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 Krzysztof Janowicz
Stefan Schlobach
Patrick Lambrix
Eero Hyvönen (Eds.)
LNAI 8876

Knowledge Engineering
and Knowledge Management
19th International Conference, EKAW 2014
Linköping, Sweden, November 24–28, 2014
Proceedings

123
Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 8876

Subseries of Lecture Notes in Computer Science

LNAI Series Editors

Randy Goebel
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
Yuzuru Tanaka
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Wolfgang Wahlster
DFKI and Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

LNAI Founding Series Editor

Joerg Siekmann
DFKI and Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
Krzysztof Janowicz Stefan Schlobach
Patrick Lambrix Eero Hyvönen (Eds.)

Knowledge Engineering
and Knowledge Management
19th International Conference, EKAW 2014
Linköping, Sweden, November 24-28, 2014
Proceedings

13
Volume Editors
Krzysztof Janowicz
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
E-mail: janowicz@ucsb.edu
Stefan Schlobach
VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
E-mail: k.s.schlobach@vu.nl
Patrick Lambrix
University of Linköping, Sweden
E-mail: patrick.lambrix@liu.se
Eero Hyvönen
Aalto University, Finland
E-mail: eero.hyvonen@aalto.fi

ISSN 0302-9743 e-ISSN 1611-3349

ISBN 978-3-319-13703-2 e-ISBN 978-3-319-13704-9
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13704-9
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014955256

LNCS Sublibrary: SL 7 – Artificial Intelligence

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
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 Preface

This volume contains the proceedings of the 19th International Conference on

Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management (EKAW 2014), held in
Linköping, Sweden, during November 24–28, 2014. This was the first EKAW
conference in a Nordic country. It was concerned with all aspects of eliciting,
acquiring, modeling, and managing knowledge, the construction of knowledge-
intensive systems and services for the Semantic Web, knowledge management,
e-business, natural language processing, intelligent information integration, per-
sonal digital assistance systems, and a variety of other related topics.
The special focus of EKAW 2014 was Diversity. Today, multi-thematic, multi-
perspective, multi-cultural, multi-media, and multi-dimensional data are avail-
able at an ever-increasing spatial, temporal, and thematic resolution. This al-
lows us to gain a more holistic understanding of complex physical and social
processes that cannot be explained from within one domain alone. While scale
and complexity of information has always attracted attention, its heterogeneity
in nature and usage are only now being investigated more systematically. To
publish, retrieve, clean, reuse, and integrate these data requires novel knowl-
edge engineering and management methods. Thus, EKAW 2014 put a special
emphasis on this diversity of knowledge and its usage.
For the main conference we invited submissions for research papers that
present novel methods, techniques, or analysis with appropriate empirical or
other types of evaluation, as well as in-use papers describing applications of
knowledge management and engineering in real environments. We also invited
submissions of position papers describing novel and innovative ideas that are
still in an early stage. In addition to the regular conference submission, we es-
tablished a combined conference/journal submission track. Papers accepted for
the combined track were published as regular research papers in this EKAW
2014 Springer conference proceedings and authors were also invited to submit
an extended version of their manuscript for a fast-track in the Semantic Web
journal (SWJ) published by IOS Press. The journal follows an open review pro-
cess. All submitted papers were publicly available during the review phase and
the reviews and final decisions were posted online, thereby making the review
process more transparent.
Overall, we received 168 abstract submissions, 138 which were submitted as
papers. We are very glad to report that 45 author teams decided to submit to the
combined track, thus making their papers and reviews publicly available. These
papers were either accepted for the conference and journal, for the conference
only, or rejected for both. In total, 45 submissions were accepted by the Program
Committee: seven for the combined EKAW/SWJ track, 17 full papers for the
conference only, 17 as short(er) papers, and four position papers.
To complement the program, we invited three distinguished keynote speakers:
VI Preface

– Pascal Hitzler (Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA) presented a

talk on “Ontology Design Patterns for Large-Scale Data Interchange and
Discovery.”
– Arianna Betti (University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands) gave a talk on
“Concepts in Motion.”
– Oscar Corcho (Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain) discussed the ques-
tion “Ontology Engineering for and by the Masses: Are We Already There?”

The program chairs of EKAW 2014 were Krzysztof Janowicz from the Uni-
versity of California, Santa Barbara, USA, and Stefan Schlobach from the Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
The EKAW 2014 program included a Doctoral Consortium that provided
PhD students an opportunity to present their research ideas and results in a
stimulating environment, to get feedback from mentors who are experienced
research scientists in the community, to explore issues related to academic and
research careers, and to build relationships with other PhD students from around
the world. The Doctoral Consortium was intended for students at each stage of
their PhD. All accepted presenters had an opportunity to present their work to an
international audience, to be paired with a mentor, and to discuss their work with
experienced scientists from the research community. The Doctoral Consortium
was organized by Ying Ding from the Indiana University Bloomington, USA,
and Chiara Ghidini from The Fondazione Bruno Kessler in Italy.
In addition to the main research track, EKAW 2014 hosted four satellite
workshops and two tutorials:

Workshops
1. VISUAL2014. International Workshop on Visualizations and User Interfaces
for Knowledge Engineering and Linked Data Analytics
2. EKM1. The First International Workshop on Educational Knowledge Man-
agement
3. ARCOE-Logic 201 4. The 6th International Workshop on Acquisition, Rep-
resentation and Reasoning about Context with Logic
4. WaSABi2014. The Third International Workshop on Semantic Web Enter-
prise Adoption and Best Practice

Tutorials
1. K4D : Managing and Sharing Knowledge in Rural Parts of the World. By
Stefan Schlobach, Victor de Boer, Christophe Guret, Stéphane Boyera, and
Philippe Cudré-Mauroux.
2. Language Resources and Linked Data. By Jorge Gracia, Asuncion Gomez-
Perez, Sebastian Hellmann, John McCrae, Roberto Navigli, and Daniel Vila-
Suero.

The workshop and tutorial programs were chaired by Eva Blomqvist from
Linköping University, Sweden, as well as Valentina Presutti from STLab ISTC-
CNR, Italy.
 Preface VII

Finally, EKAW 2014 also featured a demo and poster session. We encour-
aged contributions that were likely to stimulate critical or controversial discus-
sions about any of the areas of the EKAW conference series. We also invited
developers to showcase their systems and the benefit they can bring to a partic-
ular application. The demo and poster programs of EKAW 2014 were chaired
by Guilin Qi from the Southeast University, China, and Uli Sattler from the
University of Manchester, UK.
The conference organization also included Axel-Cyrille Ngonga Ngomo from
the Universität Leipzig, Germany, as the sponsorship chair, Henrik Eriksson
and Patrick Lambrix both from Linköping University, Sweden, took care of lo-
cal arrangements, and Zlatan Dragisic and Valentina Ivanova from Linköping
University, Sweden, acted as Web presence chairs. Eero Hyvönen from Aalto
University, Finland, and Patrick Lambrix from Linköping University, Sweden,
were the general chairs of EKAW 2014.
Thanks to everybody, including attendees at the conference, for making
EKAW 2014 a successful event.

November 2014 Patrick Lambrix

Eero Hyvönen
Krzysztof Janowicz
Stefan Schlobach
 Organization

The 19th EKAW 2014 conference in Linköping was organized by the following
team.

Executive Committee
General Chairs
Patrick Lambrix Linköping University, Sweden
Eero Hyvönen Aalto University, Finland

Program Chairs
Krzysztof Janowicz University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Stefan Schlobach VU University, The Netherlands

Workshop and Tutorial Chairs

Eva Blomqvist Linköping University, Sweden
Valentina Presutti STLab ISTC-CNR, Italy

Demo and Poster Chairs

Guilin Qi Southeast University, China
Uli Sattler University of Manchester, UK

Sponsorship Chair
Axel-Cyrille Ngomo Leipzig University, Germany

Doctoral Consortium Chairs

Ying Ding Indiana University Bloomington, USA
Chiara Ghidini FBK, Italy

Local Organization Chairs

Patrick Lambrix Linköping University, Sweden
Henrik Eriksson Linköping University, Sweden

Web Presence Chairs

Zlatan Dragisic Linköping University, Sweden
Valentina Ivanova Linköping University, Sweden
X Organization

Program Committee
Benjamin Adams The University of Auckland, Australia
Lora Aroyo VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Sören Auer University of Bonn and Fraunhofer IAIS,
Germany
Nathalie Aussenac-Gilles IRIT Toulouse, France
Andrea Ballatore UCD Dublin, Ireland
Wouter Beek VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Olivier Bodenreider US National Library of Medicine, USA
Joost Breuker University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Christopher Brewster Aston University, Birmingham, UK
Liliana Cabral CSIRO, Australia
Vinay Chaudhri SRI International, USA
Michelle Cheatham Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio, USA
Paolo Ciancarini University of Bologna, Italy
Philipp Cimiano University of Bielefeld, Germany
Paul Compton The University of New South Wales, Australia
Olivier Corby Inria, France
Ronald Cornet AMC - Universiteit van Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
Claudia D’Amato University of Bari. Italy
Mathieu D’Aquin The Open University, UK
Aba-Sah Dadzie University of Birmingham, UK
Victor de Boer VU Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Stefan Decker DERI Galway, Ireland
Daniele Dell’Aglio DEI, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Emanuele Della Valle DEI, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Klaas Dellschaft University Koblenz-Landau, Germany
Zlatan Dragisic Linköping University, Sweden
Henrik Eriksson Linköping University, Sweden
Dieter Fensel University of Innsbruck, Austria
Jesualdo Tomás
Fernández-Breis Universidad de Murcia, Spain
Antske Fokkens VU Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Aldo Gangemi Université Paris 13 and CNR-ISTC, France
Serge Garlatti Telecom Bretagne, France
Dragan Gasevic Athabasca University, Canada
Chiara Ghidini FBK-irst, Italy
Luca Gilardoni Quinary
Paul Groth VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Michael Gruninger University of Toronto, Canada
Jon Atle Gulla Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Norway
 Organization XI

Christophe Guéret Data Archiving and Networked Services

(DANS)
Asunción Gómez-Pérez Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Peter Haase fluid Operations
Harry Halpin World Wide Web Consortium
Tom Heath Open Data Institute
Martin Hepp Bundeswehr University of Munich, Germany
Jesper Hoeksema VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Rinke Hoekstra University of Amsterdam/VU University
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Aidan Hogan Universidad de Chile, Chile
Matthew Horridge Stanford University, USA
Andreas Hotho University of Würzburg, Germany
Yingjie Hu University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Zhisheng Huang Vrije University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Antoine Isaac Europeana and VU University Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
Valentina Ivanova Linköping University, Sweden
C. Maria Keet University of Cape Town, South Africa
Adila A. Krisnadhi Wright State University, USA, and Universitas
Indonesia
Wolfgang Maass Saarland University, Germany
Grant McKenzie University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Albert Meroño Peñuela VU University Amsterdam, DANS, KNAW,
The Netherlands
Peter Mika Yahoo! Research
Michele Missikoff IASI-CNR
Riichiro Mizoguchi Japan Advanced Institute of Science
and Technology
Dunja Mladenic Jozef Stefan Institute, Slovenia
Andrea Moro Sapienza, Università di Roma, Italy
Enrico Motta Knowledge Media Institute, The
Open University, UK
Raghavan Mutharaju Kno.e.sis Center, Wright State University, USA
Axel-Cyrille Ngonga Ngomo University of Leipzig, Germany
Vit Novacek DERI, National University of Ireland, Galway
Jens Ortmann Softplant GmbH
Matteo Palmonari University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy
Viktoria Pammer Know-Center Graz, Austria
Maryam Panahiazar Kno.e.sis Center, Wright State University, USA
Sujan Perera Kno.e.sis Center, Wright State University, USA
Wim Peters University of Sheffield, UK
Mohammad Taher Pilevar Student University
H. Sofia Pinto Instituto Superior Tecnico
XII Organization

Axel Polleres Vienna University of Economics and Business,

Austria
Yannick Prié LINA - University of Nantes, France
Guilin Qi Southeast University
Ulrich Reimer University of Applied Sciences St. Gallen,
Switzerland
Chantal Reynaud LRI, Université Paris-Sud, France
Laurens Rietveld VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Marco Rospocher Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy
Sebastian Rudolph Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Marta Sabou MODUL University of Vienna, Austria
Harald Sack University of Potsdam, Germany
Simon Scheider University of Münster, Germany
Kunal Sengupta University of Sydney, Australia
Luciano Serafini Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy
Elena Simperl University of Southampton, UK
Derek Sleeman University of Aberdeen, UK
Pavel Smrz Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic
Steffen Staab University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany
Heiner Stuckenschmidt University of Mannheim, Germany
Rudi Studer Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT),
Germany
Mari Carmen Suárez-Figueroa Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Ondrej Svab-Zamazal University of Economics, Prague,
Czech Republic
Vojtěch Svátek University of Economics, Prague,
Czech Republic
Valentina Tamma University of Liverpool, UK
Annette Ten Teije VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Robert Tolksdorf Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Ioan Toma University of Innsbruck, Austria
Francky Trichet LINA - University of Nantes, France
Giovanni Tummarello DERI, National University of Ireland Galway
Marieke Van Erp VU University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Frank Van Harmelen Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Iraklis Varlamis Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
Fabio Vitali Università di Bologna, Italy
Johanna Völker University of Mannheim, Germany
Hannes Werthner Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Fouad Zablith American University of Beirut, Lebanon
 Organization XIII

Additional Reviewers

Abu Helou, Mamoun Muñoz, Emir

Bozzato, Loris Neidhardt, Julia
Costabello, Luca Nuzzolese, Andrea Giovanni
Ell, Basil Petrucci, Giulio
Faerber, Michael Pinkel, Christoph
Fensel, Anna Pobiedina, Nataliia
Fleischhacker, Daniel Schreiber, Guus
Garcı́a, José Marı́a Taglino, Francesco
Gentile, Anna Lisa Thalhammer, Andreas
Hentschel, Christian Thomas, Christopher
Huan, Gao Waitelonis, Joerg
Kapanipathi, Pavan Wijeratne, Sanjaya
Knuth, Magnus Wu, Tianxing
Lasierra Beamonte, Nelia Zhang, Lei
Mosso, Pierluigi
Keynote Papers
 Concepts in Motion

Arianna Betti

Universiteit van Amsterdam

ariannabetti@gmail.com

Abstract. The history of ideas traces the development of ideas such as

evolution, liberty, or science in human thought as represented in texts.
Recent contributions [2] suggest that the increasing quantities of digitally
available historical data can be of invaluable help to historians of ideas.
However, these and similar contributions usually apply generic com-
puter methods, simple n-gram analyses and shallow NLP tools to histor-
ical textual material. This practice contrasts strikingly with the reality
of research in the history of ideas and related fields such as history of sci-
ence. Researchers in this area typically apply painstakingly fine-grained
analyses to diverse textual material of extremely high conceptual density.
Can these opposites be reconciled? In other words: Is a digital history of
ideas possible?
Yes, I argue, but only by requiring historians of ideas to provide ex-
plicitly structured semantic framing of domain knowledge before inves-
tigating texts computationally (models in the sense of [1]), and to con-
stantly re-input findings from the interpretive point of view in a process
of semi-automatic ontology extraction.
This is joint work with Hein van den Berg.

References
1. Betti, A., van den Berg, H.: Modeling the History of Ideas. British Journal for the
History of Philosophy 22(3) (2014) (forthcoming)
2. Michel, J.B., Yuan Kui, S., Aviva Presser, A., Veres, A., Gray, M.K., Pickett, J.P.,
Hoiberg, D.: Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Sci-
ence 331(6014), 176–182 (2011)
Ontology Engineering for and by the Masses:
Are We Already There?

Oscar Corcho

Universidad Politecnica de Madrid

Abstract. We can assume that most of the attendees to this confer-

ence have created or contributed to the development of at least one
ontology, and many of them have several years of experience in ontology
development. The area of ontology engineering is already quite mature,
hence creating ontologies should not be a very difficult task. We have
methodologies that guide us in the process of ontology development; we
have plenty of techniques that we can use, from the knowledge acqui-
sition stages to ontology usage; we have tools that facilitate the tran-
sition from our ontology conceptualizations to actual implementations,
including support for tasks like debugging, documenting, modularising,
reasoning, and a large etcétera. However, how many ontology developers
are there now in the world? Are they hundreds, thousands, tens of thou-
sands maybe? Not as many as we may like. . . In fact, whenever I setup
an heterogeneous ontology development team in a domain, I still find lots
of difficulties to get the team running at full speed and with high quality
results. In this talk I will share some of my most recent experiences on
the setup of several small ontology development teams, composed of a
combination of city managers, policy makers and computer scientists, for
the development of a set of ontologies for an upcoming technical norm
on “Open Data for Smart Cities”, and will discuss on the main success
factors as well as threats and weaknesses of the process, with the hope
that this can give some light towards making ontology engineering more
accessible to all.
 Ontology Design Patterns for Large-Scale Data
Interchange and Discovery

Pascal Hitzler

Data Semantics (DaSe) Laboratory, Wright State University, USA

pascal.hitzler@wright.edu
http://www.pascal-hitzler.de

Abstract. Data and information integration remains a major challenge

for our modern information-driven society whereby people and organi-
zations often have to deal with large data volumes coming from seman-
tically heterogeneous sources featuring significant variety between them.
In this context, data integration aims to provide a unified view over
data residing at different sources through a global schema, which can
be formalized as an ontology. From the end-users perspective, the data
integration problem can be seen as a data access problem whereby the
emphasis is on how such a unified view should help the nontechnical end-
users in accessing the data from such heterogeneous sources. Early efforts
to solve these problems led to a number of relational database integration
approaches which have been very useful in specific situations. Unfortu-
nately, they still require very significant manual efforts in creating and
maintaining the mappings between the global and local schema, as the
resulting integrations are often rigid and not transferable to new appli-
cation scenarios without investing even more human expert resources,
and furthermore, the global schema expressivity is limited which makes
it difficult for the end-users to pose ad-hoc queries for their information
needs.
Ontology design patterns have been conceived as modular and reusable
building blocks for ontology modeling. We argue that a principled use of
ontology design patterns also improve large-scale data integration under
heterogeneity, as compared to the use of a monolithic ontology as global
schema. In particular, the adoption of ontology design patterns can sim-
plify several key aspects of the ontology application life cycle, including
knowledge acquisition from experts, collaborative modeling and updates,
incorporation of different perspectives, data-model alignment, and social
barriers to adoption.
We report on recent progress we have made with this approach as
part of our work on improving data discovery in the Earth Sciences, and
point out key challenges on the road ahead.

Acknowledgments. This work was supported by the National Science Foun-

dation awards 1017225 III: Small: TROn – Tractable Reasoning with Ontologies,
1354778 EAGER: Collaborative Research: EarthCube Building Blocks, Lever-
aging Semantics and Linked Data for Geoscience Data Sharing and Discovery
XX P. Hitzler

(OceanLink), and 1440202 EarthCube Building Blocks: Collaborative Research:

GeoLink – Leveraging Semantics and Linked Data for Data Sharing and Discov-
ery in the Geosciences. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommenda-
tions expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

References
1. Cheatham, M., Hitzler, P.: String similarity metrics for ontology alignment. In:
Alani, H., Kagal, L., Fokoue, A., Groth, P., Biemann, C., Parreira, J.X., Aroyo, L.,
Noy, N., Welty, C., Janowicz, K. (eds.) ISWC 2013, Part II. LNCS, vol. 8219, pp.
294–309. Springer, Heidelberg (2013)
2. Cheatham, M., Hitzler, P.: The properties of property alignment. In: Proceedings
OM-2014, The Ninth International Workshop on Ontology Matching, at the 13th
International Semantic Web Conference, ISWC 2014, Riva del Garda, Trentino,
Italy (to appear, October 2014)
3. Hitzler, P., Janowicz, K.: Linked Data, Big Data, and the 4th Paradigm. Semantic
Web 4(3), 233–235 (2013)
4. Hitzler, P., Krötzsch, M., Rudolph, S.: Foundations of Semantic Web Technologies.
Chapman & Hall/CRC (2010)
5. Jain, P., Hitzler, P., Sheth, A.P., Verma, K., Yeh, P.Z.: Ontology alignment for
linked open data. In: Patel-Schneider, P.F., Pan, Y., Hitzler, P., Mika, P., Zhang,
L., Pan, J.Z., Horrocks, I., Glimm, B. (eds.) ISWC 2010, Part I. LNCS, vol. 6496,
pp. 402–417. Springer, Heidelberg (2010)
6. Jain, P., Hitzler, P., Yeh, P.Z., Verma, K., Sheth, A.P.: Linked Data is Merely More
Data. In: Brickley, D., Chaudhri, V.K., Halpin, H., McGuinness, D. (eds.) Linked
Data Meets Artificial Intelligence, pp. 82–86. AAAI Press, Menlo Park (2010)
7. Janowicz, K., van Harmelen, F., Hendler, J.A., Hitzler, P.: Why the data train needs
semantic rails. AI Magazine (to appear, 2014)
8. Janowicz, K., Hitzler, P.: The Digital Earth as knowledge engine. Semantic Web
3(3), 213–221 (2012)
9. Krisnadhi, A., Arko, R., Carbotte, S., Chandler, C., Cheatham, M., Finin, T., Hit-
zler, P., Janowicz, K., Narock, T., Raymond, L., Shepherd, A., Wiebe, P.: An on-
tology pattern for oceanograhic cruises: Towards an oceanograhper’s dream of inte-
grated knowledge discovery. Tech. Rep. 2014.1, OceanLink Technical Report (2014),
http://pascal-hitzler.de/
 Table of Contents

Automatic Ontology Population from Product Catalogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Céline Alec, Chantal Reynaud-Delaı̂tre, Brigitte Safar, Zied Sellami,
and Uriel Berdugo

Measuring Similarity in Ontologies: A New Family of Measures . . . . . . . . 13

Tahani Alsubait, Bijan Parsia, and Uli Sattler

Relation Extraction from the Web Using Distant Supervision . . . . . . . . . . 26

Isabelle Augenstein, Diana Maynard, and Fabio Ciravegna

Inductive Lexical Learning of Class Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Lorenz Bühmann, Daniel Fleischhacker, Jens Lehmann,
Andre Melo, and Johanna Völker

Question Generation from a Knowledge Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Vinay K. Chaudhri, Peter E. Clark, Adam Overholtzer,
and Aaron Spaulding

Inconsistency Monitoring in a Large Scientific Knowledge Base . . . . . . . . 66

Vinay K. Chaudhri, Rahul Katragadda, Jeff Shrager,
and Michael Wessel

Pay-As-You-Go Multi-user Feedback Model for Ontology Matching . . . . . 80

Isabel F. Cruz, Francesco Loprete, Matteo Palmonari, Cosmin Stroe,
and Aynaz Taheri

Information Flow within Relational Multi-context Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Luı́s Cruz-Filipe, Graça Gaspar, and Isabel Nunes

Using Linked Data to Diversify Search Results a Case Study in Cultural

Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chris Dijkshoorn, Lora Aroyo, Guus Schreiber, Jan Wielemaker,
and Lizzy Jongma

Personalised Access to Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Milan Dojchinovski and Tomas Vitvar

Roadmapping and Navigating in the Ontology Visualization

Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Marek Dudáš, Ondřej Zamazal, and Vojtěch Svátek
XXII Table of Contents

aLDEAS: A Language to Define Epiphytic Assistance Systems . . . . . . . . . 153

Blandine Ginon, Stéphanie Jean-Daubias, Pierre-Antoine Champin,
and Marie Lefevre
Ontology Design Pattern Property Specialisation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Karl Hammar
The uComp Protégé Plugin: Crowdsourcing Enabled Ontology
Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Florian Hanika, Gerhard Wohlgenannt, and Marta Sabou
Futures Studies Methods for Knowledge Management in Academic
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Sabine Kadlubek, Stella Schulte-Cörne, Florian Welter,
Anja Richert, and Sabina Jeschke
Adaptive Concept Vector Space Representation Using Markov Chain
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Zenun Kastrati and Ali Shariq Imran
A Core Ontology of Macroscopic Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
C. Maria Keet
Feasibility of Automated Foundational Ontology Interchangeability . . . . . 225
Zubeida Casmod Khan and C. Maria Keet
Automating Cross-Disciplinary Defect Detection in Multi-disciplinary
Engineering Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Olga Kovalenko, Estefanı́a Serral, Marta Sabou, Fajar J. Ekaputra,
Dietmar Winkler, and Stefan Biffl
Querying the Global Cube: Integration of Multidimensional Datasets
from the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Benedikt Kämpgen, Steffen Stadtmüller, and Andreas Harth
VOWL 2: User-Oriented Visualization of Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Steffen Lohmann, Stefan Negru, Florian Haag, and Thomas Ertl
What Is Linked Historical Data? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Albert Meroño-Peñuela and Rinke Hoekstra
A Quality Assurance Workflow for Ontologies Based on Semantic
Regularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Eleni Mikroyannidi, Manuel Quesada-Martı́nez,
Dmitry Tsarkov, Jesualdo Tomás Fernández Breis, Robert Stevens,
and Ignazio Palmisano
Adaptive Knowledge Propagation in Web Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Pasquale Minervini, Claudia d’Amato, Nicola Fanizzi,
and Floriana Esposito
 Table of Contents XXIII

Using Event Spaces, Setting and Theme to Assist the Interpretation

and Development of Museum Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Paul Mulholland, Annika Wolff, Eoin Kilfeather, and Evin McCarthy
Functional-Logic Programming for Web Knowledge Representation,
Sharing and Querying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Matthias Nickles
Inferring Semantic Relations by User Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Francesco Osborne and Enrico Motta
A Hybrid Semantic Approach to Building Dynamic Maps of Research
Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Francesco Osborne, Giuseppe Scavo, and Enrico Motta
Logical Detection of Invalid SameAs Statements in RDF Data . . . . . . . . . 373
Laura Papaleo, Nathalie Pernelle, Fatiha Saı̈s, and Cyril Dumont
Integrating Know-How into the Linked Data Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Paolo Pareti, Benoit Testu, Ryutaro Ichise, Ewan Klein,
and Adam Barker
A Dialectical Approach to Selectively Reusing Ontological
Correspondences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Terry R. Payne and Valentina Tamma
Uncovering the Semantics of Wikipedia Pagelinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Valentina Presutti, Sergio Consoli, Andrea Giovanni Nuzzolese,
Diego Reforgiato Recupero, Aldo Gangemi, Ines Bannour,
and Haı̈fa Zargayouna
Closed-World Concept Induction for Learning in OWL Knowledge
Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
David Ratcliffe and Kerry Taylor
YASGUI: Feeling the Pulse of Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Laurens Rietveld and Rinke Hoekstra
Tackling the Class-Imbalance Learning Problem in Semantic Web
Knowledge Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Giuseppe Rizzo, Claudia d’Amato, Nicola Fanizzi,
and Floriana Esposito
On the Collaborative Development of Application Ontologies:
A Practical Case Study with a SME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Marco Rospocher, Elena Cardillo, Ivan Donadello,
and Luciano Serafini
Relationship-Based Top-K Concept Retrieval for Ontology Search . . . . . . 485
Anila Sahar Butt, Armin Haller, and Lexing Xie
XXIV Table of Contents

A Knowledge Driven Approach towards the Validation of Externally

Acquired Traceability Datasets in Supply Chain Business Processes . . . . 503
Monika Solanki and Christopher Brewster

Testing OWL Axioms against RDF Facts: A Possibilistic Approach . . . . . 519

Andrea G.B. Tettamanzi, Catherine Faron-Zucker,
and Fabien Gandon

Quantifying the Bias in Data Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

Ilaria Tiddi, Mathieu d’Aquin, and Enrico Motta

Using Neural Networks to Aggregate Linked Data Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

Ilaria Tiddi, Mathieu d’Aquin, and Enrico Motta

Temporal Semantics: Time-Varying Hashtag Sense Clustering . . . . . . . . . . 563

Giovanni Stilo and Paola Velardi

Using Ontologies: Understanding the User Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

Paul Warren, Paul Mulholland, Trevor Collins, and Enrico Motta

A Conceptual Model for Detecting Interactions among Medical

Recommendations in Clinical Guidelines: A Case-Study
on Multimorbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Veruska Zamborlini, Rinke Hoekstra, Marcos da Silveira,
Cédric Pruski, Annette ten Teije, and Frank van Harmelen

Learning with Partial Data for Semantic Table Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . 607

Ziqi Zhang

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

 Automatic Ontology Population
from Product Catalogs

Céline Alec1 , Chantal Reynaud-Delaître1 , Brigitte Safar1 , Zied Sellami2 ,

and Uriel Berdugo2
1
LRI, CNRS UMR 8623, Université Paris-Sud, France
{celine.alec,chantal.reynaud,brigitte.safar}@lri.fr
2
Wepingo, 6 Cour Saint Eloi, Paris, France
{zied.sellami,uriel.berdugo}@wepingo.com

Abstract. In this paper we present an approach for ontology population

based on heterogeneous documents describing commercial products with
various descriptions and diverse styles. The originality is the generation
and progressive refinement of semantic annotations leading to identify
the types of the products and their features whereas the initial informa-
tion is very poor quality. Documents are annotated using an ontology.
The annotation process is based on an initial set of known instances, this
set being built from terminological elements added in the ontology. Our
approach first uses semi-automated annotation techniques on a small
dataset and then applies machine learning techniques in order to fully
annotate the entire dataset. This work was motivated by specific appli-
cation needs. Experimentations were conducted on real-world datasets
in the toys domain.

Keywords: ontology population, semantic annotation, B2C application.

1 Introduction

Today in B2C (Business to Consumer) applications many products and infor-

mation are available to users over the Internet, but the volume and the variety
of the sources make it difficult to find the right product quickly and easily. In a
typical 3-tier architecture the business layer is devoted to extracting and orga-
nizing the data and the information to be later presented to the users. Ontologies
can help to analyze data and understand them, acting in fact as intermediaries
between end-users’ requirements and suppliers’ products. An ontology is a con-
ceptualization of a particular domain [6]. It represents concepts, attributes and
relations between concepts.
In this paper, we will use a specific ontology in which each concept denotes a
category of products and has properties defined according to the users’ searching
requirements. Given a description of a product extracted from a supplier catalog,
our approach will find the concepts in the ontology for which the product should
be an instance. The problem of matching an item from a catalog across multiple

K. Janowicz et al. (Eds.): EKAW 2014, LNAI 8876, pp. 1–12, 2014.
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
2 C. Alec et al.

product categories in an ontology is related to ontology population in ontology

engineering. Although multiple approaches have been proposed [10], to the best
of our knowledge none have been evaluated on instances with very poor and
non contextualized descriptions and coming from heterogeneous sources. In our
case, we need to look for concepts in an ontology based on the values of very
few facets. We propose an approach to annotate products in an automated way,
then these annotated products will be introduced as individuals in the ontology
making them accessible to the end-users. The originality of our approach relies
on its capability to generate and progressively refine annotations even starting
from short and not precise descriptions. Once a certain amount of instances
have been semi-automatically annotated, we use machine learning techniques to
identify concepts that can be associated with new instances in order to fully
annotate the catalog. This approach is catalog- and domain-independent but
more particularly suitable to be used with ontologies that are classifications of
products and features.
Our work is motivated by specific application needs, in the context of a col-
laboration with the Wepingo start-up1 which aims at using semantic web tech-
nologies with B2C applications. We show our results on the basis of a domain
ontology and product catalogs provided by the company.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 exposes the
domain and the data. Section 3 presents existing research work that relates to
ours. In Section 4 we detail our approach. Experiments are presented in Section
5. Finally, Section 6 concludes the presentation and outlines future work.

2 Domain and Data

In this section we present both the ontology in the toys domain and the docu-
ments to be annotated. Both the ontology and the catalogs are in French but
have been translated into English in the examples described in this paper.

2.1 The ESAR Ontology

The ESAR ontology (cf. Figure 1) describes the knowledge related to the toys
domain in accordance with the ESAR standard defined by psychologists [5]. This
standard identifies toys’ categories and features into two independent classifica-
tions. Toys’ categories refer to the types of toys such as Building kit or Game of
chance, while features refer to educational values transmitted by a toy such as
Concentration or Dexterity, or to its general purpose such as Cooperative game or
Associative game. An example of category is presented in Table 1.
The ESAR ontology is defined as OESAR = (CESAR , LESAR , HESAR , AttESAR ,
AESAR ). CESAR consists of a set of concepts composed of 33 categories and 129
features which are not interrelated. The lexicon LESAR consists of a set of lexical
entries for the concepts and is provided with a reference function F : 2L → 2C ,
1
www.wepingo.com
 Automatic Ontology Population from Product Catalogs 3

which maps sets of lexical units to sets of concepts. The lexicon is composed of
two subsets of terms: Label and Ex. Each concept c ∈ C ESAR is associated with
at least one label in Label. Ex consists of examples for some leaf concepts (cf.
Table 1). LESAR (c) is the set of terms of LESAR denoting the concept c. HESAR
is a small set of subsumption relationships between concepts. AttESAR is the set
of attributes defining the concepts, restricted in this ontology to the attribute
Def inition. Furthermore, the set of axioms is denoted as AESAR . This set is
initially empty. Our approach enables to complete it.

Table 1. The Staging game concept

Label Staging game

Definition Pretend game in which the player
is the director. He creates scenarios
developed to reproduce specific top-
ics, specific scenes, events, jobs, etc.
These types of games require to be
able to stage the relevant accessories
to the context or the shown situation.
Fig. 1. The ESAR ontology Ex playmobil, puppet, figurine, ...

2.2 Documents to Be Annotated

The documents, denoted in this work as Corpus, are sheets from several catalogs
describing a toy by its label, its brand, its description which is short and not
contextualized, and its category. Note that the category here is not the same as
in OESAR . It varies widely depending on the supplier. It can be very general as
Toy or Games, as very specific as HABA cubes and beads to assemble or Brick, and
sometimes difficult to interpret as Bosch or United Colors. The form and content of
the descriptions are far away from the concept definitions in OESAR . An example
of a toy specification is shown in Figure 2a.

3 Related Work
Ontology population methods differ according to whether the ontology is rich or
light-weight. Here, we will focus on methods suitable for light-weight ontologies.
The reader can learn more on methods working with rich ontologies, for ex-
ample in [10]. With light-weight ontologies, population methods largely depend
on the analysis of texts present in properties of the input data. Text analysis
approaches can be classified into two fundamental types: linguistic and statisti-
cal approaches. Linguistic approaches rely on formulations in texts in order to
identify knowledge-rich contexts [1], they try to extract named entities or other
elements by eventually using additional semantic resources such as glossaries, dic-
tionaries or knowledge bases. On the other hand, statistical approaches [9] treat
4 C. Alec et al.

a text as a whole and take advantage of redundancy, regularities, co-occurrences,

or other linguistic trend behaviours.
Ontology population methods use text analysis techniques to find mentions
in the documents referring to concepts in the ontology. This corresponds to a
semantic annotation process. Semantic annotation methods can be classified into
two primary categories [11], (1)pattern-based with either patterns automatically
discovered or manually defined and (2)machine learning-based which use either
statistical models to predict the location of entities within texts or induction.
All the works cited so far refer directly to the information extraction and
semantic annotation domain. They consist in looking for textual fragments in
documents that mention concepts or instances of concepts belonging to the ontol-
ogy and linking these fragments to the concepts which are referred to. However,
our objective is slightly different, original and challenging. We are seeking to
understand whether a whole document, such as a specification of a product, fits
into the description of a concept in the ontology. If it is, the product will be
represented in the ontology as an instance of that concept. Consequently, our
research goal is closer to [8] and [2]. Their similar aim is to evaluate proximity
between the description of a general element (e.g. a job or an ontology concept)
and more specific elements (e.g. applications or concept instances). In [8] the
authors focus on matching job candidates through their CV, cover letters and
job offers. Documents having to be compared are represented with vectors and
their proximity is computed using combinations of various similarity measures
(Cosine, Minkowski, and so on). By contrast, in [2] where the goal is to auto-
matically populate a concept hierarchy describing hotel services, the approach
relies on an initial set of instances given by an expert. Each hotel service, de-
fined by hotelkeepers with their own vocabulary, is compared to these initial
instances. A service is considered as an instance of the concept corresponding to
the closest instance following similarity calculation based on n-grams. These two
approaches are interesting but they do not deal with very short, heterogeneous
and unstructured documents, especially with product catalogs created for trade
purposes. Under these conditions, the use of similarity measures is inappropri-
ate. Thus, our approach does not use similarity measures but, instead, it enables
to annotate documents based on an initial set of known instances, this set being
built from terminological elements added in the ontology [12].

4 Ontology Population: Methodology

The ontology populating approach consists in generating a knowledge base
BC(O, I, W ) from the ontology O with W : 2I → 2C , a member function which
maps sets of instances belonging to I to sets of concepts belonging to C.
The workflow of our methodology is the following. It first enhances OESAR by
adding terminological knowledge. This step can be viewed as a pre-processing
phase. The enriched ontology is used to annotate a sample of documents in a
semi-automatic way. These annotations are then exploited by machine learning
techniques applied to all documents in the Corpus to be annotated. These various
phases applied to toys’ domain are detailed in the following sections.
 Automatic Ontology Population from Product Catalogs 5

4.1 Ontology Enrichment

OESAR is enriched by adding two types of elements thanks to domain experts

intervention. We added new terms associated with concepts to LESAR and state-
ments about concepts represented as axioms in AESAR .
Completing LESAR is like enriching the terminological part of the ontology.
Examples extracted from external resources have been added to Ex. These ad-
ditions are names of toys or games extracted from a website2 using the ESAR
classification and names of sport games extracted from Wikipedia. We also added
new terminological elements: linguistic signs and complex linguistic signs. Lin-
guistic signs, called LS, are terms or expressions denoting a concept. Musical or
speaking are examples of linguistic signs associated with the concept Sound game.
Complex linguistic signs, called CompLS, in the form "term and [no] term and
[no] term ..." help to make each concept different from the others. For instance,
there are two types of dominoes game. A domino game can be an Association game
with numbered dominoes to be connected or it can be a Construction game with
dominoes placed in order to build a path, a bridge or other structures. The use
of complex signs allows to distinguish these two types of games. The Construction
game will be evoked by the joint presence of the terms domino and construction
while the Association game will be evoked by the presence of the term domino and
the absence of the term construction. Due to the fact that examples and linguistic
signs are very different, we choose to keep them separated but the annotation
process exploits them in the same way. After enrichment LESAR will be in the
form LESAR = {Label ∪ Ex ∪ LS ∪ CompLS}.

Axioms added in AESAR are of two types:

1) Reliable knowledge having a very high degree of accuracy. These axioms are
represented with propositional rules of two types. Incompatibility rules between
concepts give priority to one of them. They are in the form: if conceptA and
conceptB then no conceptA . Dependency rules represent either inclusions or
missing relations between concepts. They are in the form: if conceptA then
conceptB .
2) Heuristic knowledge allowing potential features to be inferred from categories,
those features that seem to be associated with a category. These rules are auto-
matically generated, based on examples and linguistic signs which are common
to categories and features, respectively denoted Cat and Feat, as follows:
∀ cati ∈ Cat, ∀ f eatk ∈ F eat,
If ∃v ∈ LESAR (cati ) such as v ∈ LESAR (f eatk ),
then create the rule: cati ⇒ f eatk .
potentially

In this way, for example, Skill game potentially implies Eye-hand coordination
and this is deduced since both elements in the rule share the same example
spinning-top. The set of rules was then manually completed.

2
http://www.jeuxrigole.com/liste-des-jeux.html
6 C. Alec et al.

4.2 Annotation of a Representative Sample of the Domain

The annotation process aims at finding as many relevant candidate annotations
as possible for a given product. It proceeds in four steps:
1. Generate an initial set: the construction of an initial set of candidate anno-
tations defining the interpretation context of a product;
2. Find inconsistencies: the identification of inconsistencies that correspond to
incompatible annotations in the interpretation context;
3. Imply concepts: the completion of the candidate annotations by adding im-
plied concepts;
4. Manually validate the set of candidate annotations.

4.2.1. Generate an Initial Set

The annotation generation process of the toy sheets is based on the set lemme(c)
of each concept c, lemme(c) being a set of lemmas of the lexicon LESAR . Lemmas
of available information on toys, e.g. their name, brand, category and description,
are stored in info(t) for each toy t described in the Corpus.
∀c ∈ C ESAR , lemme(c) = lemmatisation(LESAR(c))
∀t ∈ Corpus, inf o(t) = lemmatisation{N ame(t)∪Brand(t)∪Cat(t)∪Desc(t)}

(a) An example of a toy specification (b) The Staging game concept

Fig. 2. An example of an annotation

The annotation generation process is a search of word inclusions. For a concept

c, it detects if information about a toy t includes an element of lemme(c). If it
is, the toy t is annoted with the concept c, as a category or a feature.
∀t ∈ Corpus, ∀c ∈ C ESAR ,
If ∃v ∈ lemme(c) such as v ∈ inf o(t) then t instanceOf c.
In complex linguistic signs, terms preceded by the word no are referred to
as negative terms and the others as positive terms. We consider that a toy t
contains a complex linguistic sign cls if:
∀ pt ∈ P ositiveT erms(cls), ∀ nt ∈ N egativeT erms(cls),
pt ∈ inf o(t) and nt ∈
/ inf o(t)
 Automatic Ontology Population from Product Catalogs 7

The first annotations generated in this step form the interpretation context
of a toy t defined as follows: Ctxt(t) = {c | t instanceOf c}.
For instance, the toy’ specification in Figure 2a contains the playmobil term
which is an example of the Staging game concept. Therefore this toy is annotated
by the Staging game concept. Similarly the bike term leads to annotate it with
Motor game and the figurine term allows to add the Expressive creativity, Reproduction
of roles and Reproduction of events features.
Analyzing such a context is easier than analyzing unstructured textual docu-
ments. The next steps require sets of rules applicable to the results obtained at
the previous step. These steps are described hereafter.

4.2.2. Find Inconsistencies

Searching inconsistencies is a refinement process aiming at detecting and elimi-
nating erroneous concepts from the interpretation context of a toy. The objective
is to enhance the precision of the results. Incompatibility rules introduced dur-
ing the enrichment step are applied to contexts. Indeed, contexts may include
several concepts and some of them have to be removed in the presence of others.
The result is A1 , a set of annotations such as A1 (t) ⊂ Ctxt(t). For instance, the
toy in figure 2a has been annotated as Motor game in step 1 because the bike term
is included into the description, when it is not a real bike but a miniature. In
that particular context, the Motor game annotation is not suitable. This incon-
sistency is easier to detect by checking it against the other annotations in the
context than by seeking to finely understand the toy description. Applying the
r1 incompatibility rule: if Staging game and Motor game then no Motor game,
allows to remove the unsuitable annotation.

4.2.3. Imply Concepts

As the aim of the previous step is to detect inconsistencies, the precision of the
annotations is enhanced. This step aims to improve the annotations. We enhance
recall by taking advantage of all the accurate implications between concepts,
represented in the initial or in the enriched ontology. Additional annotations
can be identified. At the end of this step, we obtain A2 , a set of annotations
such as A1 (t) ⊂ A2 (t). For instance, based on the two dependency rules, if
Endurance then Sport game and if Sport game then Motor game, a toy already
annotated with the concept Endurance will also be, as a result, annotated by the
two concepts Sport game and Motor game.
Figure 3 is an illustration of the search of inconsistencies and then of the
completion phase related to the example in Figure 2a. Searching inconsistencies
leads to remove Motor game by applying the r1 rule. The completion step adds
the following concepts: Inventive creation and Differed imitation.
These three steps can be equally applied to category or feature concepts al-
though, in practice, very few feature annotations are found in our scenario. The
reason is that our features are abstract notions denoted by limited linguistic
signs. Consequently, additional reasoning steps are necessary in order to dis-
cover more feature annotations, from the category annotations found before.
8 C. Alec et al.

Fig. 3. Illustration of searching inconsistencies and completion steps

This process is based on two heuristics relying on already recognized category

annotations.
The first heuristic is the identification of features which are common to toys
already annotated and validated by users and belonging to the same category as
the toy under study. The result is Ap , a set of annotations such as A2 (t) ⊂ Ap (t).
Ap is the set of default proposed annotations.
The second heuristic is the application of potential implication rules. They
are not accurate rules. However, given a toy t, their application allows to obtain
a set of additional features annotations, called As for suggested annotations.
This set of suggested annotations can be seen as a filter to remove features which
are not related to the considered toy for sure.
The confidence is higher for proposed annotations than for suggested anno-
tations, this is why we separate them into two sets. The user interface for the
manual validation process exploits this distinction.

4.2.4. Manually Validate the Set of Candidate Annotations

Validating annotations is important because a solid basis with correct anno-
tations is needed for the machine learning part. The software which generates
the annotations is implemented with a user graphical interface. For each toy,
the interface displays the proposed annotations and, in a different way, the sug-
gested ones. It allows a user to confirm or modify annotations of a toy and to
add missing annotations. The interface is dynamic: if the user adds or deletes
annotations, the implied concepts are automatically added, and the suggested
features are modified. The user’s work is then reduced to a minimum. Once the
annotations have been validated, toys are added to IESAR .

4.3 Annotation of the Complete Corpus by Sample-Based Learning

Thanks to the tool presented in the previous sections, 316 toys have been an-
notated, represented the initial and representative sample of toys. This section
presents the phase related to a supervised learning model which operates on the
sample in order to annotate new toys. These new toys will be added in IESAR .
The linear classifier Liblinear [4], based on SVM [3] and especially advisable
for document classification [7] has been used. We built a classifier SVM for each
concept c i predicting if a toy has to be annotated or not by c i . We have therefore
built 162 SVM models, one per concept in the ontology.
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have been sufficiently described above (p. 55), and it remains only to
be mentioned that the bones of the palatine arch are but rarely
absent, as for instance in Murænophis; and that the symplectic does
not extend to the articulary of the mandible, as in Amia and
Lepidosteus, though its suspensory relation to the Meckelian
cartilage is still indicated by a ligament which connects the two
pieces. Of the mandibulary bones the articulary (35) is distinctly part
of Meckel’s cartilage. Frequently another portion of cartilage below
the articulary remains persistent, or is replaced by a separate
membrane-bone, the angular.
4. Membrane-bones of the alimentary portion of the visceral
skeleton of the skull.—The suspensorium has one tegumentary bone
attached to it, viz. the præoperculum (30); it is but rarely absent, for
instance in Murænophis. The premaxillary (17) and maxillary (18) of
the Teleostei appear to be also membrane-bones, although they are
clearly analogous to the upper labial cartilages of the Sharks. The
premaxillaries sometimes coalesce into a single piece (as in Diodon,
Mormyrus), or they are firmly united with the maxillaries (as in all
Gymnodonts, Serrasalmo, etc.) The relative position and connection
of these two bones differs much, and is a valuable character in the
discrimination of the various families. In some, the front margin of the
jaw is formed by the premaxillary only, the two bones having a
parallel position, as it has been described in the Perch (p. 53); in
others, the premaxillary is shortened, allowing the maxillary to enter,
and to complete, the margin of the upper jaw; and finally, in many no
part of the maxillary is situated behind the premaxillary, but the entire
bone is attached to the end of the premaxillary, forming its
continuation. In the last case the maxillary may be quite abortive.
The mobility of the upper jaw is greatest in those fishes in which the
premaxillary alone forms its margin. The form of the premaxillary is
subject to great variation: the beak of Belone, Xiphias is formed by
the prolonged and coalesced premaxillaries. The maxillary consists
sometimes of one piece, sometimes of two or three. The principal
membrane-bone of the mandible is the dentary (34), to which is
added the angular (36) and rarely a smaller one, the splenial or os
operculare, which is situated at the inside of the articulary.
 5. Cartilage-bones of the respiratory portion of the visceral
skeleton of the skull.—With few exceptions all the ossifications of the
hyoid and branchial arches, as described above (p. 58), belong to
this group.
6. Membrane-bones of the respiratory portion of the visceral
skeleton of the skull.—They are the following: the opercular pieces,
viz. operculum (28), sub-operculum (32), and interoperculum (33).
The last of these is the least constant; it may be entirely absent, and
represented by a ligament extending from the mandible to the hyoid.
The urohyal (42) which separates the musculi sternohyoidei, and
serves for an increased surface of their insertion; and finally the
branchiostegals (43), which vary greatly in number, but are always
fixed to the cerato- and epi-hyals.
7. Dermal bones of the skull.—To this category are referred some
bones which are ossifications of, and belong to, the cutis. They are
the turbinals (20), the suborbitals (19), and the supratemporals. They
vary much with regard to the degree in which they are developed,
and are rarely entirely absent. Nearly always they are wholly or
partly transformed into tubes or hollows, in which the muciferous
canals with their numerous nerves are lodged. Those in the temporal
and scapulary regions are not always developed; on the other hand,
the series of those ossicles may be continued on to the trunk,
accompanying the lateral line. In many fishes those of the infraorbital
ring are much dilated, protecting the entire space between the orbit
and the rim of the præoperculum; in others, especially those which
have the angle of the præoperculum armed with a powerful spine,
the infraorbital ring emits a process towards the spine, which thus
serves as a stay or support of this weapon (Scorpænidæ, Cottidæ).
The pectoral arch of the Teleosteous fishes exhibits but a
remnant of a primordial cartilage, which is replaced by two
ossifications,[10] the coracoid (51) and scapula (52); they offer
posteriorly attachment to two series of short rods, of which the
proximal are nearly always ossified, whilst the distal frequently
remain small cartilaginous nodules hidden in the base of the pectoral
rays. The bones, by which this portion is connected with the skull,
are membrane-bones, viz. the clavicle (49), with the postclavicle (49
+ 50), the supraclavicle (47), and post-temporal (46). The order of
their arrangement in the Perch has been described above (p. 59).
However, many Teleosteous fish lack pectoral fins, and in them the
pectoral arch is frequently more or less reduced or rudimentary, as in
many species of Murænidæ. In others the membrane-bones are
exceedingly strong, contributing to the outer protective armour of the
fish, and then the clavicles are generally suturally connected in the
median line. The postclavicula and the supraclavicula may be
absent. Only exceptionally the shoulder-girdle is not suspended from
the skull, but from the anterior portion of the spinous column
(Symbranchidæ, Murænidæ, Notacanthidæ). The number of basal
elements of each of the two series never exceeds five, but may be
less; and the distal series is absent in Siluroids.
The pubic bones of the Teleosteous fishes undergo many
modifications of form in the various families, but they are essentially
of the same simple type as in the Perch.
 CHAPTER V.

MYOLOGY.

In the lowest vertebrate, Branchiostoma, the whole of the

muscular mass is arranged in a longitudinal band running along each
side of the body; it is vertically divided into a number of flakes or
segments (myocommas) by aponeurotic septa, which serve as the
surfaces of insertion to the muscular fibres. But this muscular band
has no connection with the notochord except in its foremost portion,
where some relation has been formed to the visceral skeleton. A
very thin muscular layer covers the abdomen.
Also in the Cyclostomes the greatest portion of the muscular
system is without direct relation to the skeleton, and, again, it is only
on the skull and visceral skeleton where distinct muscles have been
differentiated for special functions.
To the development of the skeleton in the more highly organised
fishes corresponds a similar development of the muscles; and the
maxillary and branchial apparatus, the pectoral and ventral fins, the
vertical fins, and especially the caudal, possess a separate system
of muscles. But the most noteworthy is the muscle covering the
sides of the trunk and tail (already noticed in Branchiostoma), which
Cuvier described as the “great lateral muscle,” and which, in the
higher fishes, is a compound of many smaller segments,
corresponding in number with the vertebræ. Each lateral muscle is
divided by a median longitudinal groove into a dorsal and ventral
half; the depression in its middle is filled by an embryonal muscular
substance which contains a large quantity of fat and blood-vessels,
and therefore differs from ordinary muscle by its softer consistency,
and by its colour which is reddish or grayish. Superficially the lateral
muscle appears crossed by a number of white parallel tendinous zig-
zag stripes, forming generally three angles, of which the upper and
lower point backwards, the middle one forwards. These are the outer
edges of the aponeurotic septa between the myocommas. Each
septum is attached to the middle and the apophyses of a vertebra,
and, in the abdominal region, to its rib; frequently the septa receive
additional support by the existence of epipleural spines. The fibres of
each myocomma run straight and nearly horizontally from one
septum to the next; they are grouped so as to form semiconical
masses, of which the upper and lower have their apices turned
backwards, whilst the middle cone, formed by the contiguous parts
of the preceding, has its apex directed forward; this fits into the
interspace between the antecedent upper and lower cones, the
apices of which reciprocally enter the depressions in the succeeding
segment, whereby all the segments are firmly locked together
(Owen).
In connection with the muscles reference has to be made to the
Electric organs with which certain fishes are provided, as it is more
than probable, not only from the examination of peculiar muscular
organs occurring in the Rays, Mormyrus, and Gymnarchus (the
function of which is still conjectural), but especially from the
researches into the development of the electric organ of Torpedo,
that the electric organs have been developed out of muscular
substance. The fishes possessing fully developed electric organs,
with the power of accumulating electric force and communicating it in
the form of shocks to other animals, are the electric Rays
(Torpedinidæ), the electric Sheath-fish of tropical Africa
(Malapterurus), and the electric Eel of tropical America (Gymnotus).
The structure and arrangement of the electric organ is very different
in these fishes, and will be subsequently described in the special
account of the several species.
The phenomena attending the exercise of this extraordinary
faculty also closely resemble muscular action. The time and strength
of the discharge are entirely under the control of the fish. The power
is exhausted after some time, and it needs repose and nourishment
to restore it. If the electric nerves are cut and divided from the brain
the cerebral action is interrupted, and no irritant to the body has any
effect to excite electric discharge; but if their ends be irritated the
discharge takes place, just as a muscle is excited to contraction
under similar circumstances. And, singularly enough, the application
of strychnine causes simultaneously a tetanic state of the muscles
and a rapid succession of involuntary electric discharges. The
strength of the discharges depends entirely on the size, health, and
energy of the fish: an observation entirely agreeing with that made
on the efficacy of snake-poison. Like this latter, the property of the
electric force serves two ends in the economy of the animals which
are endowed with it; it is essential and necessary to them for
overpowering, stunning, or killing the creatures on which they feed,
whilst incidentally they use it as the means of defending themselves
from their enemies.
 CHAPTER VI.

NEUROLOGY.

The most simple condition of the nervous central organ known in

Vertebrates is found in Branchiostoma. In this fish the spinal chord
tapers at both ends, an anterior cerebral swelling, or anything
approaching a brain, being absent. It is band-like along its middle
third, and groups of darker cells mark the origins of the fifty or sixty
pairs of nerves which accompany the intermuscular septa, and
divide into a dorsal and ventral branch, as in other fishes. The two
anterior pairs pass to the membranous parts above the mouth, and
supply with nerve filaments a ciliated depression near the extremity
of the fish, which is considered to be an olfactory organ, and two
pigment spots, the rudiments of eyes. An auditory organ is absent.
The spinal chord of the Cyclostomes is flattened in its whole
extent, band-like, and elastic; also in Chimæra it is elastic, but
flattened in its posterior portion only. In all other fishes it is
cylindrical, non-ductile, and generally extending along the whole
length of the spinal canal. The Plectognaths offer a singular
exception in this respect that the spinal chord is much shortened, the
posterior portion of the canal being occupied by a long cauda
equina; this shortening of the spinal chord has become extreme in
the Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus), in which it has shrunk into a short and
conical appendage of the brain. Also in the Devil-fish (Lophius) a
long cauda equina partly conceals the chord which terminates on the
level of about the twelfth vertebra.
The brain of fishes is relatively small; in the Burbot (Lota) it has
been estimated to be 1/720th part of the weight of the entire fish, in
the Pike the 1/1305th part, and in the large Sharks it is relatively still
smaller. It never fills the entire cavity of the cranium; between the
dura mater which adheres to the inner surface of the cranial cavity,
and the arachnoidea which envelops the brain, a more or less
considerable space remains, which is filled with a soft gelatinous
mass generally containing a large quantity of fat. It has been
observed that this space is much less in young specimens than in
adult, which proves that the brain of fishes does not grow in the
same proportion as the rest of the body; and, indeed, its size is
nearly the same in individuals of which one is double the bulk of the
other.

Fig. 41.—Brain of Perch.

I. Upper aspect. II. Lower aspect.
a, cerebellum; b, optic lobes; c, hemispheres; e, lobi inferiores; f, hypophysis; g,
lobi posteriores; i, Olfactory lobes; n, N. opticus; o, N. olfactorius; p, N. oculo-
motorius; q, N. trochlearis; r, N. trigeminus; s, N. acusticus; t, N. vagus; u, N.
abducens; v, Fourth ventricle.
The brain of Osseous fishes (Fig. 41) viewed from above shows
three protuberances, respectively termed prosencephalon,
mesencephalon, and metencephalon, the two anterior of which are
paired, the hindmost being single. The foremost pair are the
hemispheres, which are solid in their interior, and provided with two
swellings in front, the olfactory lobes. The second pair are the optic
lobes, which generally are larger than the hemispheres, and
succeeded by the third single portion, the cerebellum. In the fresh
state the hemispheres are of a grayish colour, and often show some
shallow depressions on their surface; a narrow commissure of white
colour connects them with each other. The optic lobes possess a
cavity (ventriculus lobioptici), at the bottom of which some
protuberances of variable development represent the corpora
quadrigemina of higher animals. On the lower surface of the base of
the optic lobes, behind the crura cerebri, two swellings are observed,
the lobi inferiores, which slightly diverge in front for the passage of
the infundibulum, from which a generally large hypophysis or
pituitary gland is suspended. The relative size of the cerebellum
varies greatly in the different osseous fishes: in the Tunny and
Silurus it is so large as nearly to cover the optic lobes; sometimes
distinct transverse grooves and a median longitudinal groove are
visible. The cerebellum possesses in its interior a cavity which
communicates with the anterior part of the fourth ventricle. The
medulla oblongata is broader than the spinal chord, and contains the
fourth ventricle, which forms the continuation of the central canal of
the spinal chord. In most fishes a perfect roof is formed over the
fourth ventricle by two longitudinal pads, which meet each other in
the median line (lobi posteriores), and but rarely it remains open
along its upper surface.
The brain of Ganoid fishes shows great similarity to that of the
Teleostei; however, there is considerable diversity of the
arrangement of its various portions in the different types. In the
Sturgeons and Polypterus (Fig. 42) the hemispheres are more or
less remote from the mesencephalon, so that in an upper view the
crura cerebri, with the intermediate entrance into the third ventricle
(fissura cerebri magna), may be seen. A vascular membranous sac,
containing lymphatic fluid (epiphysis), takes its origin from the third
ventricle, its base being expanded over the anterior interspace of the
optic lobes, and the apex being fixed to the cartilaginous roof of the
cranium. This structure is not peculiar to the Ganoids, but found in
various stages of development in Teleosteans, marking, when
present, the boundary between prosencephalon and
mesencephalon. The lobi optici are essentially as in Teleosteans.
The cerebellum penetrates into the ventriculus lobi optici, and
extends thence into the open sinus rhomboidalis. At its upper
surface it is crossed by a commissure formed by the corpora
restiformia of the medulla.
 Fig. 42.—Brain of Polypterus. (After Müller.)
I., Upper; II., Lateral; III., Lower aspect.
a, Medulla; b, corpora restiformia; c, cerebellum; d, lobi optici; e, hypophysis; f,
fissura cerebri magna; g, nervus opticus; g’, chiasma; h, hemispheres; i, lobus
olfactorius; k, sinus rhomboidalis (fourth ventricle).
As regards external configuration, the brain of Lepidosteus and
Amia approach still more the Teleosteous type. The prosencephalon,
mesencephalon, and metencephalon are contiguous, and the
cerebellum lacks the prominent transverse commissure at its upper
surface. The sinus rhomboidalis is open.
The brain of the Dipnoi shows characters reminding us of that of
the Ganoids as well as the Chondropterygians, Ceratodus agreeing
with Protopterus in this respect, as in most other points of its
organisation. The hemispheres form the largest part of the brain;
they are coalescent, as in Sharks, but possess two lateral ventricles,
the separation being externally indicated by a shallow median
groove on the upper surface. The olfactory lobes take their origin
from the upper anterior end of the hemispheres. Epiphysis and
hypophysis well developed. The lobi optici are very small, and
remote from the prosencephalon, their division into the lateral halves
being indicated by a median groove only. The cerebellum is very
small, overlying the front part of the sinus rhomboidalis.

Fig. 43.—Brain of Carcharias. (After Owen.)

ac, Nerv. acusticus; b, corpus restiforme; c, cerebellum; d, lobus opticus; e,
hypophysis; g, nervus opticus; h, hemisphere; i, lobus olfactorius; i’, olfactory
pedicle; k, nerv. olfactorius; l, epiphysis; m, nerv. oculo-motorius; tr, nerv.
trigeminus; v, nerv. vagus.
The brain of Chondropterygians (Fig. 43) is more developed than
that of all other fishes, and distinguished by well-marked characters.
These are, first, the prolongation of the olfactory lobes into more or
less long pedicles, which dilate into great ganglionic masses, where
they come into contact with the olfactory sacs; secondly, the space
which generally intervenes between prosencephalon and
mesencephalon, as in some Ganoids; thirdly, the large development
of the metencephalon.
The hemispheres are generally large, coalescent, but with a
median, longitudinal, dividing groove. Frequently their surface shows
traces of gyrations, and when they are provided with lateral
ventricles, tubercles representing corpora striata may be observed.
The olfactory pedicles take their origin from the side of the
hemispheres, and are frequently hollow, and if so, their cavity
communicates with the ventricle of the hemisphere. The optic lobes
are generally smaller than the hemispheres, coalescent, and
provided with an upper median groove like the prosencephalon. At
their base a pair of lobi inferiores are constant, with the hypophysis
and sacsus vasculosus (a conglomeration of vascular loops without
medullary substance) between them.
The cerebellum is very large, overlying a portion of the optic
lobes and of the sinus rhomboidalis, and is frequently transversely
grooved. The side-walls of the fourth ventricle, which are formed by
the corpora restiformia, are singularly folded, and appear as two
pads, one on each side of the cerebellum (lobi posteriores s. lobi
nervi trigemini).
 Fig. 44.—Brain of Bdellostoma. (Enlarged, after
Müller.)
I., Upper; II., Lower aspect. Letters as in Fig. 45.
 Fig. 45.—Brain of Petromyzon. (Enlarged,
after Müller.)
I., Upper; II., Lower aspect.
a, Medulla oblongata; ac, nerv. acusticus; b,
corpus restiforme or rudimentary
cerebellum; d, lobus ventriculi tertii; d’,
entrance into the third ventricle; c,
hypophysis; fa, nerv. facialis; g, nerv.
opticus; h, hemisphere; hy, nerv.
hypoglossus (so named by Müller); i, lobus
olfactorius; k, sinus rhomboidalis; l,
 epiphysis; m, nerv. oculo-motorius; q,
corpora quadrigemina; tr, nerv. trigeminus;
tro, nerv. trochlearis; v, nerv. vagus.
The brain of the Cyclostomes (Figs. 44, 45) represents a type
different from that of other fishes, showing at its upper surface three
pairs of protuberances in front of the cerebellum; they are all solid.
Their homologies are not yet satisfactorily determined, parts of the
Myxinoid brain having received by the same observers
determinations very different from those given to the corresponding
parts of the brain of the Lampreys. The foremost pair are the large
olfactory tubercles, which are exceedingly large in Petromyzon. They
are followed by the hemispheres, with a single body wedged in
between their posterior half; in Petromyzon, at least, the vascular
tissue leading to an epiphysis seems to be connected with this body.
Then follows the lobus ventriculi tertii, distinctly paired in Myxinoids,
less so in Petromyzon. The last pair are the corpora quadrigemina.
According to this interpretation the cerebellum would be absent in
Myxinoids, and represented in Petromyzon by a narrow commissure
only (Fig. 45, b), stretching over the foremost part of the sinus
rhomboidalis. In the Myxinoids the medulla oblongata ends in two
divergent swellings, free and obtuse at their extremity, from which
most of the cerebral nerves take their origin.
The Nerves which supply the organs of the head are either
merely continuations or diverticula of the brain-substance, or proper
nerves taking their origin from the brain, or receiving their constituent
parts from the foremost part of the spinal chord. The number of
these spino-cerebral nerves is always less than in the higher
vertebrates, and their arrangement varies considerably.
A. Nerves which are diverticula of the brain (Figs. 41–45).
The olfactory nerves (first pair) always retain their intimate
relation to the hemispheres, the ventricles of which are not rarely
continued into the tubercle or even pedicle of the nerves. The
different position of the olfactory tubercle has been already
described as characteristic of some of the orders of fishes. In those
fishes in which the tubercle is remote from the brain, the nerve which
has entered the tubercle as a single stem leaves it split up into
several or numerous branches, which are distributed in the nasal
organ. In the other fishes it breaks up into branchlets spread into a
fan-like expansion at the point, where it enters the nasal cavity. The
nerve always passes out of the skull through the ethmoid.
The optic nerves (second pair) vary in size, their strength
corresponding to the size of the eye; they take their origin from the
lobi optici, the development of which again is proportionate to that of
the nerves. The mutual relation of the two nerves immediately after
their origin is very characteristic of the sub-classes of fishes. In the
Cyclostomes they have no further connection with each other, each
going to the eye of its own side.[11] In the Teleostei they simply cross
each other (decussate), so that the one starting from the right half of
the brain goes to the left eye and vice versa. Finally, in Palæichthyes
the two nerves are fused together, immediately after their origin, into
a chiasma. The nerve is cylindrical for some portion of its course, but
in most fishes gradually changes this form into that of a plaited band,
which is capable of separation and expansion. It enters the bulbus
generally behind and above its axis. The foramen through which it
leaves the skull of Teleostei is generally in a membranous portion of
its anterior wall, or, where ossification has taken place, in the orbito-
sphenoid.
B. Nerves proper taking their origin from the brain
(Figs. 41–45).
The Nervus oculorum motorius (third pair) takes its origin from
the Pedunculus cerebri, close behind the lobi inferiores; it escapes
through the orbito-sphenoid, or the membrane replacing it, and is
distributed to the musculi rectus superior, rectus internus, obliquus
inferior, and rectus inferior. Its size corresponds to the development
of the muscles of the eye. Consequently it is absent in the blind
Amblyopsis, and the Myxinoids. In Lepidosiren the nerves supplying
the muscles of the eye have no independent origin, but are part of
the ophthalmic division of the Trigeminus. In Petromyzon these
muscles are supplied partly from the Trigeminus, partly by a nerve
representing the Oculo-motor and Trochlearis, which are fused into a
common trunk.
 The Nervus trochlearis (fourth pair), if present with an
independent origin, is always thin, taking its origin on the upper
surface of the brain from the groove between lobus opticus and
cerebellum; it goes to the Musculus obliquus superior of the eye.
C. Nerves taking their origin from the Medulla oblongata (Figs.
41–45).
The Nervus abducens (sixth pair) issues on the lower surface of
the brain, taking its origin from the anterior pyramids of the Medulla
oblongata, and supplies the Musculus rectus externus of the eye,
and the muscle of the nictitating membrane of Sharks.
The Nervus trigeminus (fifth pair) and the Nervus facialis
(seventh pair) have their origins close together, and enter into
intimate connection with each other. In the Chondropterygians and
most Teleostei the number of their roots is four, in the Sturgeons five,
and in a few Teleostei three. When there are four, the first issues
immediately below the cerebellum from the side of the Medulla
oblongata; it contains motory and sensory elements for the maxillary
and suspensorial muscles, and belongs exclusively to the trigeminal
nerve. The second root, which generally becomes free a little above
the first, supplies especially the elements for the Ramus palatinus,
which sometimes unites with parts of the Trigeminal, sometimes with
the Facial nerve. The third root, if present, is very small, and issues
immediately in front of the acustic nerve, and supplies part of the
motor elements of the facial nerve. The fourth root is much stronger,
sometimes double, and its elements pass again partly into the
Trigeminal, partly into the Facial nerve. On the passage of these
stems through the skull (through a foramen or foramina in the
alisphenoid) they form a ganglionic plexus, in which the palatine
ramus and the first stem of the Trigeminus generally possess
discrete ganglia. The branches which issue from the plexus and
belong exclusively to the Trigeminus, supply the organs and
integuments of the frontal, ophthalmic, and nasal regions, and the
upper and lower jaws with their soft parts. The Facial nerve supplies
the muscles of the gill-cover and suspensorium, and emits a strong
branch accompanying the Meckelian cartilage to the symphysis, and
another for the hyoid apparatus.
 The Nervus acusticus (eighth pair) is strong, and takes its origin
immediately behind, and in contact with, the last root of the seventh
pair.
The Nervus glossopharyngeus (ninth pair)[12] takes its origin
between the roots of the eighth and tenth nerves, and issues in
Teleostei from the cranial cavity by a foramen of the exoccipital. In
the Cyclostomes and Lepidosiren it is part of the Nervus vagus. It is
distributed in the pharyngeal and lingual regions, one branch
supplying the first branchial arch. After having left the cranial cavity it
swells into a ganglion, which in Teleostei is always in communication
with the sympathic nerve.
The Nervus vagus or pneumogastricus (tenth pair) rises in all
Teleostei and Palæichthyes with two discrete strong roots: the first
constantly from the swellings of the corpora restiformia, be they
thinner or thicker and overlying the sinus rhomboidalis, or be they
developed into lateral plaited pads, as in Acipenser and
Chondropterygians. The second much thicker root rises from the
lower tracts of the medulla oblongata. Both stems leave the cranial
cavity by a common foramen, situated in Teleosteous fishes in the
exoccipital; and form ganglionic swellings, of which those of the
lower stem are the more conspicuous. The lower stem has mixed
elements, motory as well as sensory, and is distributed to the
muscles of the branchial arches and pharynx, the œsophagus and
stomach; it sends filaments to the heart and to the air-bladder where
it exists. The first (upper) stem forms the Nervus lateralis. This
nerve, which accompanies the lateral mucous system of the trunk
and tail, is either a single longitudinal stem, gradually becoming
thinner behind, running superficially below the skin (Salmonidæ,
Cyclopterus), or deeply between the muscles (Sharks, Chimæra), or
divided into two parallel branches (most Teleostei): thus in the Perch
there are two branches on each side, the superficial of which
supplies the lateral line, whilst the deep-seated branch
communicates with the spinal nerves and supplies the septa
between the myocommas and the skin. In fishes which lack the
lateral muciferous system and possess hard integuments, as the
Ostracions, the lateral nerve is more or less rudimentary. It is entirely