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Math 7350: Differential Graded Algebras and
Differential Graded Categories

Taught by Yuri Berest

Notes by David Mehrle

dmehrle@math.cornell.edu

Cornell University
Spring 2017

Last updated August 16, 2017.

The latest version is online here.
Contents

1 Introduction: “Handwaving” 4
1.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Some Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 The Role of Derived Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

I Quivers and Gabriel’s Theorem 8

2 Quivers 9
2.1 Path Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Representations of Quivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Homological Properties of Path Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Gabriel’s Theorem 23
3.1 Representation Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Algebraic Group Actions on a Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 (Practical) Algebraic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Back to quivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 Modules over Hereditary Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Classification of graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7 Root Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8 Proof of Gabriel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4 Generalizations of Gabriel’s Theorem 52

4.1 Tame Representation Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Kac’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Hall Algebra of a Quiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Quantum groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 Multilocular Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

1
II Differential Graded Algebras & Hochschild Homology 61
5 Differential Graded Algebras 62
5.1 Differential Graded Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2 Algebraic de-Rham theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6 Hochschild Homology 72
6.1 Hochschild Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2 Tor interpretation of Hochschild homology . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.3 Koszul Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.4 (Formal) Smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.4.1 Grothendieck’s notion of smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.4.2 Quillen’s notion of smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.5 Proof of Hochschild-Kostant-Rosenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.5.1 The antisymmetrizer map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.5.2 The case n = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.5.3 The general case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.6 Noncommutative Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

7 Higher Hochschild Homology 95

7.1 Some Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2 PROPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.3 Higher Hochschild Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.4 Homotopy Theory of Simplicial groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.5 Representation Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

8 Quillen Homology 105

8.1 Model Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2 Quillen Homology and Cyclic Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.2.1 Quillen Homology of Simplicial Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.2.2 Quillen Homology of Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.3 André-Quillen Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.4 Automorphic Sets and Quandles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.4.1 Topological Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.4.2 Quillen Homology of Racks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.4.3 Rack (co)homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

III Differential Graded Categories 130

9 Differential Graded Categories 131
9.1 DG functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2 The DG category of small DG categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

2
 9.3 DG-modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.3.1 Examples of DG-modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

10 Model Categories Interlude 141

10.1 Cofibrantly generated model categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.2 Quillen’s Small Object Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
10.3 Applications of the Small Object Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.3.1 Promoting Model Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.3.2 Recognition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

11 The category of DG-categories 151

11.1 Model Structure on dgCatk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

12 Bibliography 156

3
Chapter 1

Introduction: “Handwaving”

1.1 References
All of these are linked to on the course webpage. We will frequently refer to the
notes from two previous courses, Homological Algebra [HA1] and Homotopical
Algebra [HA2]. For references on DG categories, see [Kel06, Kel93, Dri04, Toë11,
Toë11, Tab05b, Tab05a, Kon98].

1.2 Some Definitions

Let A be a unital associative algebra over a field k. Let A = Mod(A), the
category of (left or right) modules over A.

Definition 1.2.1. Let Com(A) be the category of complexes in A, that is, an

object inCom(A) is a complex C• , that is, a diagram in A

dn dn+1 dn+2
··· Cn Cn+1 Cn+2 ···

with d ∈ Mor(A) and dn+1 ◦ dn = 0 for all n. A morphism f• : C• → D• of

complexes is a collection of fn ∈ Mor(A) such that the following commutes.

dn dn+1
··· Cn Cn+1 Cn+2 ···
fn fn+1 fn+2
dn dn+1
··· Dn Dn+1 Dn+2 ···

Definition 1.2.2. The cohomology of a complex C• is the complex H• (C), with

Hn (C) = ker(dn )/ im(dn−1 ). Cohomology defines a functor on complexes.

4
The Role of Derived Categories 25 January, 2016

We want to study cohomology of complexes, rather than the complexes

themselves. So we need to get rid of the “irrelevant information.”

Definition 1.2.3. A morphism f• : C• → D• is called a quasi-isomorphism

∼
=
(weak equivalence) if H(f• ) : H• (C) −→ H• (D).

Definition 1.2.4. The derived category D (Mod(A)) is the localization of Com(A)

at the quasi-isomorphisms,

D (Mod(A)) := Com(A)[Qis−1 ].

Here, Qis is the class of all quasi-isomorphisms.

Remark 1.2.5 (Universal property of the derived category). The pair

 
D (Mod(A)), Q : Com(A) → D (Mod(A))

is universal among all pairs (D, F : Com(A) → D) where D is an additive

category and F(f) is an isomorphism for all f ∈ Com(A).

F
Com(A) D

Q F
D (Mod(A))

Example 1.2.6.

H(−)
Com(A) Com(A)

Q H(−)
D (Mod(A))

1.3 The Role of Derived Categories

Derived categories have appeared in. . .

(1) Algebraic Geometry (due to Grothendieck, Verdier)

(i) Grothendieck duality theory (rigid dualizing complexes, see HA I)

(ii) “Tilting” theory. Beilinson’s Derived Equivalence.

Let X be a projective algebraic variety over C, for example X = Pn C . Let

VB(X) be the category of vector bundles over X, and let Coh(X) be the category
of coherent sheaves on X.

5
The Role of Derived Categories 27 January, 2016

Example 1.3.1. If X is affine, or maybe even X = An C , and A = C[X], then

Coh(X) = Modfg (A) and VB(X) = Projfg (A). Think of coherent sheaves as a
generalization of vector bundles where we may allow singular points.
We might want to classify algebraic vector bundles over X; this was a classical
question. To answer this question, we can instead classify algebraic coherent
sheaves (see Example 1.3.1) over X. This is still a very difficult question, but
we enlarge the category again and consider the bounded derived category
D b (Coh(X)). This last question we can answer, with Theorem 1.3.2.
VB(X) ,→ Coh(X) ,→ D b (Coh(X))

Theorem 1.3.2 (Beilinson 1982). Let X = P2C (or any n). There is a natural
equivalence of triangulated categories

∼
 
D b Coh(Pn D b Repfd (Q) ,


C)

where Q is the quiver

(0) (1) (2)
x1 x1 x1

Q= • .. • .. • .. • •
. . .
(0) (1) (2)
xn xn xn

So the derived category of coherent sheaves on projective spaces can be

described by some complicated linear algebra.
∼ D b Repfd (Q)
 
Example 1.3.3. For example, if n = 2, then D b Coh(P2C ) =

where Q is the quiver

Q= • • •
If n = 1, then Q is the Kronecker Quiver

Q= • •

Example 1.3.4 (More motivation). For n = 2, A = k[x, y], with k an algebraically

closed field of characteristic zero. We want to classify ideals in A (as A-modules)
in terms of linear algebra.

J ⊂ A ⇐⇒ J ∈ Coh(A2k )
ideal

Then we can embed A2k inside P2k , which contains a line `∞ at infinity.

A2k P2k `∞

J eJ eJ|` = O 1
∞ P

6
The Role of Derived Categories 27 January, 2016

We can embed coherent sheaves inside P2 as

Coh(P2 ) D b (Coh(P2 ))
 
eJ · · · → 0 → eJ → 0 → · · ·

And then apply Theorem 1.3.2.

In general, if X is a smooth projective variety, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 1.3.5 (Bondal, Kapranov, Van der Bergh, et. al.).

∼ D b (DGMod(A)),
D b (Coh(X)) =

where DGMod(A) is dg-modules over the dg-algebra A.

The problem with derived categories is that most invariants of X are deter-
mined by D b (Coh(X)) but they cannot be computed directly from D b (Coh(X)).
To understand the derived category, we need to “represent” the derived cate-
gory in the same way that differential forms “represent” de Rham cohomology.
Therefore, we need to “enhance” D b (Coh(X)) by replacing it by a dg-category
D(Coh(X)) such that H(D(Coh(X))) = ∼ D b (Coh(X)).
There are many different dg-models for D b (Coh(X)). we need a way to
get rid of the irrelevant information carried by D(Coh(X)). The best way
is to put a Quillen model structure on the category dgCat of all (small) dg-
categories, making it into a model category. This is referred to as the study of
noncommutative motives.

Remark 1.3.6 (Goal). Our goal is to understand this model structure on dgCat.

7
 Part I

Quivers and Gabriel’s

Theorem

8
Chapter 2

Quivers

Definition 2.0.1. A quiver is a quadruple Q = (Q0 , Q1 , s, t), where

• Q0 is the set of vertices;

• Q1 is the set of arrows;

• s : Q1 → Q0 is the source map; and

• t : Q1 → Q0 is the target map.

i j
• a •
s(a) = j, t(a) = i
Together, s, t are called the incidence maps.
Definition 2.0.2. A quiver is called finite if and only if |Q0 | < ∞ and |Q1 | < ∞.
~ = (a1 , . . . , am ) such that t(ai ) =
Definition 2.0.3. A path in Q is a sequence a
s(ai−1 ) for all i.
1 2 m+1
• a1 • a2 ··· am •

Definition 2.0.4. Write PQ for the set of all paths in Q. Notice that s, t extend
to maps s, t : PQ → Q0 by s(~
a) = s(am ) and t(~ a) = t(a1 ).
Definition 2.0.5. The path algebra kQ for a quiver Q over a field k is defined
by
kQ = Spank (PQ ),
with a product defined by concatenating paths:

~ if t(~b) = s(~
ab a)
~ · ~b =
a
0 otherwise

9
Path Algebras 30 January, 2016

~
a e ~
b
• ··· • ··· •
Paths of length zero are by convention the vertices ei for i ∈ Q0 . This product
is associative, and satisfies relations (for example)

~ , e~b = ~b, e~
~e = a
a a = 0, ~be = 0, e2 = e

What kind of algebras are the path algebras of quivers?

Example 2.0.6. If |Q0 | = 1 and |Q1 | = r, then the path algebra is the free on r
∼ khx1 , x2 , . . . , xr i. If r = 1, then kQ =
variables, kQ = ∼ k[x].

Example 2.0.7. If  
1 2 n
Q= • → • → ··· → • ,

then kQ is isomorphic to the algebra of lower triangular n × n matrices over k.

Exercise 2.0.8. If Q has at most one path between any two vertices, show that

∼ A ∈ Mn (k) | Aij = 0 if there is no path j → i
kQ =

Example 2.0.9.
!  
∞ k[x] k[x]
k • v 0
• X ∼
= ⊆ M2 (k[x])
0 k

The generators of kQ are e∞ , e0 , v, x, with relations

e0 v = ve∞ = v, e0 x = xe0 = x, e2∞ = e∞ ,

ve0 = e∞ v = 0, e∞ x = xe∞ 1 = 0, e20 = e0 .

The isomorphism is given on generators by
   
1 0 0 0
e0 7→ e∞ 7→
0 0 0 1
   
x 0 0 1
X 7→ v 7→
0 0 0 0

2.1 Path Algebras

Let Q be a quiver and let A = kQ.

Proposition 2.1.1. {ei }i∈Q0 is a complete set of orthogonal idempotents:

10
Path Algebras 30 January, 2016

• e2i = ei (idempotent),

• ei ej = 0 for i 6= j (orthogonal),
X
• ei = 1A (complete).
i ∈ Q0

Proposition 2.1.2. For i, j ∈ Q0 , the space Aei , ej A and ej Aei have the follow-
ing bases:
• Aei = all paths starting at i

• ej A = all paths ending at j

• ej Aei = all paths starting at i and ending at j.

Proposition 2.1.3. Decompositions of A into direct sums of projective ideals.
M
(a) A = Aei as a left A-module =⇒ Aei is a projective left A-module.
i ∈ Q0
M
(b) A = ej A as a right A-module =⇒ ej A is a projective right A-module.
j ∈ Q0

Proposition 2.1.4. For any left A-module M and right A-module N:

∼ ei M
(a) HomA (Aei , M) =
∼ Nej
(b) HomA (ej A, N) =
Proof of (a). Any f ∈ HomA (Aei , M) is determined by f(ei ) = x ∈ M, by A-
linearity. On the other hand, e2i = ei , so

ei f(ei ) = f(ei )2 = f(ei )

Hence, for any x ∈ M, if f(ei ) = x, then ei x = x. The map is then

HomA (Aei , M) −→ ei M
f 7−→ f(ei )

Proposition 2.1.5. If 0 6= a ∈ Aei and 0 6= b ∈ ei A then ab 6= 0 in A.

Proof. Write
a = cx + . . .
b=e
cy + . . .
where x is the longest path starting at i, and y is the longest path ending at i,
with C 6= 0 6= e
c.
a · b = ce
cxy + . . .
c 6= 0.
This is nonzero because ce

11
Path Algebras 30 January, 2016

Proposition 2.1.6. Each ei is a primitive idempotent, meaning that each Aei is

an indecomposable left A-module.

Proof. If M is decomposable, then there is some submodule N $ M such that

M= ∼ N ⊕ K. In this case, EndA (M) has at least one idempotent

pr i
e: M N M ∈ EndA (M).

Thus, we need to check that EndA (Aei ) has no nontrivial idempotents.

∼ ei Aei
EndA (Aei ) = HomA (Aei , Aei ) =
(4)

If f : Aei → Aei is idempotent in EndA (Aei ) = ei Aei , then f2 = f = fei , so

f(f − ei ) = 0. This implies by Proposition 2.1.1(5) that f = 0 or f − ei = 0. Hence,
EndA (Aei ) has no nontrivial idempotents.

Definition 2.1.7. Let

∼ k×...×k
M
kQ0 = kei = | {z }
i ∈ Q0 |Q0 |
M
kQ1 = ka
a∈Q1

Notice that kQ1 is naturally an kQ0 -bimodule.

Definition 2.1.8. For any k-algebra S and any S-bimodule M, the tensor algebra
TS M is

TS M = S ⊕ M ⊕ (M ⊗S M) ⊕ . . . ⊕ (M ⊗S · · · ⊗S M) ⊕ . . .

is defined by the following universal property.

Given any k-algebra f0 : S → A and any S-bimodule map f1 : M → A, there
is a unique S-bimodule map f : TS M → A such that f|S = f0 and f|M = f1 .
∼ TS (V)
Proposition 2.1.9. kQ is naturally isomorphic to the tensor algebra kQ =

Proof. Check the universal property. If S = kQ0 , M = V = kQ1 , then

f0 : kQ0 ,→ kQ

f1 : kQ1 ,→ kQ
f : TS (V) → kQ
f is surjective by definition of kQ, and f is injective by induction on the grading
in TS (V).

12
Representations of Quivers 1 February, 2016

Corollary 2.1.10. kQ is a graded S-algebra with grading determined by the

length function on paths.
Exercise 2.1.11.
(a) dimk (kQ) < ∞ if and only if Q has no (oriented) cycles.
(b) kQ is prime (i.e. IJ 6= 0 for any two 2-sided ideals I, J 6= 0) if and only if
for all i, j ∈ Q0 , there is a path i → j.
(c) kQ is left (resp. right) Noetherian ⇐⇒ if there is an oriented cycle at i,
then at most one arrow starts (resp. ends) at i.
Example 2.1.12. Consider the quiver
!
∞ v 0
Q= • • X

The path algebra kQ is left Noetherian but not right Noetherian.

2.2 Representations of Quivers

Fix a field k, and let Q = (Q0 , Q1 , s, t) be a quiver. Recall that PQ is the set of
all paths in Q, and s, t extend to maps s, t : PQ → Q0 .
Definition 2.2.1. The path category Q is the category with objects Q0 and
HomQ (i, j) = {~
a ∈ PQ : s(~
a) = i, t(~
a) = j}.
Composition is given by concatenating paths.
Remark 2.2.2. We can modify this definition in two ways. First, we can make
Q into a k-category (a category enriched in k-modules) kQ whose objects are
Q0 and
 
HomkQ (i, j) = k HomQ (i, j)
Second, we can also make Q a k-linear category (to be defined later).
Definition 2.2.3. A representation of Q is a functor F : Q → Vectk . The category
of all such representations is a functor category, denoted
Repk (Q) := Fun(Q, Vectk ).
A representation X : Q → Vectk is usually denoted as follows.
Q0 3 i 7−→ X(i) = Xi
Q1 3 i 7−→ X(a) = Xa
!  
i a j Xa
• • 7−→ Xi Xj

13
Representations of Quivers 1 February, 2016

Definition 2.2.4. If Q = (Q0 , Q1 , s, t) is a quiver, define the opposite quiver

Qop := (Q0 , Q1 , s◦ = t, t◦ = s).

Theorem 2.2.5. There are natural equivalences of categories

Repk (Q) ' kQ-Mod (left kQ-modules)

Repk (Qop ) ' Mod-kQ (right kQ-modules)

Proof. The functor F : kQ-Mod → Repk (Q) is given on objects by

M 7→ XM := (Xi , Xa ) i∈Q0
a ∈ Q1

where Xi = ei M and Xa is the morphism given by

Xa
Xi Xj

a·
ei M ej M.

(recall that aei = a = ej a). The functor F is given on morphisms by

(f : M → N) 7−→ f|ei M : ei M → ei N i∈Q .

0

Conversely, G : Repk (Q) → kQ-Mod is given on objects by

X = (Xi , Xa ) i∈Q0 7−→ X =

M
Xi .
a ∈ Q1 i ∈ Q0

Write εi : Xi ,→ X and πi : X  Xi for the canonical maps. Given a path

~ = (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ PQ , x ∈ X, define
a

~ · x = εt(a1 ) ◦ Xa1 ◦ Xa2 ◦ · · · ◦ Xan ◦ πs(an ) x

a

Now check that F ◦ G ' id, G ◦ F ' id.

Example 2.2.6. Consider a quiver representation S(i), where i ∈ Q0 . The

representation S(i) is defined by

k (j = i)
S(i)j =
0 (j 6= i)

and S(i)a = 0 for all a ∈ Q1 . Every irreducible kQ-module looks like S(i) for
some i ∈ Q0 .
Example 2.2.7. The indecomposable projective kQ-modules are of the form Aei ,
which correspond to the quiver representation X with Xj = ej Aei for j ∈ Q0 .

14
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 1 February, 2016

2.3 Homological Properties of Path Algebras

Recall Baer’s definition of Ext1A (V, W).
Definition 2.3.1 (Baer). Let A be a k-algebra and V, W two objects in A =
Mod(A).

×2 α β
1
ExtA (V, W) := (α, β) ∈ Mor(A) 0→W− →X− →V→0 ∼

where (α, β) ∼ (α 0 , β 0 ) if and only if there is some φ : X → X 0 such that α 0 =

φ ◦ α and β 0 ◦ φ = β.
α β
0 W X V 0
φ
α0 β0
0 W X0 V 0
Remark 2.3.2. We can think of a quiver as a kind of finite non-commutative
space. We can think of Example 2.0.9 as a kind of non-commutative “extension”
of the affine line A1k = Spec(k[x]).
Recall that X is an affine variety over C, and A = O (X) is a finitely generated
commutative C-algebra, and X = Specm(A); that is, the points of X correspond
to irreducible representations of A, which have the form A/m, where m is a
maximal ideal of A.. Points of X are “homologically disjoint” in the sense that
 
∗ A
ExtA /mi , A/mj = 0 (i 6= j).

On the contrary, in the noncommutative case (for quivers), we will see that

Ext1kQ (S(i), S(j)) 6= 0

if there is an arrow i → j. Thus, the arrows play a role of “homological links”

between the “points” in the quiver Q.
Theorem 2.3.3. Let A = kQ. For any (left) A-module X, there is an exact se-
quence of A-modules:
f g
0→ X→0
M M
Aet(ρ) ⊗k es(ρ) X Aei ⊗k ei X (2.1)
ρ ∈ Q1 i ∈ Q0

where g(a ⊗ x) := ax and f(b ⊗ x) := ab ⊗ x − a ⊗ bx.

Proof. First we show that g is surjective. This can be seen from the fact that any
element of x can be written as
   
X X X
x = 1·x =  ei  x = ei x = g  ei ⊗ ei x .
i∈Q0 i ∈ Q0 i∈Q0

15
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 1 February, 2016

The fact that im(f) ⊆ ker(g) is just a direct computation. Indeed,

g ◦ f(a ⊗ et(ρ) ⊗ es(ρ) x) = g(aρ ⊗ x − a ⊗ ρx) = aρx − aρx = 0

Ln
To show that ker(g) ⊆ im(f), we first note that any ξ ∈ i=1 Aei ⊗ ei X can
be uniquely written as
Xn X
ξ= a ⊗ xa
i=1 paths a
~
~ )=i
s(a

where all but finitely many of the xa ~ ∈ es(a

~ ) X are zero. Let the degree of ξ be
the length of the longest path a ~ such that xa ~ 6= 0. If a
~ is a nontrivial path, we
~ = a 0 ρ, with s(a 0 ) = t(ρ) and a 0 consisting of only a single
can factor it as a
edge. We then have that

a 0 ⊗ xa 0 0
~ = a es(a) ⊗ es(a) x = a et(ρ) ⊗ es(a) .

Then by definition,

f(a 0 ⊗ xa 0
~ ) = a ρ ⊗ xa
0
~ − a ⊗ ρxa ~ ⊗ xa
~ =a
0
~ − a ⊗ ρxa
~

Now claim that for any ξ, the set ξ + im(f) contains elements of degree zero.
For if deg(ξ) = d, then
 
Xn X 
ξ −f a 0 ⊗ xa
 
~
 
i=1 s(a)=i
`(a)=d

has degree strictly less than d. The claim then follows by induction on `(a) = d.
Now let ξ ∈ ker(g), and take an element ξ 0 ∈ ξ + im(f) of degree zero. In
other words,
Xn
ξ0 = ei ⊗ xei .
i=1
If g(ξ) = 0, then because g ◦ f = 0, we get
X
n n
g(ξ) = g(ξ 0 ) =
M
ei xei ∈ ei X.
i=1 i=1

This is zero if and only if each ei xei = 0. But xei = 0 implies that ξ 0 = 0, or that
ξ ∈ im(f). This demonstrates that ker(g) ⊆ im(f).
Finally, let’s show that f is injective. Suppose f(ξ) = 0, yet ξ 6= 0. Then we
can write X X
ξ= a ⊗ xρ,a = b ⊗ xρ,b + . . . ,
ρ∈Q1 ~
paths a
~ )=t(ρ
s(a ~)

16
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 1 February, 2016

where b is a path of maximal length. We then get

X X
f(ξ) = aρ ⊗ xρ,a − a ⊗ ρxρ,a = bρ ⊗ xρ,b + lower terms = 0
ρ,a ρ,a

Here the lower terms are of the form cρ ⊗ xρ,c , where c is a path shorter than
b. Hence, nothing can cancel with the bρ ⊗ xρ,b term, which contradicts our
choice of b as the path of maximal length.

Definition 2.3.4. The resolution (2.1) in Theorem 2.3.3 is called the standard
resolution of A.

Remark 2.3.5.
∼
(a) There is a compact way to express this resolution if we identify kQ =
L L
TS (V), where S = i∈Q0 kei , V = a∈Qi ka as S-bimodules.
The exact sequence (2.1) can be written for any tensor algebra T and any
(left) T -module X.

f g
0 T ⊗S V ⊗S X T ⊗S X X 0 (2.2)

Note that the standard resolution is projective because each Aei ⊗k ej X is

a direct summand of A ⊗k X, which is a free A-module based on V.

(b) If X = A, then the standard resolution becomes an A-bimodule resolution.

Exercise 2.3.6. Check that the sequence (2.2) gives the standard resolution (2.1).

Definition 2.3.7. An algebra A is a (left or right) hereditary algebra if every

submodule of a projective (left or right) A-module is projective.

Proposition 2.3.8. For a k-algebra A, the following conditions are equivalent:

(a) Every A-module X has projective dimension pdimA (X) ≤ 1, that is,
ExtiA (X, Y) = 0 for all i ≥ 2.

(b) A is a (left and right) hereditary algebra.

Proof.
Consider the exact sequence

0 → X → P → P/X → 0,

17
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 1 February, 2016

where X is an A-submodule of the projective A-module P. Apply the functor

HomA (−, Y) to get the long exact sequence

P/ , Y


0 HomA X HomA (P, Y) HomA (X, Y)

Ext1A P/ , Y Ext1A (P, Y) Ext1A (X, Y)

X

Ext2 P/ , Y Ext2A (P, Y) Ext2A (X, Y)

X ···

Since P is projective, we have that Ext1 (P, Y) = 0, so this long exact sequence
shows that
∼ Ext2 P/X , Y .
 
Ext1A (X, Y) = A

If every A-module X has projective dimension at most one, then Ext2A P/X , Y =

0 and therefore Ext1A (X, Y) = 0. Hence X is projective.

Conversely, if A is a hereditary algebra, then as X is a submodule of the
projective module P, we have Ext1 (X, Y) = 0. Hence, Ext2A P/X , Y = 0 for any

A-module of the form P/X. But any A-module whatsoever is the quotient of a
free module, and therefore of the form P/X. So any A-module has projective
dimension at most 1.

Remark 2.3.9. Suppose that we want to apply HomA (−, Y) to the exact se-
quence
ξ: 0 W X U 0

to get a the long exact sequence. The connecting homomorphism in the long
exact sequence above is defined as follows. Given f ∈ HomA (W, Y), let ∂(f) be
the class in Ext1A (U, Y) such that

ξ: 0 W X U 0
f
p
f∗ ξ : 0 Y W⊕X U 0

where the square indicated is a pushout. Note that if W = Y, and f = idW , then
[f∗ ξ] = [ξ] ∈ Ext1A (U, Y).

Remark 2.3.10. Another way to say Proposition 2.3.8(a) is to say that the global
dimension of kQ is at most 1, for any quiver Q.

18
 Homological Properties of Path Algebras 3 February, 2016

Definition 2.3.11. If X is a finite-dimensional A-module, we define the dimen-

sion vector of X to be

dimk (X) := (dimk X1 , . . . , dimk Xn ) ∈ Nn ⊂ Zn ,

where Xi = ei X = HomA (Aei , X).

Definition 2.3.12. For a finite quiver Q, with |Q0 | = n, the Euler form is a
bilinear form h−, −iQ : Zn × Zn → Zn given by
X X
hα, βiQ := αi βi − αt(a) βs(a)
i∈Q0 a ∈ Q1

Sometimes we also need a symmetric version of the Euler form, which is

written (−, −) : Zn × Zn → Z and given by

(α, β) := hα, βiQ + hβ, αiQ .

Definition 2.3.13. The associated quadratic form q : Zn → Zn is called the Tits

form.
q(α) := hα, αiQ .

Lemma 2.3.14. For any two finite-dimensional A-modules X, Y ∈ A-Modfg , we

have
   
hdimX, dimY iQ = dimk HomA (X, Y) − dimk Ext1A (X, Y) .

Proof. Apply the functor HomA (−, Y) to the standard resolution (2.1). Then we
get a long exact sequence
M M
0 HomA (X, Y) HomA (Aei ⊗ ei X, Y) HomA (Aet(a) ⊗ es(a) X, Y)
i ∈ Q0 a ∈ Q1

Ext1A (X, Y) 0

∼ ei X, for any A-module X, so applying this to

Recall that HomA (Aei , X) =
the above sequence gives

∼ HomK (ei X, ei Y) =
HomA (Aei ⊗ ei X, Y) = ∼ (ei Y) ⊗(ei X)∗ = Yi ⊗ X∗
i

This then implies that

dim (HomA (Aei ⊗ ei X, Y)) = dim(Yi ) dim(Xi ) = (dim X)i (dim Y)i

19
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 3 February, 2016

Now apply this to the exact sequence, to see that

X
dim HomA (X, Y) − (dim X)i (dim Y)i
i ∈ Q0
X
+ (dim X)s(a) (dim Y)t(a) − dimk Ext1A (X, Y) = 0
a∈Q1

Therefore, dimA HomA (X, Y) < ∞ and dimk Ext1A (X, Y) < ∞. Moving terms
around gives us the desired conclusion.
   
hdimX, dimY iQ = dimk HomA (X, Y) − dimk Ext1A (X, Y) .

Corollary 2.3.15. For any finite-dimensional A-module,

dimk (EndA (X)) = q(dim(X)) + dimk Ext1A (X, X)

Remark 2.3.16. Since all of the higher Ext-groups vanish for A = kQ by Propo-
sition 2.3.8(a), the Euler form on dimension vectors is equal to the Euler charac-
teristic.
hdim X, dim Y iQ = χA (X, Y)

Definition 2.3.17 (Notation). For any k-algebra A, define

Irr(A) := isomorphism classes of irreducible A-modules

Ind(A) := isomorphism classes of indecomposable projective A-modules

Lemma 2.3.18. Let A be a k-algebra, and let X, Y be two simple A-modules. Then
there is a nonsplit extension of X by Y

α β
0 Y Z X 0 (2.3)

if and only if im(α) is the only proper submodule of Z.

Proof. This proof is basically just Schur’s lemma.

First, assume that (2.3) splits, and s : X → Z is a section of β, that is, βs = idX .
This means in particular that s is injective, so X = ∼ im(s) ⊂ Z is a proper
submodule different from im(α); β(im(α)) = 0 and β(im(s)) = X 6= 0.
Conversely, assume that Z has a submodule K ⊂ Z with K 6= im(α). Then
β|K : K → X is an isomorphism, and s = β|−1 K is a splitting of (2.3).

Corollary 2.3.19. Let A be a commutative k-algebra, and let X, Y be two noniso-

morphic simple A-modules. Then Ext1A (X, Y) = Ext1A (Y, X) = 0.

20
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 3 February, 2016

Proof. If X 6= 0 is simple, choose some nonzero x ∈ X and define

φx : A X
a ax

Since X is simple, φx is surjective and ker(φx ) = mx . For two simples X and Y,

X=∼ Y ⇐⇒ mx = my .
Now given X 6= ∼ Y, choose a ∈ my \ mx and assume that the sequence

α
0 Y Z X 0

b : Z → Z by z 7→ az. Then a
splits. Define a b(im α) = 0 and im(b
α) is a proper
submodule not equal to im α, so it splits.

Corollary 2.3.20. If Q is a quiver and i, j ∈ Q0 , then there is a nonsplit extension

of S(i) by S(j).

0 S(j) X S(i) 0

if and only if there is some a : i → j in Q1 .

Exercise 2.3.21. Prove Corollary 2.3.20.

Theorem 2.3.22. Assume Q has no oriented cycles (so that dimk (A) < ∞). Then

(a) the assignments

α β
Irr(A) ∼ Q0 ∼ Ind(A)

[S(i)] i [Aei ]

are bijections.

(b) For any i, j ∈ Q0 ,

Ext1A (S(i), S(j)) = Spank Q(i, j),

where Q(i, j) = {a ∈ Q1 | s(a) = i, t(a) = j}.

Proof.
∼ S(j) (that is,
(a) The map α is injective. HomA (S(i), S(j)) = 0 if i 6= j or S(i) =
i = j).
If X is any simple A-module, and if dimk X = 1, then there is some i ∈ Q0
such that ei X = X =⇒ X =∼ S(i). If dimk X > 1, then it cannot be a simple
module.

21
Homological Properties of Path Algebras 6 February, 2016

∼ Aej ⇐⇒ i = j. Then if
The map β is also injective: we will show Aei =

f : Aei → Aej

g : Aej → Aei ,
are inverse, we have f ∈ Hom(Aei , Aej ) = ∼ ei Aej and g ∈ Hom(Aej , Aei ) = ∼
ej Aei . Then fg = ej ∈ ej Aei Aej ⊆ Aei A. But Aei A has a basis consist-
ing of all paths that pass through ei , so it must be that j = i. Surjectivity is
an exercise.

(b) Apply Euler’s formula to S(i), S(j). Then by definition, we have that
X
hdim S(i), dim S(j)i = δij − δi,s(a) δj,t(a)
a∈Q1

On the other hand, by Euler’s formula,

hdim S(i), dim S(j)i = dimk HomA (S(i), S(j)) − dimk Ext1A (S(i), S(j))

Note that
dimk (HomA (S(i), S(j))) = δij ,
so comparing terms with the other calculation, we see that
X
dim ExtA (S(i), S(j)) = δi,s(a) δj,t(a) = # arrows i → j
a

Remark 2.3.23.

(1) Theorem 2.3.22 shows that we can reconstruct Q from A-Mod, provided
we know a priori that A = kQ for some Q and dimk A < ∞.

(2) Theorem 2.3.22 fails if dimk A = ∞.

22
Chapter 3

Gabriel’s Theorem

Throughout this section, assume that k is a field of characteristic zero.

Definition 3.0.1. A (unital associative) k-algebra A has finite representation
type if A has only finitely many isomorphism classes of finite-dimensional
indecomposable representations.
Example 3.0.2.
(a) A = k has finite representation type; there is only one indecomposable
representation, namely k. This is the path algebra of the quiver Q = •
with one vertex.
1 2
(b) Consider A = kQ, where Q = • •. Then
 
∼ k k
A= ,
0 k

and A has finite representation type. The indecomposable representations

are  
k
•
0
• = S(1) =∼ k
0
 
0
•
k
• = S(2) =∼ 0
k
 
k k
• id • = I = ∼ k
k

(c) Let A = k[x] = kQ, where Q is the quiver Q = • . This doesn’t have

finite representation type; there are infinitely many irreducibles of the

form k[x]/hx − ai with a ∈ k.

23
Gabriel’s Theorem 6 February, 2016

Theorem 3.0.3 (Gabriel 1972). Assume k is algebraically closed. Let Q be a

finite quiver, possibly with loops and multiple edges. Let ΓQ be the underlying
graph of Q, that is, Q with orientation forgotten. Then A = kQ has finite
representation type if and only if ΓQ is a Dynkin diagram of type ADE.

An : • • • ··· • • (n vertices)

•
Dn : • • ··· • • (n vertices)
•

•
E6 :
• • • • •

•
E7 :
• • • • • •

•
E8 :
• • • • • • •

Remark 3.0.4. The proof of Theorem 3.0.3 that we give is due to [JTR82]. The
proof has three ingredients.

(1) Classical geometric representation theory (representation varieties)

(2) Noncommutative/homological algebra (Fitting Lemma, Ringel Lemma)

(3) Classification of graphs (due to Tits)

We will return to the proof of Gabriel’s theorem in the next chapter after taking
a look at these ingredients individually.

24
Representation Varieties 6 February, 2016

3.1 Representation Varieties

Example 3.1.1. Let A be a finitely generated associative k-algebra; fix n ≥ 1.
We want to classify all n-dimensional representations of A. Define (naively):

Repk (A, n) = A-module structures on kn

= algebra homomorphisms ρ : A → Mn (k)

If A = khx1 , . . . , xm i/I, for a 2-sided ideal I C khx1 , . . . , xn i, say with generators

I = hr1 , . . . , rd i with ri ∈ khx1 , . . . , xm i, then
 

 r1 (X1 , . . . , Xm ) = 0 

Repk (A, n) = (X1 , . . . , Xm ) ∈ Mn (k)m = ∼ An 2 m ..
 . 
 
rd (X1 , . . . , Xm ) = 0

We need to define a relative version of Repn (A).

Let A be a finitely generated associative k-algebra, S ⊂ A a finite-dimensional
semisimple subalgebra. Fix a finite-dimensional S-module V (ρ : S → End(V)),
and define

RepS (A, V) = all A-module structures on V extending ρ

 

 
End(V) 
f
∼ A
= k-algebra maps f : A → End(V)

 ρ 

S
∼
= S-algebra homomorphisms φ : A → End(V)

Definition 3.1.2. Formally, we define RepS (A, V) by its functor of points

RepS (A, V) : CommAlgk Sets

B HomAlgS (A, EndB (B ⊗ V))

Remark 3.1.3.
(1) The set HomAlgS (A, EndB (B ⊗ V)) can be thought of geometrically as the
set of families of representations parameterized by points of Spec(B).

(2) Note that EndB (B ⊗ V) has a natural S-algebra structure

B ⊗ − : Vectk → B-Mod

S → End(V) → EndB (B ⊗ V)

25
Representation Varieties 6 February, 2016

∼ HomB (B ⊗ V, B ⊗ V)
(3) EndB (B ⊗ V) =
∼
= Homk (V, B ⊗ V)
∼ B ⊗ V ⊗ V∗
=
∼ B ⊗ Endk (V)
=
∼ Mn (B).
(4) If V = kn , End(V) = Mn (k) and B ⊗ End(V) =

Proposition 3.1.4. RepS (A, V) is a (co)representable functor, that is, there is a

commutative k-algebra (S \ A)V such that
∼ HomAlg (A, B ⊗k End(V))
HomCommAlgk ((S \ A)V , B) = (3.1)
S

Remark 3.1.5. We should think of (S \ A)V as the coordinate ring k[RepS (A, V)]
of the affine scheme RepS (A, V).

Corollary 3.1.6. RepS (A, V) exists as an affine k-scheme Spec(S \ A)V and we
define the (relative) representation variety
 
RepS (A, V)red := Spec (S\A)V/√0 .

Proof of Proposition 3.1.4; [Ber74]. Consider (3.1). We need to show that the func-
tor − ⊗k End(V) : CommAlgS → AlgS has a left adjoint (S \ −)V . This will be
a functor
(S \ −)V : AlgS −→ CommAlgk .
Let’s decompose − ⊗ End(V) into a composition of functors.

forgetful − ⊗k End(V) restrict

CommAlgk Algk AlgEnd(V) AlgS

The forgetful functor CommAlgk → Algk has a left adjoint, namely the abelian-
ization (−)ab . The restriction functor also has a left adjoint given by a free
product over S, denoted by (−) ∗S End(V). Finally, − ⊗ End(V) has a left ad-
joint, denoted (−)End(V) .

(−)ab (−)End(V) (−)∗S End(V)

CommAlgk ⊥ Algk ⊥ AlgEnd(V) ⊥ AlgS
forgetful − ⊗k End(V) restrict

What are these left-adjoint functors? The first is called abelianization, and
given by
(−)ab : Algk CommAlgk
A Aab = A/h[A,A]i.

26
Algebraic Group Actions on a Variety 8 February, 2016

(−) ∗S End(V) : AlgS AlgEnd(V)

 
f
  S A 
f
S→

− A A ∗S End(V) = colim 
 ρ 

End(V)

(−)End(V) : AlgEnd(V) Algk

 
f
End(V) →
− A AEnd(V) = a ∈ A [a, f(x)] = 0 for all x ∈ End(V)

Lemma 3.1.7. The functor − ⊗ End(V) : AlgEnd(V) → Algk is an equivalence of

categories, with inverse
 
f
− A 7→ AEnd(V) =
End(V) → a ∈ A [a, f(x)] = 0 for all x ∈ End(V)

Exercise 3.1.8. Prove Lemma 3.1.7.

Corollary 3.1.9. (−)End V is left adjoint to − ⊗ End(V)

Hence,  
(S \ A)V = (A ∗S End(V))End(V) .
ab

3.2 Algebraic Group Actions on a Variety

Let f be finitely generated k-algebra, and S ⊆ A a finite-dimensional semisimple
subalgebra. Let (V, ρ0 : S → Endk (V)) be a finite-dimensional S-module.
We have defined an affine scheme RepS (A, V) parameterizing A-module
structures on V extending the ρ0 . For a representation φ of A extending (V, ρ0 ),
denote the corresponding point in RepS (A, V) by xφ .

Remark 3.2.1. RepS (A, V) can also be seen as the fiber of the restriction map
r : Repk (A, V) → Repk (S, A) over the representation (V, ρ0 ).

RepS (A, V) {∗}

(V,ρ0 )
r
Repk (A, V) Repk (S, A)

Definition 3.2.2. Denote the group of S-module automorphisms of V by GLS (V) :=

AutS (V).

27
Algebraic Group Actions on a Variety 8 February, 2016

We may define an action of GLS (V) on the scheme RepS (A, V) by

GLS (V) × RepS (A, V) RepS(A,V)

(g, ψ) : a 7→ gψ(a)g−1


(g, ψ)

Note that for all s ∈ S, we have

(g, ψ)(s) = gψ(s)g−1 = gρ0 (s)g−1 = ρ0 (s)gg−1 = ρ0 (s) = ψ(s)

so this is well-defined.
Note that k× ⊂ GLS (V) acts trivially, which gives an induced action

GS (V) = GLS (V)/k× .

Proposition 3.2.3.

(a) There is a one-to-one correspondence between the following:

• isomorphism classes of A-modules isomorphic to V as S-modules,

• GLS (V)-orbits on RepS (A, V).

(b) For any xρ ∈ RepS (A, V): StabGLS (V) (xρ ) = AutA (Vρ ).

Exercise 3.2.4. Show that for any xρ ∈ RepS (A, V), the Zariski tangent space is
isomorphic to the space of S-derivations of A taking values in End(Vρ ).
∼ DerS (A, End(Vρ ))
Txρ RepS (A, V) =

Hint: Use adjunction.

Txρ RepS (A, V) := Derk ((S \ A)V , kρ ),

where ρ : (S \ A)V → k ⇐⇒ ρ : A → End(V).

Θ(a, b)= ρ(a)Θ(b) + Θ(a)ρ(b)

DerS (A, End(Vρ )) = Θ ∈ Homk (A, Endk (V))
Θ(s)= 0 ∀ s ∈ S

Example 3.2.5. Let Q = (Q0 , Q1 , s, t) be a finite quiver, with Q0 = {1, . . . , n}.

Let A = kQ, and let
n
M
S= kei ⊆ A.
i=1
Note that giving an S-module structure to a vector space V corresponds to a
splitting V = n
L
i=1 Vi with Vi = ei V. Then up to isomorphism, S-modules
are determined by dimension vectors α ∈ Nn , α = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) with
αi = dimk Vi .

28
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
much salt as may be required should be added to the stock when the
head first begins to boil in it: the cook must regulate also by the taste
the exact proportion of cayenne, mace, and catsup, which will flavour
the soup agreeably. The fragments of the head, with the bones and
the residue of the beef used for stock, if stewed down together with
some water and a few fresh vegetables, will afford some excellent
broth, such as would be highly acceptable, especially if well
thickened with rice, to many a poor family during the winter months.
31. Unless very good and pure in flavour, we cannot recommend the addition of
this or of any other catsup to soup or gravy.

Stock: shin of beef, 6 to 7 lbs.; water, 5 quarts: stewed down (with

vegetables, &c.) till reduced nearly half. Boned half-head with skin
on stewed in stock: 1-1/2 hour. Soup: stock, 5 pints; tongue, skin of
head, and part of flesh: 15 to 40 minutes, or more if not quite tender.
Rice-flour, 6 to 8 oz.; cayenne, quarter-teaspoonful; mace, twice as
much; mushroom catsup, 1/2 wineglassful: 10 minutes. Sherry, 2
wineglassesful, forcemeat-balls, 20 to 30.
 SOUP DES GALLES.

Add to the liquor in which a knuckle of veal has been boiled the
usual time for table as much water as will make altogether six quarts,
and stew in it gently sixpennyworth of beef bones and sixpennyworth
of pork-rinds. When the boiling is somewhat advanced, throw in the
skin of a calf’s head; and in an hour afterwards, or when it is quite
tender, lift it out and set it aside till wanted. Slice and fry four large
mild onions, stick into another eight or ten cloves, and put them into
the soup after it has stewed from six to seven hours. Continue the
boiling for two or three hours longer, then strain off the soup, and let
it remain until perfectly cold. When wanted for table, take it quite
clear from the fat and sediment, and heat it anew with the skin of the
calf’s head cut into dice, three ounces of loaf sugar, four
tablespoonsful of strained lemon-juice, two of soy, and three
wineglassesful of sherry; give it one boil, skim it well, and serve it as
hot as possible. Salt must be added to it sparingly in the first
instance on account of the soy: a proper seasoning of cayenne or
pepper must not, of course, be omitted.
This receipt was given to the writer, some years since, as a
perfectly successful imitation of a soup which was then, and is still,
she believes, selling in London at six shillings the quart. Never
having tasted the original Soupe des Galles she cannot say how far
it is a correct one; but she had it tested with great exactness when
she received it first, and found the result a very good soup prepared
at an extremely moderate cost. The pork-rinds, when long boiled,
afford a strong and flavourless jelly, which might be advantageously
used to give consistence to other soups. They may be procured
during the winter, usually at the butcher’s, but if not, at the
porkshops: they should be carefully washed before they are put into
the soup-pot. When a knuckle of veal cannot conveniently be had, a
pound or two of the neck and a morsel of scrag of mutton may
instead be boiled down with the beef-bones; or two or three pounds
of neck or shin of beef: but these will, of course, augment the cost of
the soup.
 POTAGE À LA REINE.

(A Delicate White Soup.)

Should there be no strong veal broth, nor any white stock in

readiness, stew four pounds of the scrag or knuckle of veal, with a
thick slice or two of lean ham, a faggot of sweet herbs, two
moderate-sized carrots, and the same of onions, a large blade of
mace, and a half-teaspoonful of white peppercorns, in four quarts of
water until reduced to about five pints; then strain the liquor, and set
it by until the fat can be taken entirely from it. Skin and wash
thoroughly, a couple of fine fowls, or three young pullets, and take
away the dark spongy substance which adheres to the insides; pour
the veal broth to them, and boil them gently from three quarters of an
hour to an hour; then lift them out, take off all the white flesh, mince it
small, pound it to the finest paste, and cover it with a basin until
wanted for use. In the mean time let the bodies of the fowls be put
again into the stock, and stewed gently for an hour and a half; add
as much salt and cayenne, as will season the soup properly, strain it
off when sufficiently boiled, and let it cool; skim off every particle of
fat; steep, in a small portion of it, which should be boiling, four
ounces of the crumb of light stale bread sliced thin, and when it has
simmered a few minutes, drain or wring the moisture from it in a
clean cloth, add it to the flesh of the chickens, and pound them
together until they are perfectly blended; then pour the stock to them
in very small quantities at first, and mix them smoothly with it; pass
the whole through a sieve or tammy, heat it in a clean stewpan, stir
to it from a pint to a pint and a half of boiling cream, and add, should
it not be sufficiently thick, an ounce and a half of arrow-root, quite
free from lumps, and moistened with a few spoonsful of cold milk or
stock.
Remark.—This soup, and the two which immediately follow it, if
made with care and great nicety by the exact directions given here
for them, will be found very refined and excellent. For stock: veal, 4
lbs.; ham, 6 oz.; water, 4 quarts; bunch of herbs; carrots, 2; onions,
2; mace, large blade; peppercorns, 1/2 teaspoonful; salt: 5 hours.
Fowls, 2, or pullets, 3: 3/4 to 1 hour; stewed afterwards 1 to 1-1/2
hour. Crumb of bread, 4 oz.; cream, 1 to 1-1/2 pint; arrow-root (if
needed), 1-1/2 oz.
Obs.—Some cooks pound with the bread and chickens the yolks
of three or four hard-boiled eggs, but these improve neither the
colour nor the flavour of the potage.
 WHITE OYSTER SOUP.

(or Oyster Soup à la Reine.)

When the oysters are small, from two to three dozens for each pint
of soup should be prepared, but this number can of course be
diminished or increased at pleasure. Let the fish (which should be
finely conditioned natives) be opened carefully; pour the liquor from
them, and strain it; rinse them in it well, and beard them; strain the
liquor a second time through a lawn sieve or folded muslin, and pour
it again over the oysters. Take a portion from two quarts of the palest
veal stock, and simmer the beards in it from twenty to thirty minutes.
Heat the soup, flavour it with mace and cayenne, and strain the
stock from the oyster-beards into it. Plump the fish in their own
liquor, but do not let them boil; pour the liquor to the soup, and add to
it a pint of boiling cream; put the oysters into the tureen, dish the
soup, and send it to table quickly. Should any thickening be required,
stir briskly to the stock an ounce and a half of arrow-root entirely free
from lumps, and carefully mixed with a little milk or cream; or, in lieu
of this, when a rich soup is liked, thicken it with four ounces of fresh
butter well blended with three of flour.
Oysters, 8 to 12 dozens; pale veal stock, 2 quarts; cream, 1 pint;
thickening, 1 oz. arrow-root, or butter, 4 oz., flour, 3 oz.
 RABBIT SOUP À LA REINE.

Wash and soak thoroughly three young rabbits, put them whole
into the soup-pot, and pour on them seven pints of cold water or of
clear veal broth; when they have stewed gently about three quarters
of an hour lift them out, and take off the flesh of the backs, with a
little from the legs should there not be half a pound of the former;
strip off the skin, mince the meat very small, and pound it to the
smoothest paste; cover it from the air, and set it by. Put back into the
soup the bodies of the rabbits, with two mild onions of moderate
size, a head of celery, three carrots, a faggot of savoury herbs, two
blades of mace, a half-teaspoonful of peppercorns, and an ounce of
salt. Stew the whole softly three hours; strain it off, let it stand to
settle, pour it gently from the sediment, put from four to five pints into
a clean stewpan, and mix it very gradually while hot with the
pounded rabbit-flesh; this must be done with care, for if the liquid be
not added in very small portions at first, the meat will gather into
lumps and will not easily be worked smooth afterwards. Add as
much pounded mace and cayenne as will season the soup
pleasantly, and pass it through a coarse but very clean sieve; wipe
out the stewpan, put back the soup into it, and stir in when it boils, a
pint and a quarter of good cream[32] mixed with a tablespoonful of
the best arrow-root: salt, if needed, should be thrown in previously.
32. We give this receipt exactly as we had it first compounded, but less cream
and rather more arrow-root might be used for it, and would adapt it better to
the economist.

Young rabbits, 3; water, or clear veal broth, 7 pints: 3/4 of an hour.

Remains of rabbits; onions, 2; celery, 1 head; carrots, 3; savoury
herbs; mace, 2 blades; white peppercorns, a half-teaspoonful; salt, 1
oz.: 3 hours. Soup, 4 to 5 pints; pounded rabbit-flesh, 8 oz.; salt,
mace, and cayenne, if needed; cream, 1-1/4 pint; arrow-root, 1
tablespoonful (or 1-1/2 ounce).
 BROWN RABBIT SOUP.

Cut down into joints, flour, and fry lightly, two full grown, or three
young rabbits; add to them three onions of moderate size, also fried
to a clear brown; on these pour gradually seven pints of boiling
water, throw in a large teaspoonful of salt, clear off all the scum with
care as it rises, and then put to the soup a faggot of parsley, four not
very large carrots, and a small teaspoonful of peppercorns; boil the
whole very softly from five hours to five and a half; add more salt if
needed, strain off the soup, let it cool sufficiently for the fat to be
skimmed clean from it, heat it afresh, and send it to table with
sippets of fried bread. Spice, with a thickening of rice-flour, or of
wheaten flour browned in the oven, and mixed with a spoonful or two
of very good mushroom catsup, or of Harvey’s sauce, can be added
at pleasure to the above, with a few drops of eschalot-wine, or
vinegar; but the simple receipt will be found extremely good without
them.
Rabbits, 2 full grown, or 3 small; onions fried, 3 middling-sized;
water, 7 pints; salt, 1 large teaspoonful or more; carrots, 4, a faggot
of parsley; peppercorns, 1 small teaspoonful: 5 to 5-1/2 hours.
 SUPERLATIVE HARE SOUP.

Cut down a hare into joints, and put into a soup-pot, or large
stewpan, with about a pound of lean ham, in thick slices, three
moderate-sized mild onions, three blades of mace, a faggot of
thyme, sweet marjoram, and parsley, and about three quarts of good
beef stock. Let it stew very gently for full two hours from the time of
its first beginning to boil, and more, if the hare be old. Strain the soup
and pound together very fine the slices of ham and all the flesh of
the back, legs, and shoulders of the hare, and put this meat into a
stewpan with the liquor in which it was boiled, the crumb of two
French rolls, and half a pint of port wine. Set it on the stove to
simmer twenty minutes; then rub it through a sieve, place it again on
the stove till very hot, but do not let it boil: season it with salt and
cayenne, and send it to table directly.
Hare, 1; ham, 12 to 16 oz.; onions, 3 to 6; mace, 3 blades; faggot
of savoury herbs; beef stock, 3 quarts: 2 hours. Crumb of 2 rolls; port
wine, 1/2 pint; little salt and cayenne: 20 minutes.
 A LESS EXPENSIVE HARE SOUP.[33]
33. The remains of a roasted hare, with the forcemeat and gravy, are admirably
calculated for making this soup.

Pour on two pounds of neck or shin of beef and a hare well

washed and carved into joints, one gallon of cold water, and when it
boils and has been thoroughly skimmed, add an ounce and a half of
salt, two onions, one large head of celery, three moderate-sized
carrots, a teaspoonful of black peppercorns, and six cloves.
Let these stew very gently for three hours, or longer, should the
hare not be perfectly tender. Then take up the principal joints, cut the
meat from them, mince, and pound it to a fine paste, with the crumb
of two penny rolls (or two ounces of the crumb of household bread)
which has been soaked in a little of the boiling soup, and then
pressed very dry in a cloth; strain, and mix smoothly with it the stock
from the remainder of the hare; pass the soup through a strainer,
season it with cayenne, and serve it when at the point of boiling; if
not sufficiently thick, add to it a tablespoonful of arrow-root
moistened with a little cold broth, and let the soup simmer for an
instant afterwards. Two or three glasses of port wine, and two
dozens of small forcemeat-balls, may be added to this soup with
good effect.
Beef, 2 lbs.; hare, 1; water, 1 gallon; salt, 1-1/2 oz.; onions, 2;
celery, 1 head; carrots, 3; bunch of savoury herbs; peppercorns, 1
teaspoonful; cloves, 6: 3 hours, or more. Bread, 2 oz.; cayenne,
arrow-root (if needed), 1 tablespoonful.
 ECONOMICAL TURKEY SOUP.

The remains of a roast turkey, even after they have supplied the
usual mince and broil, will furnish a tureen of cheap and excellent
soup with the addition of a little fresh meat. Cut up rather small two
pounds of the neck or other lean joint of beef, and pour to it five pints
of cold water. Heat these very slowly; skim the liquor when it begins
to boil, and add to it an ounce of salt, a small, mild onion (the
proportion of all the vegetables may be much increased when they
are liked), a little celery, and the flesh and bones of the turkey, with
any gravy or forcemeat that may have been left with them. Let these
boil gently for about three hours; then strain off the soup through a
coarse sieve or cullender, and let it remain until the fat can be
entirely removed from it. It may then be served merely well thickened
with rice[34] which has previously been boiled very dry as for currie,
and stewed in it for about ten minutes; and seasoned with one large
heaped tablespoonful or more of minced parsley, and as much salt
and pepper or cayenne as it may require. This, as the reader will
perceive, is a somewhat frugal preparation, by which the residue of a
roast turkey may be turned to economical account; but it is a
favourite soup at some good English tables, where its very simplicity
is a recommendation. It can always be rendered more expensive,
and of richer quality, by the addition of lean ham or smoked beef,[35]
a larger weight of fresh meat, and catsup or other store-sauces.
34. It will be desirable to prepare six ounces of rice, and to use as much of it as
may be required, the reduction of the stock not being always equal, and the
same weight of rice therefore not being in all cases sufficient. Rice-flour can
be substituted for the whole grain and used as directed for Rice Flour Soup,
page 15.

35. As we have stated in our chapter of Foreign Cookery, the Jewish smoked
beef, of which we have given particulars there, imparts a superior flavour to
soups and gravies; and it is an economical addition to them, as a small
portion of it will much heighten their savour.

Turkey soup à la reine is made precisely like the Potage à la Reine

of fowls or pullets, of which the receipt will be found in another part
of this chapter.
 PHEASANT SOUP.

Half roast a brace of well-kept pheasants, and flour them rather

thickly when they are first laid to the fire. As soon as they are nearly
cold take all the flesh from the breasts, put it aside, and keep it
covered from the air; carve down the remainder of the birds into
joints, bruise the bodies thoroughly, and stew the whole gently from
two to three hours in five pints of strong beef broth; then strain off the
soup, and press as much of it as possible from the pheasants. Let it
cool; and in the mean time strip the skins from the breasts, mince
them small, and pound them to the finest paste, with half as much
fresh butter, and half of dry crumbs of bread; season these well with
cayenne, sufficiently with salt, and moderately with pounded mace
and grated nutmeg, and add, when their flavour is liked, three or four
eschalots previously boiled tender in a little of the soup, left till cold,
and minced before they are put into the mortar. Moisten the mixture
with the yolks of two or three eggs, roll it into small balls of equal
size, dust a little flour upon them, skim all the fat from the soup, heat
it in a clean stewpan, and when it boils throw them in and poach
them from ten to twelve minutes, but first ascertain that the soup is
properly seasoned with salt and cayenne. We have recommended
that the birds should be partially roasted before they are put into the
soup-pot, because their flavour is much finer when this is done than
when they are simply stewed; they should be placed rather near to a
brisk fire that they may be quickly browned on the surface without
losing any of their juices, and the basting should be constant. A slight
thickening of rice-flour and arrow-root can be added to the soup at
pleasure, and the forcemeat-balls may be fried and dropped into the
tureen when they are preferred so. Half a dozen eschalots lightly
browned in butter, and a small head of celery, may also be thrown in
after the birds begin to stew, but nothing should be allowed to prevail
ever the natural flavour of the game itself; and this should be
observed equally with other kinds, as partridges, grouse, and
venison.
 Pheasants, 2. roasted 20 to 25 minutes. Strong beef broth, or
stock, 5 pints: 2 to 3 hours. Forcemeat-balls: breasts of pheasants,
half as much dry bread-crumbs and of butter, salt, mace, cayenne;
yolks of 2 or 3 eggs (and at choice 3 or 4 boiled eschalots).
Obs.—The stock may be made of six pounds of shin of beef, and
four quarts of water reduced to within a pint of half. An onion, a large
carrot, a bunch of savoury herbs, and some salt and spice should be
added to it: one pound of neck of veal or of beef will improve it.
 ANOTHER PHEASANT SOUP.

Boil down the half-roasted birds as directed in the foregoing

receipt, and add to the soup, after it is strained and re-heated, the
breasts pounded to the finest paste with nearly as much bread
soaked in a little of the stock and pressed very dry; for the proper
manner of mixing them, see Potage à la Reine, page 29. Half a pint
of small mushrooms cleaned as for pickling, then sliced rather
thickly, and stewed from ten to fifteen minutes without browning, in
an ounce or two of fresh butter, with a slight seasoning of mace,
cayenne, and salt, then turned into the mortar and pounded with the
other ingredients, will be found an excellent addition to the soup,
which must be passed through a strainer after the breasts are added
to it, brought to the point of boiling, and served with sippets à la
Reine, or with others simply fried of a delicate brown and well dried.
We have occasionally had a small quantity of delicious soup made
with the remains of birds which have been served at table; and
where game is frequently dressed, the cook, by reserving all the
fragments for the purpose, and combining different kinds, may often
send up a good tureen of such, made at a very slight cost.
Pheasants, 2; stock, 5 pints; bread soaked in gravy (see Panada,
Chapter VIII), nearly as much in bulk as the flesh of the breasts of
the birds; mushrooms, 1/2 pint, stewed in one or two oz. of butter 10
to 15 minutes, then pounded with flesh of pheasants. Salt, cayenne
and mace, to season properly.
 PARTRIDGE SOUP.

This is, we think, superior in flavour to the pheasant soup. It

should be made in precisely the same manner, but three birds
allowed for it instead of two. Grouse and partridges together will
make a still finer one; the remains of roast grouse even, added to a
brace of partridges, will produce a very good effect.
 MULLAGATAWNY SOUP.

Slice, and fry gently in some good butter three or four large
onions, and when they are of a fine equal amber-colour lift them out
with a slice and put them into a deep stewpot, or large thick
saucepan; throw a little more butter into the pan, and then brown
lightly in it a young rabbit, or the prime joints of two, or a fowl cut
down small, and floured. When the meat is sufficiently browned, lay
it upon the onions, pour gradually to them a quart of good boiling
stock, and stew it gently from three quarters of an hour to an hour;
then take it out, and pass the stock and onions through a fine sieve
or strainer. Add to them two pints and a half more of stock, pour the
whole into a clean pan, and when it boils stir to it two tablespoonsful
of currie-powder mixed with nearly as much of browned flour, and a
little cold water or broth, put in the meat, and simmer it for twenty
minutes or longer should it not be perfectly tender, add the juice of a
small lemon just before it is dished, serve it very hot, and send boiled
rice to table with it. Part of a pickled mango cut into strips about the
size of large straws, is sometimes served in this soup, after being
stewed in it for a few minutes; a little of the pickle itself should be
added with it. We have given here the sort of receipt commonly used
in England for mullagatawny, but a much finer soup may be made by
departing from it in some respects. The onions, of which the
proportion may be increased or diminished to the taste, after being
fried slowly and with care, that no part should be overdone, may be
stewed for an hour in the first quart of stock with three or four ounces
of grated cocoa-nut,[36] which will impart a rich mellow flavour to the
whole. After all of this that can be rubbed through the sieve has been
added to as much more stock as will be required for the soup, and
the currie-powder and thickening have been boiled in it for twenty
minutes, the flesh of part of a calf’s head,[37] previously stewed
almost tender, and cut as for mock turtle, with a sweetbread also
parboiled or stewed in broth, and divided into inch-squares, will
make an admirable mullagatawny, if simmered in the stock until they
have taken the flavour of the currie-seasoning. The flesh of a couple
of calves’ feet, with a sweetbread or two, may, when more
convenient, be substituted for the head. A large cupful of thick
cream, first mixed and boiled with a teaspoonful of flour or arrow-root
to prevent its curdling, and stirred into the soup before the lemon-
juice, will enrich and improve it much.
36. That our readers to whom this ingredient in soups is new, may not be misled,
we must repeat here, that although the cocoa-nut when it is young and fresh
imparts a peculiarly rich flavour to any preparation, it is not liked by all eaters,
and is better omitted when the taste of a party is not known, and only one
soup is served.

37. The scalp or skin only of a calf’s head will make excellent mullagatawny, with
good broth for stock; and many kinds of shell-fish also.

Rabbit, 1, or the best joints of, 2, or fowl, 1; large onions, 4 to 6;

stock, 1 quart: 3/4 to 1 hour. 2-1/2 pints more of stock; currie-powder,
2 heaped tablespoonsful, with 2 of browned flour; meat and all
simmered together 20 minutes or more; juice of lemon, 1 small; or
part of pickled mango stewed in the soup 3 to 4 minutes.
Or,—onions, 3 to 6; cocoa-nut, 3 to 4 oz.; stock, 1 quart; stewed 1
hour. Stock, 3 pints (in addition to the first quart); currie-powder and
thickening each, 2 large tablespoonsful: 20 minutes. Flesh of part of
calf s head and sweetbread, 15 minutes or more. Thick cream, 1
cupful; flour or arrow-root, 1 teaspoonful; boiled 2 minutes, and
stirred to the soup. Chili vinegar, 1 tablespoonful, or lemon-juice, 2
tablespoonsful.
Obs. 1.—The brain of the calf’s head stewed for twenty minutes in
a little of the stock, then rubbed through a sieve, diluted gradually
with more of the stock, and added as thickening to the soup, will be
found an admirable substitute for part of the flour.
Obs. 2.—Three or four pounds of a breast of veal, or an equal
weight of mutton, free from bone and fat, may take the place of
rabbits or fowls in this soup, for a plain dinner. The veal should be
cut into squares of an inch and a half, or into strips of an inch in
width, and two in length; and the mutton should be trimmed down in
the same way, or into very small cutlets.
 Obs. 3.—For an elegant table, the joints of rabbit or of fowl should
always be boned before they are added to the soup, for which, in this
case, a couple of each will be needed for a single tureen, as all the
inferior joints must be rejected.
 TO BOIL RICE FOR MULLAGATAWNY SOUPS, OR FOR
CURRIES.

The Patna, or small-grained rice, which is not so good as the

Carolina, for the general purposes of cookery, ought to be served
with currie. First take out the unhusked grains, then wash the rice in
several waters, and put it into a large quantity of cold water; bring it
gently to boil, keeping it uncovered, and boil it softly for fifteen
minutes, when it will be perfectly tender, and every grain will remain
distinct. Throw it into a large cullender, and let it drain for ten minutes
near the fire; should it not then appear quite dry, turn it into a dish,
and set it for a short time into a gentle oven, or let it steam in a clean
saucepan near the fire. It should neither be stirred, except just at
first, to prevent its lumping while it is still quite hard, nor touched with
either fork or spoon; the stewpan may be shaken occasionally,
should the rice seem to require it, and it should be thrown lightly from
the cullender upon the dish. A couple of minutes before it is done,
throw in some salt, and from the time of its beginning to boil remove
the scum as it rises.
Patna rice, 1/2 lb.; cold water, 2 quarts: boiled slowly, 15 minutes.
Salt, 1 large teaspoonful.
Obs.—This, of all the modes of boiling rice which we have tried,
and they have been very numerous, is indisputably the best. The
Carolina rice answers well dressed in the same manner, but requires
four or five minutes longer boiling: it should never be served until it is
quite tender. One or two minutes, more or less, will sometimes, from
the varying quality of the grain, be requisite to render it tender.
 GOOD VEGETABLE MULLAGATAWNY.

Dissolve in a large stewpan or thick iron saucepan, four ounces of

butter, and when it is on the point of browning, throw in four large
mild onions sliced, three pounds weight of young vegetable marrow
cut in large dice and cleared from the skin and seeds, four large or
six moderate-sized cucumbers, pared, split, and emptied likewise of
their seeds, and from three to six large acid apples, according to the
taste; shake the pan often, and stew these over a gentle fire until
they are tolerably tender; then strew lightly over and mix well
amongst them, three heaped tablespoonsful of mild currie powder,
with nearly a third as much of salt, and let the vegetables stew from
twenty to thirty minutes longer; then pour to them gradually sufficient
boiling water (broth or stock if preferred) to just cover them, and
when they are reduced almost to a pulp press the whole through a
hair-sieve with a wooden spoon, and heat it in a clean stewpan, with
as much additional liquid as will make two quarts with that which was
first added. Give any flavouring that may be needed, whether of salt,
cayenne, or acid, and serve the soup extremely hot. Should any
butter appear on the surface, let it be carefully skimmed off, or stir in
a small dessertspoonful of arrow-root (smoothly mixed with a little
cold broth or water) to absorb it. Rice may be served with this soup
at pleasure, but as it is of the consistence of winter peas soup, it
scarcely requires any addition. The currie powder may be altogether
omitted for variety, and the whole converted into a plain vegetable
potage; or it may be rendered one of high savour, by browning all the
vegetables lightly, and adding to them rich brown stock. Tomatas,
when in season, may be substituted for the apples, after being
divided, and freed from their seeds.
Butter, 4 oz.; vegetable marrow, pared and scooped, 3 lbs.; large
mild onions, 4; large cucumbers, 4; or middling-sized, 6; apples, or
large tomatas, 3 to 6; 30 to 40 minutes. Mild currie-powder, 3 heaped
tablespoonsful; salt, one small tablespoonful 20 to 32 minutes.
Water, broth, or good stock, 2 quarts.
 CUCUMBER SOUP.

Pare, split, and empty from eight to twenty[38] fine, well grown,
but not old cucumbers,—those which have the fewest seeds are best
for the purpose; throw a little salt over them, and leave them for an
hour to drain, then put them with the white part only of a couple of
mild onions into a deep stewpan or delicately clean saucepan, cover
them nearly half an inch with pale but good veal stock, and stew
them gently until they are perfectly tender, which will be in from three
quarters of an hour to an hour and a quarter; work the whole through
a hair-sieve, and add to it as much more stock as may be needed to
make the quantity of soup required for table; and as the cucumbers,
from their watery nature, will thicken it but little, stir to it when it boils,
as much arrow-root, rice-flour, or tous les mois (see page 1), as will
bring it to a good consistence; add from half to a whole pint of boiling
cream, and serve the soup immediately. Salt and cayenne sufficient
to season it, should be thrown over the cucumbers while they are
stewing. The yolks of six or eight eggs, mixed with a dessertspoonful
of chili vinegar, may be used for this soup instead of cream; three
dessertspoonsful of minced parsley may then be strewed into it a
couple of minutes before they are added: it must not, of course, be
allowed to boil after they are stirred in.
38. This is a great disparity of numbers; but some regard must be had to
expense, where the vegetable cannot be obtained with facility.