to 24-Years-Olds
Too busy, conflicting schedule

Illness or disability

Other reason

Registration problems

Transportation problems

Inconvenient polling place

0 5 10 15 20 25
Percent

There are many reasons young people fail to vote. Among them are busy schedules, failure to register, and living away from home.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, November 2012.

universities are turning to student service learning programs as a legitimate educational service learning
experience. Will service learning eventually reconstruct the social capital that many believe programs Agencies that
will reinvigorate political participation? Or will it contribute to a growing sense that political help connect volunteers with
organizations in need of help.
solutions to social problems are futile? A recent poll found that Americans overwhelmingly
support policies designed to support public or community service. But a majority—
especially those younger than 30 like some of those we met in the opening vignette—felt the
best way to make positive change was through community volunteerism rather than through
engagement with the political process.28 While public service is laudatory, the fact that it
might displace political participation is troubling. As some have said, young people seem to
be running away from politics rather than running for office.

citizenshipQuiz
Can you pass the U.S. Citizenship Test? See how well you know the content in this
chapter covered on the citizenship test required of foreign-born candidates for
naturalization.

1. Name one responsibility that is only for U.S. citizens.

2. Name one right of only U.S. citizens.
3. Name two rights of everyone living in the United States.

(3) Freedom of expression, speech, assembly, petition, and worship; right to bear arms.
(2) Vote in a federal election, run for federal office.
(1) Serve on a jury, vote in federal elections.

Source: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services.

1 Citizenship • 13

Political leaders have had dramatic success using social media like Twitter and live feeds from their
websites as President Obama has done, to engage Americans in political and civic activism. (© Saul Loeb/ increase voter participation—
AFP/Getty Images)
civic engagement Involvement in
any activity aimed at influencing
the collective well-being of the
community.
Perhaps the alienation many
young people feel from poli-
tics can be eased by changes
in our political system and
in our electoral processes.
Participation improves when
government agencies become
more open, when participation
is made more accessible, and
when a range of political and
nonpolitical associations mobi-
lize citizens to take action. For
example, a majority of young
people find they are simply too
busy on Election Day to get to
the polls (see the accompany-
ing figure for reasons why
young people don’t vote).
Perhaps, declaring Election
Day a legal holiday might
help solve this dilemma and
especially among the young.
Or, like in Oregon, elections
can be conducted entirely by mail. Making voter registration easier would also help.
Citizens in 11 states and the District of Columbia can register the same day they vote
instead of meeting registration deadlines weeks or months ahead. Expanding this prac-
tice could boost turnout substantially. Schools must do a much
better job of educating students about their civic responsibili-
ties so they will see political involvement not as a chore or a
get involved!

Find out how your civic engagement level

choice but as an opportunity to enhance their own lives and
measures against that of students from around
those of their families and communities. Political parties and
the country. Take the Civic Engagement candidates can help increase participation by speaking more
Quiz from The Center for Information and directly to the issues that impact young voters and by extend-
Research on Civic Learning and Engagement. ing their reach through the use of social media.
Technological change is altering the way we conduct politics
It is available on the center’s website at
in this country. Most political leaders and candidates maintain
https://www.uco.edu/academic-affairs/adp/ Facebook pages and Twitter feeds. YouTube videos instan-
files/images/CIRCLE%20Engagement%20 taneously record and magnify the actions of the candidates—
Quiz.pdf. You can score sometimes to their chagrin. And the Web now has a proven track
record as a fundraising tool.
yourself and compare
And technology is having a dramatic impact on civic
your level of activity engagement as well. Community groups are finding new and
to a national sample innovative ways to use social media to engage citizens in com-
of students from munity efforts ranging from recycling and community beautifica-
tion to economic development and locating housing for those in
around the country.
need. Millions of dollars were raised to help victims of Hurricane
Sandy in 2012 through the use of mobile devices, and relatives
relied heavily on social media to locate loved ones and put them
in touch with first responders.
We will discuss many of these ideas and more for enhancing
civic and political involvement throughout this text. The most
important ideas for improving civic engagement may not yet
have been discovered. That is where you come in. As you con-
sider your place in the social fabric of America, we hope you
will share your ideas with your class, your community, and your
political leaders. In the process, you will be helping to shape the
(© Getty RF) way our democracy functions and fulfilling your role as citizen.

14 • AM GOV
Thinking It Through
Learning Objective: Evaluate the significance of demographic changes in the
United States.

How will demographic changes, especially those related to the ethnic composition
and age distribution of the American population, impact the Millennial generation as
it approaches middle age? Based on the current projections noted in this chapter,
how will these changes impact the composition of future political leadership and what
specific changes in public policy might these demographic changes bring about?

Summary
1. What kinds of civic involvement fuel
democracies?
• Citizens can contribute to the civic life of democracy by
participating in voluntary associations that build social
capital, or bonds of trust among citizens, and by par-
ticipating in the political process that fuels our form of
government.
• Ours is a representative democracy that allows us to
choose and hold accountable leaders who make our
laws and policies, thereby enabling us to share in the
exercise of political power. In some states individuals
are given additional powers like initiative, referendum,
and recall, which permit a more direct exercise of dem-
ocratic control.
• There is debate about how power is dispersed in
America. Some claim it is exercised almost exclusively
by the wealthy while others believe it is widely dis-
persed among many competing groups with overlapping
membership. What is clear is that since those who are
well off are more knowledgeable about and more active
in political life, their voices are more likely to be heard
in the corridors of power than those of average citizens.
three essential notions: natural rights, the formulation
of a social contract by the consent of the governed, and
majority rule.
• Natural rights include the right to life, liberty, and prop-
erty. Because these rights are protected, they cannot be
denied to any citizen by majority wishes.
• Our Constitution embodies the notion of popular con-
sent and works best when citizens are informed and
actively involved in various forms of political participa-
tion, like voting and running for office.
3. What are some changes and challenges facing
America today?
• We are growing more diverse as racial and eth-
nic minorities constitute a larger proportion of our
citizenry.
• We are growing older, a challenge that will make it
increasingly difficult to fund programs for the elderly
from a smaller population of younger workers.
• We continue to reflect the divisions of class as those
with fewer resources and less education fall further
behind economically.

2. What ideals fuel American democracy?

• American democracy gets its inspiration from the
liberal democratic views of John Locke and rests on

1 Citizenship • 15
 Chapter 2
The Constitution
The Foundation of Citizens’ Rights

WHAT’S TO COME
17 The Foundations of American Democracy
21 The Birth of a Nation
25 Constitutional Principles
28 Constitutional Construction
29 The Fight for Ratification
33 Constitutional Change
37 The Constitution and Civic Engagement
Today

A COUPLE’S FIGHT FOR

CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS
“Today, for the first time, any couple — straight,
lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender — may
obtain a marriage license and make their com-
James Obergefell shown here after the Supreme Court decision to strike down
mitments public and legal in all 50 states. the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA). (© AP Photo/Andrew Harnik)
America has taken one more step toward the
promise of equality enshrined in our Constitution, and I’m humbled to be part of that.”1 Those are the words of
James Obergefell, whose landmark case before the U.S. Supreme Court resulted in the legalization of same-sex
marriages throughout the United States.
The case brought to an end a long ordeal. Jim Obergefell and John Arthur began seeing each other in 1993.
Shortly thereafter, they decided to make a life together in Cincinnati. In 2011, John was diagnosed with ALS. His
condition quickly deteriorated and he was confined to bed under Jim’s care. Local ordinances, Ohio statutes,
and a federal law called the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which allowed states to deny the recognition of
same-sex marriages performed in other states, all made marriage for the couple impractical. Then, in 2013, the
Supreme Court struck down the federal legislation but permitted states, like Ohio, to decide whether they would
permit same-sex marriages in their states. Given the impossibility of marriage in Ohio, the couple set out in a
hospital jet for Maryland, a state where same-sex marriages were legal.
 Back in Cincinnati after they wed, the couple began thinking about what would happen when John died. The
state of Ohio would likely not recognize Jim as a surviving spouse and would issue a death certificate indicating the
deceased was single. This was unacceptable for the couple and they fought—and won—a suit to have their mar-
riage recognized by the state. Shortly thereafter, however, the state appealed and this set in motion a long record
of appeals of their case and similar cases in other states that eventually culminated in a victory for their cause at the
Supreme Court in June 2015 in the case known as Obergefell v. Hodges. The victory would come too late for John,
however. He died in April 2013.2

As You READ
• What factors contributed to the need for a Constitutional Convention?
• What are the basic principles that inform our Constitution?
• In what ways does constitutional change occur?

In his majority opinion, Justice Kennedy wrote that the right to marry is a fundamental liberty enshrined in
the Constitution’s inherent concept of individual autonomy which protects an individual’s decision to enter into
intimate association with others. There is no difference between same-sex and opposite sex unions in these
matters. “The right to marry,” he wrote, “is a fundamental right inherent in the liberty of the person, and under
the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment couples of the same sex may not
be deprived of that right and that liberty. Same-sex couples may exercise the fundamental right to marry.”3
The legal victory for same-sex couples was unimaginable at the time of the writing of the Constitution when
homosexuality was seen as a moral failing and same-sex relations were punishable by death in many colonies. But
the roots of the 2015 Obergefell decision nevertheless lie buried in our founding documents and the changes that
have been incorporated into our Constitution since. The Framers enshrined in the document Enlightenment ideals
of protecting individual rights. But they also provided mechanisms for change that allow the document to meet the
challenges of changing times. In this chapter you will learn about both constitutional ideals and the mechanisms
that have expanded its application and meaning over time.
It is the possibility of constant renewal while maintaining fidelity to its basic principles that has contributed to the
Constitution’s endurance and given new life to the aspirations of people like James Obergefell and John Arthur. As
Justice Kennedy writes about their quest to marry:
Their plea is that they do respect it [marriage], respect it so deeply that they seek to find its fulfillment for
themselves. Their hope is not to be condemned to live in loneliness, excluded from one of civilization’s old-
est institutions. They ask for equal dignity in the eyes of the law. The Constitution grants them that right.4 ■

THE FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN

DEMOCRACY
During the first 150 years of English settlement in America, the colonists gave little
thought to independence. They focused on survival, which included developing and nur-
turing institutions of local self-government. Only when the British government looked to
the colonies for financial support did relations between the Crown and the colonies sour
and, aided by the agitation of radicals, deteriorate to the point of revolution.

2 The Constitution • 17
 Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607, failed as a mining town but became a training ground for self-rule. (© Northwind Picture Archives—
All Rights Reserved)
House of Burgesses The first
legislative assembly in the
American colonies.
18 • AM GOV
Early Colonization
The first permanent British colony in North America was Jamestown, founded in 1607 by
the Virginia Company of London for the purpose of developing trade and mining gold. In
order to regulate and protect the colony, the settlers formed a government consisting of a
president and seven-member council. By 1619, colonists created an assembly known as the
House of Burgesses, the nation’s first legislative body. Composed of representatives elected
from among the settlers, it imbued the settlers with an ardor for self-rule. Unfortunately for the
company, there was no gold, and harsh conditions coupled with conflicts with native popula-
tions hampered trade. The Crown took control of the failing colony in 1624, replacing the
president with a royal governor. The House of Burgesses, however, survived the king’s efforts
to abolish it.
A year after the House of Burgesses was created, forty-one religious dissenters
called Puritans established a permanent settlement in the area of modern-day Plymouth,
Massachusetts. The Puritans rejected attempts by both the Catholic pope and the king of
England to dictate religious doctrine or belief. Because of this stance, they found them-
selves barred from many professional positions that required membership in the official
Church of England. Despairing of reform from within the church, they chose to estab-
lish foreign religious outposts of their own. En route to the New World, these dissent-
ers entered into an agreement for self-government, known as the Mayflower Compact.
Under this document, the settlers pledged to “constitute, and frame such just and equal
laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices . . . as shall be thought most meet and
convenient for the general good of the colony. . . .” The Compact served as a model for
other colonies and gave early settlers a taste for self-government that went uncontested
by the British for years.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Marsdenia Leichhardti, native pear, 152
Marsilea quadrifolia, nardoo, 150
mastoid process, 29
maternity, peculiar belief concerning, 62
medicine man, 179-182, 264, 265, 273, 294;
attends council meeting, 225, 226;
treating a patient, 181, 182
meeting an Australian tribe, 3
Melophorus inflatus, honey ant, 146
Melville Islanders, 77, 93, 144, 159, 161, 163, 192, 207, 238,
249, 309, 310, 323, 373, 380
“memba,” a feather wig, 50
mental foramen, 29
Menuaitja, marriage group, 220
“merliadda,” fire walking, 236
migrations of early man, 56
“mika,” a bark food carrier, 92
mika operation, 245-249
milk squirted at strangers, 228
milk and charcoal rubbed over newly-born child, 65
Milky Way, 332, 349, 350
Milk-bush, 387
mimicry, powers of, 371
“mingul,” pitjuri, 155
Minning Tribe, 4, 170, 218, 220, 260, 270, 334
“miri,” hand mill-stone, 361
modesty, sense of, 107
“moiranje,” a pubic tassel, 114
molars, 32
Mollinya ceremony, 250
Mongarrapungja, head of the Kukadja, 292, 293
Mongoloid migration, 56, 59
moon legends, 267-269
moon man, 267, 268
monkeys, appreciation of, by aborigines, 89, 90
mopoke, 386
“moru” (Tephrosia), a fish poison, 139
mothers charged with callousness, 65
mourning, customs of, 208-215;
second period of, 214
mourning ceremony, comic imitation of, 380
mouth, 31-33
mud-balling, 75
mud slides, 73, 74
mulga apple, 152
Mulluk Mulluk Tribe, 4, 25, 112, 197, 206, 365, 404
mummies, 208
munyeroo, 149, 150
Muramura, the Supreme Number, 271
Murchison district, type of spear-thrower of, 200
Musgrave Ranges, 48, 97, 102, 108, 109, 127, 143, 146, 151,
155, 329, 332, 360
music and dance, 371-385
music sticks, 374, 375, 379, 380
mussel (Unio), 121;
knife used for “cutting the shadow,” 175
mutilations, after return of circumcision candidate, 243;
after mika operation, 248;
amputation of finger joints, 253, 254;
at mourning ceremonies, 209, 210, 211, 213;
head biting, 245;
of female, 255, 256;
upon receipt of sad news, 210

N
Nangali, a mythical water-man, 264
“nangarri,” the medicine man, 179, 180, 181, 182, 264, 265,
273, 294;
treating a patient, 181, 182
nardoo, 150
Narrinyerri Tribe, 4, 95, 169, 200, 214, 296
naso-labial folds, 27
native pear (Marsdenia) design, 351, 353
native well, 96
Nature worship, 257
“naualla,” cicatrices, 238
navigation, 158-164
Neanderthal skeleton, 15, 23, 24, 25
Needlebush (Hakea lorea), 98, 111
negative chin, 29
negative words, 398
Negroid, 15, 28, 29, 34, 56, 59
newly-born infant, treatment of, 64, 65
“ngadanji,” tjuringa of phallic significance, xi
Ngadeja marriage group, 220
Ngameni Tribe, xiv, 4, 82, 155, 205, 237, 361, 362
Ngardaddi, a mythical fire thief, 261, 262
“ngongu nerbai,” a stone spear-head, 370
“nimmerima,” an emu-spear, 139
nomenclature, defining the individual, 216-218;
connected with marriage system, 218, 219
Northern Territory tribes, 76, 108, 112, 115, 116, 126, 128, 129,
130, 131, 132, 138, 142, 151, 174, 190, 195, 196, 197, 200,
201, 202, 208, 209, 211, 237, 253, 286, 313, 320, 323, 336,
349, 365, 367, 373, 374, 379, 405
Northern Kimberleys tribes, 77, 82, 86, 92, 95, 97, 109, 116,
125, 131, 139, 151, 173, 195, 200, 206, 208, 214, 232, 244,
249, 256, 284, 288, 311, 313, 330, 340, 343, 360, 367
nose, 26-28;
boring of septum, 230, 231
nuclei, stone, 364
Nullarbor Plains tribes, 169, 251
numerals, 396, 397
Nyege, Supreme Spirit, 295
Nymphaea stellata, blue water lily, 151
 O
Obesity, 6
occipital bone, 39
ochre drawings, at ceremonials, 325, 326;
on bark, 323;
on the body, 324, 325, 326;
on weapons, 323, 324
ochre, smeared over corpse, 208;
over emissaries at initiation, 254;
over infant, 65;
over initiate in tooth-rapping ceremony, 234;
over initiate in circumcision ceremony, 241;
over sacred stone, 291;
preparation of for barter, 113, 318;
preparation as a pigment, 318, 319
ointments, 115
“oladda,” bark food-carrier, 65
“omelette” of emu egg, 125, 126
Ooldea, 48
operating knife, 242, 364, 365
opossums, carried on the head, 88;
hunting of, 140, 141;
suckled by gin, 91
orbita, 25, 26
orders of the day, 91
“oridja,” truffle, 151
origin of aboriginal, 52
orthognathism, 29
os inca, 35
outriggers, 164
oven-stones, 360, 361

P
paddles, 163
Pandanus cider, 153, 154
Panunga marriage group, 220
“parapara,” nardoo, 150
parietal bone, 35
“parli,” the north-western form of wanningi, 356
Parnkalla Tribe, 4, 199
patting the chest, a form of salutation, 3
“päuya,” native pear, 152
pearl shell coverings, 115, 313, 355
peroneus muscle, 12
perspective, generally absent in drawings, 334, 338, 339
pets kept in camp, 88
“peturr,” pitjuri, 155
phallic worship, x, xi, 282-292
phallus, 249, 283-292;
water producing, 264
philosophical instincts, 116, 117
Pidunga Tribe, 4, 317
pigmentation of skin, 41-43, 59
pitch, changing of, while rendering a song, 376, 377
pitchi, bark food-carrier, 92
Pithecanthropus, 15, 55
pitjuri, 113, 139, 155, 156, 157
piturine, 157
placenta, 64
platform burial, 207, 208
platycnemia, 15
platypus design, 304, 306
playing “father and mother,” 79
playing stick, 82
Pleistocene gravels, 53
plover, the “rainmaker,” 70, 265;
imitating call of stone plover, 379;
origin of its name, 386
plurality, expression of, 400
“pointing” the bone, 174-178
Ponga Ponga Tribe, 4, 88, 112, 184, 197, 198, 365
Port George IV, 65, 94, 238, 283, 310
Port Hedland carvings, 299-303, 329
Port Jackson carvings, 299, 300
portulaca, 147
positive chin, 29
“pot-belly,” 21
pounders, stone, 360
pregnancy, artificial interference with, 64
“prelja,” manna, 147
premolars, 33
prepuse, resection of, 242
“primitive snout,” 27
prognathism, 28
pronouns, 401-403
prostitutes, 223
pubic coverings, 114, 115, 243, 249, 313
“puli,” stone used in tooth-rapping ceremony, 236
Pultara marriage group, 220
“purra,” phallus, 287
Purula marriage group, 220
“putta ildurra,” stone dagger, 172
Psylla, 147

Q
Queensland, 50, 53, 80, 84, 94, 102, 104, 124, 131, 137, 155,
163, 190, 208, 299, 308, 316, 362

R
radius selected for “bone,” 215
rafts, 158-160
rainmakers, 264, 265
“rattappa,” foetal elements, 287, 291
rattles, boab nuts, sea shells, and gum leaves, 374
red-hot coal placed on forearm, 87, 88
reed spear, 171, 194
religious ideas, 257-296
repetition of action, verbally expressed, 397, 398
retouche, 370
rhinal fissure, 39
rhythm, 372, 377, 383
River Murray Tribes, 66, 100, 102, 108, 114, 121, 160, 169, 192,
195, 200, 208, 213, 310, 313, 365, 367, 373
rivers, extinct in Australia, 59
rock carvings, 299-308
rock shelter, 322
Roebuck Bay, 170
Roper River Tribe, 153, 197, 249, 270, 287
Roth, Dr. Walter, 48, 80, 84
Rukkutta, a tribal ancestor, 291

S
sacral bone, 9
sacred ceremonies, 273 et seq.;
ceremonial object (“tjilbakuta”), 276, 278, 280;
emu tjuringa, 274 et seq.;
“kwatje” tjuringa, 274
sacred ground of tjuringa, 272, 273
sacred ground drawing, “Etominja,” 282
sacred pole, “Djundagalla,” 248, 249;
 stored in hut, 266
sagittal suture, 35
Salsola kali, 76
salutations, 105, 106, 404
Sarcostemma, 387
saw fish, 131
scars (tribal), 236-238
scaphocephaly, 34, 35
Schweinfurth, Prof. G., 306
Scleroderma, 152
scrapers, stone, 363-367;
slate, 366
sepulchral caves, 214
sex worship, 257, 282, 289-292
shell-fish, 122
shelters, 101-105
Sherait Tribe, 130, 365
shield, 173, 188
ship-of-war, corrobboree of, 382, 383
shoulder-blade, 16
sibilant sounds, 402
sign language, 388-394
singing, ensemble, 384;
the words of a conversation, 385
sitting, methods of, 106
skeins of fur-string used during dance, 373
skeleton of aboriginal, 5-16, 21-37
skeleton, imitation of, in body decoration, 325
skin, colour of, 40-45
skin drums, 373, 374
skin water bags, 94, 95
skins used by southern tribes, 100, 114
skipping, 83
skull, 34 et seq.;
capacity of, 37
sky-shying act, 238, 239
sleep, order during, 101;
position during, 105
Smith, Dr. Ramsay, 15, 16, 34
Smith, Dr. S. A., 53, 54
smoking ceremony, 253
snails, 121
snakes, 126;
mythical, 269
songs, 377-385;
imitating natural call-notes, 377 et seq.
Spartan principles, 87
spears, 190-198;
carefully stored, 112, 113;
heavy, 172, 173;
poisoned, 198;
reed, 171, 194, 195;
 stone-bladed, 367;
stone-headed, 196;
types figured, 191;
uses of, 190
spear-head, stone, 367-370;
method of making, 368-370
spear-throwers, 199-202
spine, curvature of, 7;
effect of upright attitude upon, 8;
effect of tree-climbing upon, 13;
proportional lengths of vertebræ and cartilaginous discs, 8;
smallness of vertebræ, 9
Spinifex, 76
spokeshave, stone, 365
squamous portion of temporal bone, 36
still-born children, 205
Stirling, Dr. E. C., 15
Stokes, Lort, 105
stone age in Australia, 58, 59, 359
stone-covered huts, 103
stone implements, 359-370
Strehlow, Rev. Carl, x
subincision, 245-249;
sensual excitement at, 248
sulcus lunatus, 38
Sunday Islanders, 65, 66, 78, 82, 84, 89, 93, 117, 176, 295, 331,
355, 368, 397, 398, 401, 403, 404
sun-men, 267
sun worship, 265-267
superlative expressions, 399
Supreme Spirit, xi, 400

T
“takul,” mulga apple, 152
Talgai skull, 33, 53
Talleri, the eternal home of all spirits, 296
“taralje,” a spear-thrower, 200
Tasmania, separated from the mainland, 119
Tasmanians, 14, 15, 16, 28, 31, 34, 35, 37, 49
“tchewa,” flat stone of hand-mill, 361
“tdela,” head-dress, 280
Tecoma Australis, 195, 196
teeth, 31
temperament, 229
Tennants Creek, calvarium, 53;
the home of Kukadja men, 285
Tephrosia, a poison plant, 139
terminal syllables, 398, 399
the day’s march, 91-99
Therapon, drawing of, 328
thigh bone, 14, 15
third trochanter, 15
thorns, removal of in camp, 117, 118
throwing competition, 78
thunder, 387
tibialis posticus muscle, 16
time, beating of, 372, 373;
fixing of, 395;
representation of, 351
“tip-cat,” 78
“tjilbakuta,” a sacred ceremonial object, 276, 278, 280
“tjilba-purra,” a phallus, embodied in head-gear, 287;
Altjerra-Knaninja drawing, 327
Tjingali Tribe, 4, 308
“tjulu,” a stone operating knife, 242
tjuringa, 217, 311;
Altjerra-Kutta, 291;
acting as a talisman, 273;
carried by initiation emissaries, 242;
carved stone, 309;
caterpillar, 350, 352, 353;
ceremonies, 274 et seq.;
in the sky, 334;
inspirited by a deity, 270;
kangaroo, 349, 352;
mythical origin of Kunapippi, 271;
native pear, 351, 353;
 of sun ceremony, 265, 266;
produced at female initiation ceremony, 255;
stored in sacred caves, 272, 343;
witchedy grub, 348;
yam pattern, 337
Tjurrega marriage group, 220
“tjutanga,” tooth-rapping rod, 236
“toki,” a waterlily, 151
tomahawks, stone, 362, 363
Tomkinson Ranges, 48, 67, 114, 143, 227
tooth-ache, 32
tooth pick, 32
tooth-pointed spear-thrower, 201
tooth-rapping ceremonies, 231-236;
“antjuarra,” 235, 236;
gum forced back with finger nail, 235;
knocking the tooth out, 235
tops, 83
“totem,” xi, 219, 226, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 280, 282,
285, 339, 340, 341, 351, 353
“totem,” ancestors, 274;
ceremonies, 274;
food and hunting restrictions, 273
“totemic” designs, 339-343, 346, 351, 352, 353
Toxotes, drawing of, 328
toys, 79 et seq.
toy, boomerang, 82;
dart, 82;
raft, 82;
spears, 81, 194;
weapons, 80, 81
tracks, drawn in sand, 71-73;
representations of, 347-349
tree-climbing, 12-14, 123, 124;
competitions in, 75, 76
tree-felling by fire, 124, 141
Triassic period, 56
tribal organizations, 216-224
tribal husbands, 224
tribal law, 226
Trigonia in Australia, 58, 59
truffle (Scleroderma), 151, 152
trumpets, bamboo, 375, 376, 379
tubera frontalia, 35
Tukura, a great Spirit, 295, 296, 356
Tukurata, the Supreme Number, 271
Tukutita, the Supreme Number, 271
“turapitti,” artificial fire-flies, 376
Turbo undulata, 122
turtle, eggs, 126;
hunting, 132, 133, 160
turtle designs, 335, 346
Tutrarre, a mythical dog, 267
twins, 63, 64

U
Ullbönnalenna water hole, 97
“ullyinga,” witchedy hook, 125
Ulparidja group, 48
umbilical cord, treatment of, 64
Unio, 121
Unio pictorum, 319
upright attitude, see spine, 7 et seq.
urethrotomia, 245-249
“utnguringita” or witchedy grub drawings, 341-343
u-within-u designs, 351, 352, 353

V
Veddahs, 25, 58
vegetable diet, 148-152
vegetable down, 275, 276
venesection, 275
verbs, conjugations of, 400, 401
vermin-proof platform larders, 105
Victoria River tribes, 62, 75, 76, 77, 103, 105, 128, 146, 211,
243, 253, 266, 285, 292, 319, 321, 323, 325, 326, 332, 336,
367, 373, 375
Victorian basalts, human bones beneath, 54
vocal productions, 376 et seq.
 W
waddies, 168 et seq.
“wadua,” white vegetable-down, 276
“wagal-wagal,” a tjuringa, 270
walking, 12;
in single file, 118
wallaby, hunting of, 141
“waketo,” munyeroo, 150
“wanjerra,” red vegetable down, 276
“wanna,” yam sticks, 148
wanningi, 240, 244, 356, 357
Waraka, a spirit father, 287
war council, 184
warfare, 183-189
“warrakinna,” pitjuri, 155
Warramunga Tribe, 4, 92
Warrupu, a Minning ancestor, 260
Warrida-jinna (eagle hawk’s claw), Southern Cross, 349
Warrnambool footprints, 54
water, in Currajong, Bloodwood and Needlebush, 98;
supplies guarded against pollution, 97;
transported by women, 91, 92
water carriers, 92-95
water ceremonies, 274
water legend, 263, 264
water mallee, Eucalyptus dumosa, 98
water men, “atoa kwatje,” 264, 265
water lily tubers, 151
water supplies, 96, 97
weaning of children, 66
Wellington caves, 54
Wenoinn, a Minning ancestor, 260
white ants added to acacia flour, 150, 151
“white blackfellow,” 42
Wickham River, 248
“widida,” native truffle, 151
widow, 212-214;
claimed by deceased husband’s brother, 213;
cutting off of hair, 213;
re-opening scalp wound, 213;
skull caps of gypsum, 213
“wilpa,” a wallaby, 141
“winudtharra,” honey ant, 147
Winyeru, initiation ceremony, 242, 248
“wirrauwa,” a bark bucket, 94
Wirrewarra, the eternal home of all Spirits, 296
witchedy grub, 122, 123, 124, 125;
sacred drawings of, 341-343;
“totemic” designs, 351-352
witchedy hook, 124, 125
Wogait Tribe, 4, 62, 83, 109, 116, 130, 131, 139, 170, 196, 197,
198, 201, 208, 243, 244, 332, 365, 374, 379
woman, corrobboree of, 383
wombat hunt, 141
women, the recognized carriers, 112
Womma, the Milky Way, 350
wommera, spear-thrower, 180, 199-202
Wongapitcha Tribe, 3, 4, 47, 48, 67, 92, 95, 111, 114, 121, 122,
147, 151, 152, 153, 155, 184, 200, 205, 218, 235, 236, 242,
255, 259, 349, 361, 396, 398
Wongkanguru Tribe, 4, 83, 121, 155, 361, 362
Woods, Rev. Tenison, 43
Wordaman Tribe, 4, 201, 248
words derived from natural phenomena, 386, 387;
imitating natural sounds, 386
Worma Kadiabba, a mythical snake’s head, 269
Wormian bones, 35
Worora Tribe, 4, 94, 116, 176, 238, 310, 321, 343, 361, 369
“Wubbi, wubbi, wubbi, wau!”, the voice of the bull-roarer, 241,
242
Wulna Tribe, 196

X
Xanthorrhœa, grass tree, used in emu hunting, 140;
flower stalk used for spear shaft, 195

Y
yam ceremony, 280
yams, 151