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Math 302 Lecture Notes Kenneth Kuttler
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Math 302 Lecture Notes
Kenneth Kuttler
September 30, 2016

2
Contents
I Introduction 11
II Vectors, Vector Products, Lines 15

1 Vectors And Points In Rn 17
1.1 Rn Ordered n− tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Vectors And Algebra In Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Geometric Meaning Of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Geometric Meaning Of Vector Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Distance Between Points In Rn Length Of A Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Geometric Meaning Of Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.7 Unit Vectors (Direction Vectors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.8 Parametric Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9 Vectors And Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.10 The Special Unit Vectors i, j, k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 Vector Products 37
2.1 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.1 Definition In terms Of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.2 The Geometric Meaning Of The Dot Product, The Included Angle . . 38
2.1.3 The Cauchy Schwarz Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.4 The Triangle Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.5 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.6 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.7 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2 The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.1 Cross Product, Geometric Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.2 The Coordinate Description Of The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.3 A Physical Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.4 The Box Product, Triple Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.5 A Proof Of The Distributive Law For The Cross Product∗ . . . . . . . 53
2.2.6 Torque, Moment Of A Force∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.7 Angular Velocity∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.8 Center Of Mass∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Further Explanations∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.1 The Distributive Law For The Cross Product∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.2 Vector Identities And Notation∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4 Exercises With Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3
4 CONTENTS
III Planes And Systems Of Equations 69

3 Planes 71
3.1 Finding Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1 The Cartesian Equation Of A Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.2 The Plane Which Contains Three Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.3 The Cartesian Equation For Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.4 Parametric Equation For A Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.5 Triple Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.6 The Angle Between Two Planes∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1.7 Intercepts Of A Plane∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1.8 Distance Between A Point And A Plane Or A Point And A Line∗ . . 78
4 Systems Of Linear Equations 81

4.1 Systems Of Equations, Geometric Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2 Systems Of Equations, Algebraic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.1 Elementary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2 Gauss Elimination, Row Echelon Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5 Matrices 99
5.1 Matrix Operations And Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.1.1 Addition And Scalar Multiplication Of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.1.2 Multiplication Of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.3 The ij th Entry Of A Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.1.4 Graphs And Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1.5 Properties Of Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.1.6 The Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.1.7 The Identity And Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2 Finding The Inverse Of A Matrix, Gauss Jordan Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 Systems Of Equations And Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.4 Elementary Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.5 Finding Linear Relationships Between Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.5.1 The Great And Glorious Lemma On Row Operations . . . . . . . . . 131
5.5.2 Theory Of Row Reduced Echelon Form∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.6 Block Multiplication Of Matrices∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.8 The Rank Of A Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6 The LU and QR Factorization 151

6.0.1 Definition Of An LU Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.0.2 Finding An LU Factorization By Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.0.3 Using Multipliers To Find An LU Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.0.4 Solving Systems Using A LU Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1 The QR Factorization∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7 Determinants 159
7.1 Basic Techniques And Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.1.1 Cofactors And 2 × 2 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.1.2 The Determinant Of A Triangular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.1.3 Properties Of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.1.4 Finding Determinants Using Row Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
CONTENTS 5
7.1.5 A Formula For The Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

7.1.6 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8 The Mathematical Theory Of Determinants∗ 173

8.0.7 The Function sgn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.1 The Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.1.1 The Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.1.2 Permuting Rows Or Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.1.3 A Symmetric Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.1.4 The Alternating Property Of The Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.1.5 Linear Combinations And Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.1.6 The Determinant Of A Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.1.7 Cofactor Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.1.8 Formula For The Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.1.9 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.1.10 Upper Triangular Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.2 The Cayley Hamilton Theorem∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9 Vector Spaces Subspaces Bases 189

9.0.1 What Is A Vector Space? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.0.2 What Is A Subspace? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.0.3 What Is A Span? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.1 Linear Independence, Bases, Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.1.1 Linear Independence For Spaces Of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.1.2 Row Space, Column Space, And Null Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.2 Row Column And Determinant Rank∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10 Linear Transformations 211

10.0.1 Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.1 What Is A Linear Transformation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.2 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.3 Constructing The Matrix Of A Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.3.1 Rotations in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.3.2 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.3.3 Algebraically Defined Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.3.4 Matrices Which Are One To One Or Onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
10.3.5 Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
10.3.6 The General Solution Of A Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
11 Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors Of A Matrix 227

11.1 Definition Of Eigenvectors And Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11.2 Finding Eigenvectors And Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.3 A Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
11.4 Some Useful Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.5 Defective And Nondefective Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.6 Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.7 The Matrix Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.8 Migration Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11.9 Complex Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
11.10The Estimation Of Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6 CONTENTS
11.11Exercises With Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12 Curves In Space 259

12.1 Limits Of A Vector Valued Function Of One Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
12.2 The Derivative And Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
12.2.1 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.2.2 Geometric And Physical Significance Of The Derivative . . . . . . . . 265
12.2.3 Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
12.2.4 Leibniz’s Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
12.2.5 Motion Of A Projectile (Idealized) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
13 Newton’s Laws Of Motion∗ 273

13.1 Kinetic Energy∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
13.2 Impulse And Momentum∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
13.3 Conservation Of Momentum∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
14 Physics Of Curvilinear Motion 281

14.0.1 The Acceleration In Terms Of The Unit Tangent And Normal . . . . . 281
14.0.2 The Circle Of Curvature* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.1 Geometry Of Space Curves∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.2 Independence Of Parametrization∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14.2.1 Hard Calculus∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
14.2.2 Independence Of Parametrization∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
14.3 Product Rule For Matrices∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
14.4 Moving Coordinate Systems∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
IV Functions Of Many Variables 303

15 Functions Of Many Variables 305
15.1 The Graph Of A Function Of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.2 The Domain Of A Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.3 Quadric Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.4 Open And Closed Sets∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.5 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
15.6 Sufficient Conditions For Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
15.7 Properties Of Continuous Functions∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
16 Limits Of A Function 319

16.1 The Limit Of A Function Of Many Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
16.2 The Directional Derivative And Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
16.2.1 The Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
16.2.2 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
16.2.3 Mixed Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
16.3 Some Fundamentals∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
16.3.1 The Nested Interval Lemma∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
16.3.2 The Extreme Value Theorem∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
16.3.3 Sequences And Completeness∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
16.3.4 Continuity And The Limit Of A Sequence∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
CONTENTS 7
V Differentiability 339
17 Differentiability 341
17.1 The Definition Of Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
17.2 C 1 Functions And Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.3 The Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
17.3.1 Separable Differential Equations∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
17.4 Exercises With Answers∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
17.4.1 A Heat Seaking Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
17.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
17.5.1 Related Rates Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
17.6 Taylor’s Formula An Application Of Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.7 Normal Vectors And Tangent Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
18 Extrema Of Functions Of Several Variables 361

18.1 Local Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
18.2 The Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
18.2.1 Functions Of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
18.2.2 Functions Of Many Variables∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
18.3 Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
18.4 Finding Function From Its Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
19 The Derivative Of Vector Valued Functions, What Is The Derivative?∗ 379

19.1 C 1 Functions∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
19.2 The Chain Rule∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.2.1 The Chain Rule For Functions Of One Variable∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.2.2 The Chain Rule For Functions Of Many Variables∗ . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.2.3 The Derivative Of The Inverse Function∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
19.2.4 Acceleration In Spherical Coordinates∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
19.3 Proof Of The Chain Rule∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
19.4 Proof Of The Second Derivative Test∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
20 Implicit Function Theorem∗ 399

20.1 The Method Of Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
20.2 The Local Structure Of C 1 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
VI Multiple Integrals 407

21 The Riemann Integral On Rn 409
21.1 Methods For Double Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
21.1.1 Density Mass And Center Of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
21.2 Double Integrals In Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
21.3 A Few Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
21.4 Surface Area And Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
21.5 Methods For Triple Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
21.5.1 Definition Of The Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
21.5.2 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
21.5.3 Mass And Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
8 CONTENTS
22 The Integral In Other Coordinates 437

22.1 Cylindrical And Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
22.1.1 Geometric Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
22.1.2 Volume And Integrals In Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
22.1.3 Volume And Integrals In Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
22.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
22.3 The General Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
22.5 The Moment Of Inertia ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
22.5.1 The Spinning Top∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
22.5.2 Kinetic Energy∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
22.6 Finding The Moment Of Inertia And Center Of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
VII Line Integrals 471

23 Line Integrals 473
23.0.1 Orientations And Smooth Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
23.0.2 The Integral Of A Function Defined On A Smooth Curve . . . . . . . 475
23.0.3 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
23.0.4 Line Integrals And Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
23.0.5 Another Notation For Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
23.2 Conservative Vector Fields, Path Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
23.2.1 Finding The Scalar Potential, (Recover The Function From Its Gradient)483
23.2.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
23.3 Divergence, Gradient, Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
23.3.1 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
23.3.2 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
23.3.3 Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
23.3.4 Identities Involving Curl Divergence And Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . 487
23.3.5 Vector Potentials∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
VIII Green’s Theorem, Integrals On Surfaces 489

24 Green’s Theorem 491
24.1 An Alternative Explanation Of Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
24.2 Area And Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
25 The Integral On Two Dimensional Surfaces In R3 499

25.1 Parametrically Defined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
25.2 The Two Dimensional Area In R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
25.2.1 Surfaces Of The Form z = f (x, y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
25.3 Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
CONTENTS 9
IX The Divergence Theorem And Stoke’s Theorem 519

26 Divergence And Curl 521
26.1 Divergence Of A Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
26.2 Curl Of A Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
27 The Divergence Theorem 523

27.0.1 Green’s Theorem, A Review∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
27.0.2 Coordinate Free Concept Of Divergence, Flux Density . . . . . . . . . 528
27.1 The Weak Maximum Principle∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
27.2 Some Applications Of The Divergence Theorem∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
27.2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
27.2.2 Archimedes Law Of Buoyancy∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
27.2.3 Equations Of Heat And Diffusion∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
27.2.4 Balance Of Mass∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
27.2.5 Balance Of Momentum∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
27.2.6 Frame Indifference∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
27.2.7 Bernoulli’s Principle∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
27.2.8 The Wave Equation∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
27.2.9 A Negative Observation∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
27.2.10 Electrostatics∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
28 Stokes And Green’s Theorems 543

28.1 Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
28.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
28.3 Stoke’s Theorem From Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
28.3.1 The Normal And The Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
28.3.2 The Mobeus Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
28.3.3 The Meaning Of The Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
28.3.4 Conservative Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
28.3.5 Some Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
28.4 When Do You Use What? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
28.5 Maxwell’s Equations And The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
X Some Iterative Techniques For Linear Algebra 565

29 Iterative Methods For Linear Systems 567
29.1 Jacobi Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
29.2 Gauss Seidel Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
30 Iterative Methods For Finding Eigenvalues 579

30.1 The Power Method For Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
30.1.1 Rayleigh Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
30.2 The Shifted Inverse Power Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
XI The Correct Version Of The Riemann Integral ∗ 591

A The Theory Of The Riemann Integral∗∗ 593
A.1 An Important Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
A.2 The Definition Of The Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
10 CONTENTS
A.3 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

A.4 Which Functions Are Integrable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
A.5 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
A.6 The Change Of Variables Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
A.7 Some Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Copyright ⃝
c 2005,
Part I
Introduction
11
13
These are the lecture notes for my section of Math 302. They are pretty much in
the order of the syllabus for the course. You don’t need to read the starred sections and
chapters and subsections. These are there to provide depth in the subject. To quote from
the mission statement of BYU, “ Depth comes when students realize the effect of rigorous,
coherent, and progressively more sophisticated study. Depth helps students distinguish
between what is fundamental and what is only peripheral; it requires focus, provides intense
concentration. ...” To see clearly what is peripheral you need to read the fundamental and
difficult concepts, most of which are presented in the starred sections. These are not always
easy to read and I have indicated the most difficult with a picture of a dragon. Some are
not much harder than what is presented in the course. A good example is the one which
defines the derivative. If you don’t learn this material, you will have trouble understanding
many fundamental topics. Some which come to mind are basic continuum mechanics (The
deformation gradient is a derivative.) and Newton’s method for solving nonlinear systems
of equations.(The entire method involves looking at the derivative and its inverse.) If you
don’t want to learn anything more than what you will be tested on, then you can omit these
sections. This is up to you. It is your choice.
A word about notation might help. Most of the linear algebra works in any field. Exam-
ples are the rational numbers, the integers modulo a prime number, the complex numbers,
or the real numbers. Therefore, I will often write F to denote this field. If you don’t like
this, just put in R and you will be fine. This is the main one of interest. However, I at least
want you to realize that everything holds for the complex numbers in addition to the reals.
In many applications this is essential so it does not hurt to begin to realize this. Also, I will
write vectors in terms of bold letters. Thus u will denote a vector. Sometimes people write
something like ⃗u to indicate a vector. However, the bold face is the usual notation so I am
using this in these notes. On the board, I will likely write the other notation. The norm
or length of a vector is often written as ||u|| . I will usually write it as |u| . This is standard
notation also although most books use the double bar notation. The notation I am using
emphasizes that the norm is just like the absolute value which is an important connection
to make. It also seems less cluttered. You need to understand that either notation means
the same thing.
For a more substantial treatment of certain topics, there is a complete calculus book on
my web page. There are significant generalizations which unify all the notions of volume
into one beautiful theory. I have not pursued this topic in these notes but it is in the calculus
book. There are other things also, especially all the one variable theory if you need a review.
14
Part II
Vectors, Vector Products, Lines
15
Chapter 1
Vectors And Points In Rn
1.1 Rn Ordered n− tuples

The notation, Rn refers to the collection of ordered lists of n real numbers. More precisely,
consider the following definition.
Definition 1.1.1 Define
Rn ≡ {(x1 , · · ·, xn ) : xj ∈ R for j = 1, · · ·, n} .
(x1 , · · ·, xn ) = (y1 , · · ·, yn ) if and only if for all j = 1, ···, n, xj = yj . When (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ Rn ,

it is conventional to denote (x1 , · · ·, xn ) by the single bold face letter, x. The numbers, xj
are called the coordinates. The set
{(0, · · ·, 0, t, 0, · · ·, 0) : t ∈ R }
for t in the ith slot is called the ith coordinate axis coordinate axis, the xi axis for short.
The point 0 ≡ (0, · · ·, 0) is called the origin.
Thus (1, 2, 4) ∈ R3 and (2, 1, 4) ∈ R3 but (1, 2, 4) ̸= (2, 1, 4) because, even though the
same numbers are involved, they don’t match up. In particular, the first entries are not
equal.
Why would anyone be interested in such a thing? First consider the case when n = 1.
Then from the definition, R1 = R. Recall that R is identified with the points of a line.
Look at the number line again. Observe that this amounts to identifying a point on this
line with a real number. In other words a real number determines where you are on this
line. Now suppose n = 2 and consider two lines which intersect each other at right angles
as shown in the following picture.
6 · (2, 6)
(−8, 3) · 3
2
−8
17
18 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND POINTS IN RN
Notice how you can identify a point shown in the plane with the ordered pair, (2, 6) .
You go to the right a distance of 2 and then up a distance of 6. Similarly, you can identify
another point in the plane with the ordered pair (−8, 3) . Go to the left a distance of 8 and
then up a distance of 3. The reason you go to the left is that there is a − sign on the eight.
From this reasoning, every ordered pair determines a unique point in the plane. Conversely,
taking a point in the plane, you could draw two lines through the point, one vertical and the
other horizontal and determine unique points, x1 on the horizontal line in the above picture
and x2 on the vertical line in the above picture, such that the point of interest is identified
with the ordered pair, (x1 , x2 ) . In short, points in the plane can be identified with ordered
pairs similar to the way that points on the real line are identified with real numbers. Now
suppose n = 3. As just explained, the first two coordinates determine a point in a plane.
Letting the third component determine how far up or down you go, depending on whether
this number is positive or negative, this determines a point in space. Thus, (1, 4, −5) would
mean to determine the point in the plane that goes with (1, 4) and then to go below this
plane a distance of 5 to obtain a unique point in space. You see that the ordered triples
correspond to points in space just as the ordered pairs correspond to points in a plane and
single real numbers correspond to points on a line.
You can’t stop here and say that you are only interested in n ≤ 3. What if you were
interested in the motion of two objects? You would need three coordinates to describe
where the first object is and you would need another three coordinates to describe where
the other object is located. Therefore, you would need to be considering R6 . If the two
objects moved around, you would need a time coordinate as well. As another example,
consider a hot object which is cooling and suppose you want the temperature of this object.
How many coordinates would be needed? You would need one for the temperature, three
for the position of the point in the object and one more for the time. Thus you would need
to be considering R5 . Many other examples can be given. Sometimes n is very large. This
is often the case in applications to business when they are trying to maximize profit subject
to constraints. It also occurs in numerical analysis when people try to solve hard problems
on a computer.
There are other ways to identify points in space with three numbers but the one presented
is the most basic. In this case, the coordinates are known as Cartesian coordinates after
Descartes1 who invented this idea in the first half of the seventeenth century. I will often
not bother to draw a distinction between the point in n dimensional space and its Cartesian
coordinates.
1.2 Vectors And Algebra In Rn

There are two algebraic operations done with points of Rn . One is addition and the other
is multiplication by numbers, called scalars.
Definition 1.2.1 If x ∈ Rn and a is a number, also called a scalar, then ax ∈ Rn
is defined by
ax = a (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ≡ (ax1 , · · ·, axn ) . (1.1)
This is known as scalar multiplication. If x, y ∈ R then x + y ∈ R and is defined by
n n
x + y = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) + (y1 , · · ·, yn )
≡ (x1 + y1 , · · ·, xn + yn ) (1.2)
1 René Descartes 1596-1650 is often credited with inventing analytic geometry although it seems the ideas
were actually known much earlier. He was interested in many different subjects, physiology, chemistry, and
physics being some of them. He also wrote a large book in which he tried to explain the book of Genesis
scientifically. Descartes ended up dying in Sweden.
1.3. GEOMETRIC MEANING OF VECTORS 19
An element of Rn , x ≡ (x1 , · · ·, xn ) is often called a vector. The above definition is known

as vector addition.
With this definition, the algebraic properties satisfy the conclusions of the following
theorem.
Theorem 1.2.2 For v, w vectors in Rn and α, β scalars, (real numbers), the fol-
lowing hold.
v + w = w + v, (1.3)
the commutative law of addition,
(v + w) + z = v+ (w + z) , (1.4)
the associative law for addition,

v + 0 = v, (1.5)
the existence of an additive identity,
v+ (−v) = 0, (1.6)
the existence of an additive inverse, Also
α (v + w) = αv+αw, (1.7)
(α + β) v =αv+βv, (1.8)
α (βv) = αβ (v) , (1.9)
1v = v. (1.10)
In the above 0 = (0, · · ·, 0).
You should verify these properties all hold. For example, consider 1.7
α (v + w) = α (v1 + w1 , · · ·, vn + wn )
= (α (v1 + w1 ) , · · ·, α (vn + wn ))
= (αv1 + αw1 , · · ·, αvn + αwn )
= (αv1 , · · ·, αvn ) + (αw1 , · · ·, αwn )
= αv + αw.
As usual subtraction is defined as x − y ≡ x+ (−y) .
1.3 Geometric Meaning Of Vectors

Definition 1.3.1 Let x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) be the coordinates of a point in Rn . Imagine
an arrow with its tail at 0 = (0, · · ·, 0) and its point at x as shown in the following picture
in the case of R3 .
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x
3
Then this arrow is called the position vector of the point, x. Given two points, P, Q
whose coordinates are (p1 , · · ·, pn ) and (q1 , · · ·, qn ) respectively, one can also determine the
vector defined as follows. Also one can obtain a vector from a given two points.
−−→
P Q ≡ (q1 − p1 , · · ·, qn − pn )
Thus every point determines such a vector and conversely, every such vector (arrow)
which has its tail at 0 determines a point of Rn , namely the point of Rn which coincides
with the point of the vector.
Imagine taking the above position vector and moving it around, always keeping it point-
ing in the same direction as shown in the following picture.
3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x
3
3 3
After moving it around, it is regarded as the same vector because it points in the same
direction and has the same length.2 Thus each of the arrows in the above picture is regarded
as the same vector. The components of this vector are the numbers, x1 , · · ·, xn . You
should think of these numbers as directions for obtainng an arrow. Starting at some point,
(a1 , a2 , · · ·, an ) in Rn , you move to the point (a1 + x1 , · · ·, an ) and from there to the point
(a1 + x1 , a2 + x2 , a3 · ··, an ) and then to (a1 + x1 , a2 + x2 , a3 + x3 , · · ·, an ) and continue this
way until you obtain the point (a1 + x1 , a2 + x2 , · · ·, an + xn ) . The arrow having its tail
at (a1 , a2 , · · ·, an ) and its point at (a1 + x1 , a2 + x2 , · · ·, an + xn ) looks just like the arrow
which has its tail at 0 and its point at (x1 , · · ·, xn ) so it is regarded as the same vector.
1.4 Geometric Meaning Of Vector Addition

It was explained earlier that an element of Rn is an n tuple of numbers and it was also
shown that this can be used to determine a point in three dimensional space in the case
where n = 3 and in two dimensional space, in the case where n = 2. This point was specified
relative to some coordinate axes.
Consider the case where n = 3 for now. If you draw an arrow from the point in three
dimensional space determined by (0, 0, 0) to the point (a, b, c) with its tail sitting at the
point (0, 0, 0) and its point at the point (a, b, c) , this arrow is called the position vector
of the point determined by u ≡ (a, b, c) . One way to get to this point is to start at (0, 0, 0)
and move in the direction of the x1 axis to (a, 0, 0) and then in the direction of the x2 axis
to (a, b, 0) and finally in the direction of the x3 axis to (a, b, c) . It is evident that the same
arrow (vector) would result if you began at the point, v ≡ (d, e, f ) , moved in the direction
of the x1 axis to (d + a, e, f ) , then in the direction of the x2 axis to (d + a, e + b, f ) , and
finally in the x3 direction to (d + a, e + b, f + c) only this time, the arrow would have its
tail sitting at the point determined by v ≡ (d, e, f ) and its point at (d + a, e + b, f + c) . It
is said to be the same arrow (vector) because it will point in the same direction and have
the same length. It is like you took an actual arrow, the sort of thing you shoot with a bow,
and moved it from one location to another keeping it pointing the same direction. This
is illustrated in the following picture in which v + u is illustrated. Note the parallelogram
determined in the picture by the vectors u and v.
2 I will discuss how to define length later. For now, it is only necessary to observe that the length should
be defined in such a way that it does not change when such motion takes place.
1.5. DISTANCE BETWEEN POINTS IN RN LENGTH OF A VECTOR 21
u

I
x3 v u+v

u
x2
x1
Thus the geometric significance of (d, e, f ) + (a, b, c) = (d + a, e + b, f + c) is this. You

start with the position vector of the point (d, e, f ) and at its point, you place the vector
determined by (a, b, c) with its tail at (d, e, f ) . Then the point of this last vector will be
(d + a, e + b, f + c) . This is the geometric significance of vector addition. Also, as shown
in the picture, u + v is the directed diagonal of the parallelogram determined by the two
vectors u and v. A similar interpretation holds in Rn , n > 3 but I can’t draw a picture in
this case.
Since the convention is that identical arrows pointing in the same direction represent
the same vector, the geometric significance of vector addition is as follows in any number of
dimensions.
Procedure 1.4.1 Let u and v be two vectors. Slide v so that the tail of v is on the
point of u. Then draw the arrow which goes from the tail of u to the point of the slid vector,
v. This arrow represents the vector u + v.
*

u+v
v
-
u
−−→
Note that P +P Q = Q.
1.5 Distance Between Points In Rn Length Of A Vector

How is distance between two points in Rn defined?
Definition 1.5.1 Let x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) and y = (y1 , · · ·, yn ) be two points in Rn .

Then |x − y| to indicates the distance between these points and is defined as
( )1/2
∑
n
2
distance between x and y ≡ |x − y| ≡ |xk − yk | .
k=1
This is called the distance formula. Thus |x| ≡ |x − 0| . The symbol, B (a, r) is defined
by
B (a, r) ≡ {x ∈ Rn : |x − a| < r} .
This is called an open ball of radius r centered at a. It means all points in Rn which are
closer to a than r. The length of a vector x is the distance between x and 0.
First of all note this is a generalization of the notion of distance in R. There the distance
between two points, x and y was given by the absolute value of their difference. Thus |x − y|
( )1/2
2
is equal to the distance between these two points on R. Now |x − y| = (x − y) where
the square root is always the positive square root. Thus it is the same formula as the above
definition except there is only one term in the sum. Geometrically, this is the right way to
define distance which is seen from the Pythagorean theorem. Often people use two lines
to denote this distance, ||x − y||. However, I want to emphasize this is really just like the
absolute value. Also, the notation I am using is fairly standard.
Consider the following picture in the case that n = 2.
(y1 , y2 )
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , x2 )
There are two points in the plane whose Cartesian coordinates are (x1 , x2 ) and (y1 , y2 )
respectively. Then the solid line joining these two points is the hypotenuse of a right triangle
which is half of the rectangle shown in dotted lines. What is its length? Note the lengths
of the sides of this triangle are |y1 − x1 | and |y2 − x2 | . Therefore, the Pythagorean theorem
implies the length of the hypotenuse equals
( )1/2 ( )1/2
2 2 2 2
|y1 − x1 | + |y2 − x2 | = (y1 − x1 ) + (y2 − x2 )
which is just the formula for the distance given above. In other words, this distance defined
above is the same as the distance of plane geometry in which the Pythagorean theorem
holds.
Now suppose n = 3 and let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and (y1 , y2 , y3 ) be two points in R3 . Consider the
following picture in which one of the solid lines joins the two points and a dotted line joins
1.5. DISTANCE BETWEEN POINTS IN RN LENGTH OF A VECTOR 23
the points (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and (y1 , y2 , x3 ) .

(y1 , y2 , y3 )
(y1 , y2 , x3 )
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (y1 , x2 , x3 )
By the Pythagorean theorem, the length of the dotted line joining (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and
(y1 , y2 , x3 ) equals
( )1/2
2 2
(y1 − x1 ) + (y2 − x2 )
while the length of the line joining (y1 , y2 , x3 ) to (y1 , y2 , y3 ) is just |y3 − x3 | . Therefore, by
the Pythagorean theorem again, the length of the line joining the points (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and
(y1 , y2 , y3 ) equals
{[ }1/2
( )1/2 ]2
2 2 2
(y1 − x1 ) + (y2 − x2 ) + (y3 − x3 )
( )1/2
2 2 2
= (y1 − x1 ) + (y2 − x2 ) + (y3 − x3 ) ,
which is again just the distance formula above.

This completes the argument that the above definition is reasonable. Of course you
cannot continue drawing pictures in ever higher dimensions but there is no problem with
the formula for distance in any number of dimensions. Here is an example.
Example 1.5.2 Find the distance between the points in R4 , a = (1, 2, −4, 6) and b = (2, 3, −1, 0)
Use the distance formula and write
2 2 2 2 2
|a − b| = (1 − 2) + (2 − 3) + (−4 − (−1)) + (6 − 0) = 47
√
Therefore, |a − b| = 47.
All this amounts to defining the distance between two points as the length of a straight
line joining these two points. However, there is nothing sacred about using straight lines.
One could define the distance to be the length of some other sort of line joining these points.
It won’t be done in this book but sometimes this sort of thing is done.
Another convention which is usually followed, especially in R2 and R3 is to denote the
first component of a point in R2 by x and the second component by y. In R3 it is customary
to denote the first and second components as just described while the third component is
called z.
Example 1.5.3 Describe the points which are at the same distance between (1, 2, 3) and
(0, 1, 2) .
Let (x, y, z) be such a point. Then

√ √
2 2 2 2 2
(x − 1) + (y − 2) + (z − 3) = x2 + (y − 1) + (z − 2) .
Squaring both sides

2 2 2 2 2
(x − 1) + (y − 2) + (z − 3) = x2 + (y − 1) + (z − 2)
and so
x2 − 2x + 14 + y 2 − 4y + z 2 − 6z = x2 + y 2 − 2y + 5 + z 2 − 4z
which implies
−2x + 14 − 4y − 6z = −2y + 5 − 4z
and so
2x + 2y + 2z = −9. (1.11)
Since these steps are reversible, the set of points which is at the same distance from the two
given points consists of the points, (x, y, z) such that 1.11 holds.
There are certain properties of the distance which are obvious. Two of them which follow
directly from the definition are
|x − y| = |y − x| ,
|x − y| ≥ 0 and equals 0 only if y = x.
The third fundamental property of distance is known as the triangle inequality. Recall that
in any triangle the sum of the lengths of two sides is always at least as large as the third
side. I will show you a proof of this pretty soon. This is usually stated as
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| .
Here is a picture which illustrates the statement of this inequality in terms of geometry.
3

x+y
y
-
x
1.6 Geometric Meaning Of Scalar Multiplication

As discussed earlier, x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) determines a vector. You draw the line from 0 to
x placing the point of the vector on x. What is the length of this vector? The length
√ this vector is defined to equal |x| as in Definition 1.5.1. Thus the length of x equals
of
x21 + x22 + x23 . When you multiply
√( x by a scalar, α, you get (αx1 , αx2 , αx3 ) and the length
) √
2 2 2
of this vector is defined as (αx1 ) + (αx2 ) + (αx3 ) = |α| x21 + x22 + x23 . Thus the
following holds.
|αx| = |α| |x| .
In other words, multiplication by a scalar magnifies the length of the vector. What about
the direction? You should convince yourself by drawing a picture that if α is negative, it
causes the resulting vector to point in the opposite direction while if α > 0 it preserves the
direction the vector points.
1.6. GEOMETRIC MEANING OF SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 25
You can think of vectors as quantities which have direction and magnitude, little arrows.
Thus any two little arrows which have the same length and point in the same direction are
considered to be the same vector even if their tails are at different points.

You can always slide such an arrow and place its tail at the origin. If√the resulting
point of the vector is (a, b, c) , it is clear the length of the little arrow is a2 + b2 + c2 .
Geometrically, the way you add two geometric vectors is to place the tail of one on the
point of the other and then to form the vector which results by starting with the tail of the
first and ending with this point as illustrated in the following picture. Also when (a, b, c)
is referred to as a vector, you mean any of the arrows which have the same direction and
magnitude as the position vector of this point. Geometrically, for u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) , αu is any
of the little arrows which have the same direction and magnitude as (αu1 , αu2 , αu3 ) .
1

u u+v
1
v
The following example is art which illustrates these definitions and conventions.
Exercise 1.6.1 Here is a picture of two vectors, u and v.
v j
Sketch a picture of u + v, u − v, and u+2v.
First here is a picture of u + v. You first draw u and then at the point of u you place the
tail of v as shown. Then u + v is the vector which results which is drawn in the following
pretty picture.

v j
:
u u+v
Next consider u − v. This means u+ (−v) . From the above geometric description of
vector addition, −v is the vector which has the same length but which points in the opposite
direction to v. Here is a picture.
Y
6 −v
u + (−v)
Finally consider the vector u+2v. Here is a picture of this one also.
2v
u
j
-
u + 2v
1.7 Unit Vectors (Direction Vectors)

Let v be a vector,
v = (v1 , · · ·, vn ) .
The direction vector for v is defined as v/ |v| . This vector points in the same direction
as v because it consists of the scalar, 1/ |v| times v. This vector is called a unit vector
because |v/ |v|| = |v| / |v| = 1. That is, it has length equal to 1. The process of dividing a
vector by its length is called normalizing. It provides you with a vector which has unit
length and the same direction as the original vector. This is called the direction vector of
the vector v.
−−→
Example 1.7.1 Let P = (1, 2, 1) , Q = (2, −1, 3) . Find the direction vector of P Q.
The vector determined by the two points has coordinates (1, −3, 2) and so the direction
vector is the unit vector which has the same direction, namely
( )
(1, −3, 2) 1√ 3√ 1√
√ = 14, − 14, 14
1+9+4 14 14 7
1.8. PARAMETRIC LINES 27
Definition 1.7.2 Two vectors are parallel if they have either the same direction
vector or one direction vector is −1 times the other. They are opposite in direction if their
direction vectors add to 0.
1.8 Parametric Lines

To begin with consider the case n = 1, 2. In the case where n = 1, the only line is just
R1 = R. Therefore, if x1 and x2 are two different points in R, consider
x = x1 + t (x2 − x1 )
where t ∈ R and the totality of all such points will give R. You see that you can always
solve the above equation for t, showing that every point on R is of this form. Now consider
the plane. Does a similar formula hold? Let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be two different points
in R2 which are contained in a line, l. Suppose that x1 ̸= x2 . Then if (x, y) is an arbitrary
point on l,
(x, y)
(x2 , y2 )
(x1 , y1 )
Now by similar triangles,

y2 − y1 y − y1
m≡ =
x2 − x1 x − x1
and so the point slope form of the line, l, is given as
y2 − y1
y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) = (x − x1 ) . (1.12)
x2 − x1
Now consider points of the form
(x, y) = (x1 , y1 ) + t (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ) . (1.13)
Do these points satisfy the above equation of the line? Is

( )
y2 − y1
y1 + t (y2 − y1 ) − y1 = (x1 + t (x2 − x1 ) − x1 )?
x2 − x1
Yes, this is so. Both sides equal t (y2 − y1 ). Conversely, if (x, y) is a point which satisfies
the equation, 1.12 does there exist a value of t such that this point is of the form (x1 , y1 ) +
t (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 )? If the point satisfies 1.12, it is of the form
( ( ) )
y2 − y1
x, y1 + (x − x1 ) .
x2 − x1
x−x1
Now let t = x2 −x1 so
x = x1 + t (x2 − x1 ) .
Then in terms of t, the above reduces to
( ( ) )
y2 − y1
x1 + t (x2 − x1 ) , y1 + t (x2 − x1 ) = (x1 , y1 ) + t (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ) .
x2 − x1
It follows the set of points in R2 obtained from 1.12 and 1.13 are the same. The following
is the definition of a line in Rn .
Definition 1.8.1 A line in Rn containing the two different points, x1 and x2 is the
collection of points of the form
( )
x = x1 + t x2 − x1
where t ∈ R. This is known as a parametric equation and the variable t is called the
parameter.
Often t denotes time in applications to Physics. Note this definition agrees with the
usual notion of a line in two dimensions and so this is consistent with earlier concepts.
From now on, you should think of lines in this way. Forget about the stupid special case in
R2 which you had drilled in to your head in high school. The concept of a line is really very
simple and it holds in any number of dimensions, not just in two dimensions. It is given in
the above definition.
Lemma 1.8.2 Let a, b ∈ Rn with a ̸= 0. Then x = ta + b, t ∈ R, is a line.

( )
Proof: Let x1 = b and let x2 − x1 = a so that x2 ̸= x1 . Then ta + b = x1 + t x2 − x1
and so x = ta + b is a line containing the two different points, x1 and x2 . This proves the
lemma.
Definition 1.8.3 The vector a in the above lemma is called a direction vector for
the line.
Direction vectors are what it is all about, not slope. Slope is fine in two dimensions
but we live in three dimensions. Slope is a trivial and stupid concept designed mainly to
give children something to do in high school. The correct and worthwhile notion is that of
direction vector. This is a new concept. Do not try to fit it in to the stuff you saw earlier.
Do not try to put the new wine in the old bottles, to quote the scripture. It only creates
confusion and you do not need that.
Example 1.8.4 Find the line through (1, 2) and (4, 7) .
A vector equation of this line is (x, y) = (1, 2) + t (3, 5) . Now if you want to get the
equation in the form you are used to seeing in high school,
x = 1 + 3t, y = 2 + 5t
Solving the first one for t, you get t = (x − 1) /3 and now plugging this in to the second
yields, ( )
x−1
y =2+5
3
so y − 2 = 53 (x − 1) which is the usual point slope form for this line.
Now that you know about lines, it is possible to give a more analytical description of a
vector as a directed line segment.
1.8. PARAMETRIC LINES 29
Definition 1.8.5 Let p and q be two points in Rn , p ̸= q. The directed line seg-
ment from p to q, denoted by −
→ is defined to be the collection of points,
pq,
x = p + t (q − p) , t ∈ [0, 1]
with the direction corresponding to increasing t. In the definition, when t = 0, the point p is
obtained and as t increases other points on this line segment are obtained until when t = 1,
you get the point, q. This is what is meant by saying the direction corresponds to increasing
t.
Think of −→ as an arrow whose point is on q and whose base is at p as shown in the
pq
following picture.
q

This line segment is a part of a line from the above Definition.

Example 1.8.6 Find a parametric equation for the line through the points (1, 2, 0) and
(2, −4, 6) .
Use the definition of a line given above to write
(x, y, z) = (1, 2, 0) + t (1, −6, 6) , t ∈ R.
The vector (1, −6, 6) is obtained by (2, −4, 6) − (1, 2, 0) as indicated above.
The reason for the word, “a”, rather than the word, “the” is there are infinitely many
different parametric equations for the same line. To see this replace t with 3s. Then you
obtain a parametric equation for the same line because the same set of points is obtained.
The difference is they are obtained from different values of the parameter. What happens
is this: The line is a set of points but the parametric description gives more information
than that. It tells how the set of points are obtained. Obviously, there are many ways to
trace out a given set of points and each of these ways corresponds to a different parametric
equation for the line.
Example 1.8.7 Find a parametric equation for the line which contains the point (1, 2, 0)
and has direction vector, (1, 2, 1) .
From the above this is just
(x, y, z) = (1, 2, 0) + t (1, 2, 1) , t ∈ R. (1.14)
Sometimes people elect to write a line like the above in the form
x = 1 + t, y = 2 + 2t, z = t, t ∈ R. (1.15)
This is a set of scalar parametric equations which amounts to the same thing as 1.14.
There is one other form for a line which is sometimes considered useful. It is the so called
symmetric form. Consider the line of 1.15. You can solve for the parameter, t to write
y−2
t = x − 1, t = , t = z.
2
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these clumps of trees were seated the actors, dressed in large
sacks, covering every part of the body; the head most fantastically
decorated with strips of rags, damask silk, and cotton, of as many
glaring colours as it was possible. The king’s servants attended to
keep the peace, and to prevent the crowd from breaking into the
square in which the actors were assembled. Musicians also attended
with drums, horns, and whistles, which were beaten and blown
without intermission.
The first act consisted in dancing and tumbling in sacks, which
they performed to admiration, considering they could not see, and
had not the free use of their feet and hands. The second act
consisted in catching the boa constrictor: first, one of the sack-men
came in front and knelt down on his hands and feet; then came out a
tall majestic figure, having on a head-dress and masque which baffle
all description: it was of a glossy black colour, sometimes like a lion
couchant over the crest of a helmet; at another like a black head with
a large wig: at every turn he made it changed its appearance. This
figure held in its right hand a sword, and by its superior dress and
motions appeared to be the director of the scene, for not a word was
spoken by the actors. The manager, as I shall call the tall figure, then
came up to the man who was lying in the sack; another sack-dancer
was brought in his sack, who by a wave of the sword was laid down
at the other’s head or feet; he having unsown the end of both sacks,
the two crawled into one. There was now great waving of the
manager’s sword; indeed I thought that heads were going to be
taken off, as all the actors were assembled round the party lying
down; but in a few minutes they all cleared away except the
manager, who gave two or three flourishes with his sword, when the
representation of the boa constrictor began. The animal put its head
out of the bag in which it was contained, attempting to bite the
manager; but at a wave of the sword it threw its head in another
direction to avert the blow; it then began gradually to creep out of the
bag, and went through the motions of a snake in a very natural
manner, though it appeared to be rather full in the belly; opening and
shutting its mouth, which I suspect was the performer’s two hands, in
the most natural manner imaginable. The length of the creature was
spun out to about fourteen feet; and the colour and action were well
represented by a covering of painted cloth, imitating that of the boa.
After following the manager round the park for some time, and
attempting to bite him, which he averted by a wave of the sword, a
sign was made for the body of actors to come up; when the manager
approaching the tail, made flourishes with his sword as if hacking at
that part of the body. The snake gasped, twisted up, and seemed as
if in great torture; and when nearly dead, it was shouldered by the
masqued actors, still gasping and making attempts to bite, but was
carried off in triumph to the fetish house.
The third act consisted of the white devil. The actors having
retired to some distance in the back ground, one of them was left in
the centre, whose sack falling gradually down, exposed a white
head, at which all the crowd gave a shout, that rent the air; they
appeared indeed to enjoy this sight, as the perfection of the actor’s
art. The whole body was at last cleared of the incumbrance of the
sack, when it exhibited the appearance of a human figure cast in
white wax, of the middle size, miserably thin, and starved with cold. It
frequently went through the motion of taking snuff, and rubbing its
hands; when it walked, it was with the most awkward gait, treading
as the most tender-footed white man would do in walking bare-
footed, for the first time, over new frozen ground. The spectators
often appealed to us, as to the excellence of the performance, and
entreated I would look and be attentive to what was going on. I
pretended to be fully as much pleased with this caricature of a white
man as they could be, and certainly the actor burlesqued the part to
admiration. This being concluded, the performers all retired to the
fetish house. Between each act, we had choral songs by the king’s
women, in which the assembled crowd joined their voices.
The kingdom of Yourriba extends from Puka on the south, which
is within five miles of the sea, to Lagos and Whydah in that line; to
the north to about the 10th degree of north latitude. It is bounded by
Dahomey to the north-west, which is reckoned a tributary province:
Ketto and the Maha countries on the north, Borgoo on the north-
east, the Quorra or Niger to the east, Accoura, a province of Benin,
on the south-east, five days’ journey distant; Jaboo to the south and
west. Its tributaries are Dahomey, Alladah, Badagry, and Maha. From
the sea coast to Chocho in latitude 8° 8′ north, longitude 4° 2′ east,
the country rises by a gradual ascent; the soil of a strong red clay
and mould, and where the woods have not been cleared, they may
be considered as impervious. The trees are of great size, with most
luxuriant foliage. From Chocho to Koosoo is a range of granite hills,
running from west-north-west to east-south-east. These hills are of
grey granite, bare of vegetation, and in solid masses. They are from
four to eight hundred feet above the level of the valleys, which are
narrow, winding, and well cultivated, and watered with innumerable
small streams. The soil a thin black mould. From Koossoo to Eyeo,
the country is less hilly, the hills in broken irregular ranges, and
running principally from north-east to south-west, with here and there
detached masses thrown up, as if by some great convulsion of
nature. The granite of which they are composed is of a softer kind,
and crumbling away with the weather. The valleys between these
hills widen into plains, as they advance to the northward. In the hilly
region, the trees are thinly scattered, low and stunted. The domestic
animals are horses of a very small breed, and even these are
scarce; the horned cattle also near the coast are of a small size: but
as we approach the capital, they are as large as those in England.
Many of them have humps on their shoulders, the same as those in
Abyssinia and the East Indies. They have sheep of the common
kind, and also those which are found in other parts of Africa; hogs,
Muscovy ducks, fowls, pigeons, and a few turkeys. Of the wild
animals, and the feathered race, I can say but little, having seen
none of the former except monkeys; but the natives report that the
hyæna and the leopard are very common. The lion, also, is found in
some parts of the country; yams, Indian corn, millet, and challots;
fruits, such as oranges, limes, pears, apples, &c. are plentiful
throughout the kingdom. The cotton plant is cultivated to a
considerable extent, and the wool manufactured into cloth. The
commerce of this country is almost entirely confined to slaves,
though a considerable quantity of cloth is made, and bartered with
the people of the coast for rum, tobacco, European cloth, and other
articles. The medium of exchange throughout the interior is the
cowry shell. A prime slave at Jannah is worth in sterling money,
according to the value set on the articles of barter, from three to four
pounds.
The government of Yourriba is hereditary, and an absolute
despotism, every subject being considered the slave of the king; but
its administration is mild and humane, and appears to have been so
for a long period. The only distinction of rank that obtains is that of
caboceer, who may be considered as the governor of a distant town
or province; the appointment of these governors depending on the
will of the king. The military force consists of the caboceers and their
own immediate retainers, which, allowing one hundred and fifty to
each, will not give such immense armies as we have sometimes
heard stated; that of Yourriba is perhaps as numerous as any of the
kingdoms of Africa. I think the general appearance of the
Yourribanians has less of the characteristic features of the negro
than any other I have yet seen; their lips are less thick, and their
noses more inclined to the aquiline shape, than negroes in general.
The men are well made, and have an independent carriage, that
cannot fail to attract attention. The women are almost invariably of a
more ordinary appearance than the men, which may arise from their
being more exposed to the sun, and the drudgery they are obliged to
undergo; all the labour of the land devolving on them.
The city of Eyeo (in Houssa language, Katunga), the capital of
Yourriba, is situated in latitude 8° 59′ north, longitude 6° 12′ east. It is
built on the sloping side and round the base of a small range of
granite hills, which, as it were, forms the citadel of the town; they are
formed of stupendous blocks of gray granite of the softest kind,
some of which are seen hanging from the summits, in the most
frightful manner, while others, resting on very small bases, appear as
if the least touch would send them down into the valley beneath. The
soil on which the town is built is formed of clay and gravel, mixed
with sand, which has obviously been produced from the crumbling
granite. The appearance of these hills is that of a mass of rocks left
bare by the tide. A belt of thick wood runs round the walls, which are
built of clay, and about twenty feet high, and surrounded by a dry
ditch. There are ten gates in the walls, which are about fifteen miles
in circumference, of an oval shape, about four miles in diameter one
way, and six miles the other, the south end leaning against the rocky
hills, and forming an inaccessible barrier in that quarter. The king’s
houses and those of his women occupy about a square mile, and are
on the south side of the hills, having two large parks, one in front,
and another facing the north. They are all built of clay, and have
thatched roofs, similar to those nearer the coast. The posts
supporting the verandahs and the doors of the king’s and caboceers’
houses are generally carved in bas relief, with figures representing
the boa killing an antelope or a hog, or with processions of warriors
attended by drummers. The latter are by no means meanly
executed, conveying the expression and attitude of the principal man
in the groupe with a lofty air, and the drummer well pleased with his
own music, or rather deafening noise. There are seven different
markets, which are held every evening; being generally opened
about three or four o’clock. The chief articles exposed for sale are
yams, corn, calavances, plantains, and bananas; vegetable butter,
seeds of the colycynth, which forms a great article of food,
sweetmeats, goats, fowls, sheep, and lambs; and also cloth of the
manufacture of the country, and their various implements of
agriculture. The price of a small goat is from 1500 to 2000 cowries; a
large sheep, 3000 to 5,000; a fowl, 150 to 200; yams, 4000 per
hundred; a horse, 80 to 100,000; and a cow from 20 to 30,000; a
prime slave, 40 to 60,000;—2000 cowries being equal to one
Spanish dollar. Trona, or natron, is brought here from Bornou, and
sold to all parts of the coast, where it is much in request, to mix with
snuff, and also as a medicine.
Saturday, 25th.—This afternoon we had a visit from the king; he
brought with him a duck, some rice, and goora nuts. I told him I was
all ready to go, whenever he chose to give me the escort and
messengers. He said the caboceers of the different towns through
which I had to pass were still here, but as soon as they left I should
go. I asked him, as I was writing to England, what he wanted from
thence. He said, a brass crown, fine yellow and blue cloth, large
coral, some gaudy carpeting, an English drum, and about half a ton
of cowries. The whole of this curious catalogue would not cost, as I
suppose, more than £200. I told him, therefore, that I should send
the list home.
Sunday, 26th.—Morning dull and hazy, with an oppressive sultry
heat, the wind north-north-east, causing the same depression of
spirits as the siroc wind in the Mediterranean, and which affected
every one of the party, and made us all sigh for a breeze, and to
proceed on our journey.
Wednesday, 1st March.—On this day the weather began to clear
up, with a fine breeze from the eastward. Our friend the fat eunuch is
evidently playing the rogue with us, as we neither can get provisions,
wood, nor water, but with the greatest difficulty. He sees he has got
all I intend to give, either to the king or any body else. A messenger
of the caboceer of Jannah went and returned from Rakah to-day, to
buy trona. The Yourriba name of Rakah is Saguda: the Quorra is
only about two hours’ easy walking to the eastward of it. The
following day, in the afternoon, I had a visit from the king. I asked
him why I was longer detained; said I had waited with patience
through the several times he had appointed for my starting, but it
appeared I was just as far from getting away as ever. He hesitated,
and gave me an evasive answer. I asked him to tell me distinctly. No,
he could not do that, as he wished to get me a large horse to ride
before I went. I said I would ride a small one. He then said he had
only one. I asked him if he would allow me to hire horses from the
caboceers. “What,” he replied, “will they say of me, if I allow you to
go away in this way after your king sending me such a present?” He
then begged I would stop for three days more, until he could get
horses, and I should certainly go. I pointed out to him the number of
times he had broken his word: he said the reason he would not fix a
day now was, that he might not break his word again.
Monday, 6th.—It was not before the 6th that the king paid me
another visit, and told me, that the Yarro messengers were ready,
and that I might go to-morrow or next day, and that he intended to
give me a horse. I thanked him, and told him I was quite ready and
determined to set off to-morrow, as delays here were dangerous.
Accordingly, the next day, when every thing was ready for starting, I
was again visited by the king, who, after giving me in charge of what
he called the Yarro messenger, told me that the sultan Yarro would
take the greatest care of my baggage, and forward me to the king of
Youri. He then made me a present of a horse, for which I thanked
him, and took my leave.
CHAPTER III.
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS FROM KATUNGA, OR EYEO, TO
BOUSA, ON THE NIGER, OR QUORRA, THE PLACE WHERE
MUNGO PARK PERISHED.
At three o’clock in the afternoon I set out from Katunga, and

passed the gates of the town, with the same escort I had on entering
it, headed, as before, by the king’s brother. In the evening we halted
at the village of Assina for the night, where I got two fowls and some
yams. The poor people were just returning to their houses, from
which they had been driven out by the Fellatas last year, who
continue to infest the country, even up to the gates of Katunga.
Wednesday, 8th.—Left the village of Assina; the morning dull, but
cool and pleasant; arrived at Tshow, where I had breakfast, and left it
at 10 A.M., and after travelling over very bad roads, cut up and
crossed by deep rocky ravines, reached the higher ground, which
was well cultivated; but their villages appeared to be all in ruins,
which my guides told me were destroyed last year by the Fellatas. At
noon arrived at the town of Algi, which is now rising from its ruins; it
having shared the same fate as the villages I had passed. The
inhabitants are now returning to their ruined dwellings, some of
which they have already repaired; they said they had nothing but a
little grain, and a few yams for seed; of these they gave me part, and
the best house in the town. The Yarro messenger had not made his
appearance, and I now learned, that Algi no longer belonged to the
king of Yourriba, but to Yarro, the chief or sultan of Kiama, a petty
state of the kingdom of Borgoo; that Kiama was the name of the
province, and Yarro the name of the sultan, as he is called. I gave
the king of Yourriba’s brother, who commanded the escort, a fathom
of red cloth, and ten coral beads, as he is to return to Katunga as
soon as he has seen me off from this place.
Thursday, 9th.—Light airs, and clear. I was unable to get off to-
day, as they could not collect the people to carry my baggage. The
king of Yourriba’s brother declared, that he or his people had had
nothing to eat all night, or since he had left Assina; yet he got the
caboceer of the place to send me a pig, for which I gave five coral
beads: the man said he was ashamed to see me, as he had nothing
to give. Algi consists of three walled villages, and before it was burnt
down had been of considerable size: they pointed out a rock close to
the south side of the town, from whence the Fellatas flew the
pigeons to set fire to it. The mode of doing it was, by making
combustibles fast to the tails of the birds, which, on being let loose
from the hand, immediately flew to the tops of the thatched houses,
while the Fellatas kept up a sharp fire of arrows, to prevent the
inhabitants extinguishing the flames. There are still a number of
Fellatas in this neighbourhood, who are nearly white, but pagans:
they speak the Fellata language, and agree in every thing but their
religion.
Friday, 10th.—This morning the king’s brother accompanied me
outside the town. I sent by him a letter to Mr. Houtson, to tell the king
of Yourriba he had behaved very ill in not sending a proper
messenger; that the one he had sent was not the Kiama messenger,
but the butcher’s son of Algi, and that in no one point had he
performed his promise to me. We halted at the village of Watatoo,
where I was lodged in one of the best houses; this village had also
shared the fate of Algi, having been burnt down by the Fellatas, and
the inhabitants were just returning to their homes. The country
between Watatoo and Algi is cultivated in a number of places, and
planted with cotton, yams, and maize, and is diversified by hill and
dale: the hills are low and rocky; the rocks of a fine-grained sand-
stone. In the evening the head man of the village made me a present
of four fowls and some yams.
Saturday, 11th.—Cool and cloudy; during the night, heavy storm
of wind, with thunder and lightning. At daylight I had every thing
ready for starting; the butcher’s son having arrived last night,
mounted on a little mare, with a saddle, and he without shoes or
boots. On leaving Watatoo, I gave the two head men of the village a
fathom of blue cloth each, as they had been as good as their
circumstances would admit, and they promised to send every thing
after me as soon as possible. In about fifteen minutes after leaving
Watatoo, I arrived at and crossed the river Moussa, which formerly
divided the kingdoms of Yourriba, and Borgoo: it was dry in a great
many places, with a very rocky bed; when full, about thirty yards in
breadth; and runs apparently with a very strong current. They say, it
is the same river I passed on the road to Tshow, on the north side of
the hills, and enters the Quorra opposite Nyffee, and near Rakah.
After crossing, I travelled through thick woods for an hour, when I
halted at a few huts on the north side of the river, called Bori, until
the baggage should arrive. A hut stood apart from the rest, near the
banks of the river; the grass and weeds carefully cleared away from
around it. The messenger and people who were with me went one
after another to say their prayers; which they did, by lying down, with
their foreheads towards the door, which was secured by a mat: they
appeared to be very devout, and having finished their prayers,
slipped a few cowries inside the mat. I asked if I might go and look
in, but they would not allow me. I asked them who they prayed to:
they said, to the God that gave them plenty of water, corn, and yams.
They say there are great numbers of hippopotami and crocodiles in
the river during the time that it is full. The carriers, with the baggage,
came up very slowly, and the heaviest loads were mostly carried by
old women; and I could not help noticing the cold-blooded
indifference of the young men, who would not give the poor old
creatures the least assistance: however, I made them carry the
heaviest loads, to the great joy of the old ladies. During the time I
was waiting for the carriers to come up, a piece of cloth was stolen
from one of the women. The bearers flew to arms instantly, the
arrows laid on the strings, and the bows bent. I expected nothing but
a battle; but fortunately the thief was discovered to be one of the
villagers, who had pretended to be asleep, and drunk, all the time we
were here; he had stowed the cloth under the thatch of the house,
and I never saw a woman more overjoyed in my life than the poor
honest creature was, when she recovered her cloth; she came and
kneeled down to thank me, as she said it was by my influence the
cloth was returned. On the tops of the huts, which are of the real
Bornou coozie form, the first I have seen since I came to Africa this
time, were stuck a number of crocodiles’ eggs, which are considered
as a protection against that animal. All the baggage having now
arrived, I left the village of Boru, with its shady trees and mud
temple, at a very quick pace, over a flat country apparently not far
from the river Quorra, thickly wooded with fine tall trees, and
inhabited by large antelopes, numerous traces of which I saw. In the
evening halted in the wood, close to a small stream of water.
The next morning, on leaving our encampment, a messenger from
the chief of Kiama arrived; he had been sent to see if I was on the
road, and to return with speed and inform his master. Our road was
through thick woods; the soil a red clay, mixed with gravel. At 10
A.M. halted at the town of Oblah, which has been walled, and of
considerable size, but now only a few huts remain, the rest having
been burned by Yarro. Here my servant Richard was taken very ill,
and unable to ride; in consequence of which I remained until the
afternoon, when he got better, and was able to proceed, by a man
holding him on the bare back of the horse, for we had no saddles.
Halted at the village of Socka, where I got one of the best huts, a few
yams, and four fowls.
Monday, 13th.—Morning cool and cloudy. At daylight an escort
arrived from the chief of Kiama, mounted on as fine horses as I ever
saw. One man had on a white cotton tobe, or shirt, written over
entirely with Arab charms, which made it look like printed cotton at a
distance. They were a despicable, lawless set of fellows; for as soon
as they had delivered their master’s compliments to me, they began
to plunder the village of the goats and fowls. One fellow rode in at full
gallop, through the fence of matting which surround the huts,
brandishing his spear; those on foot following him, and making a
prize of every thing they could lay their hands on. I gave the head
man of the village, out of sight of the escort, a fathom of blue cloth,
and two knives. On leaving Sacko, I was now accompanied by this
escort, who formed as fine and wild a looking troop as I ever saw.
They had brought me a saddle, but Richard and Pascoe rode bare-
backed, and our little Yourriba mares made a miserable contrast with
the gallant looking troop who were guarding us: but I consoled
myself with the thought that I had not plundered the village. Our road
lay through a country rough and uneven, consisting of hill and dale,
with rocks of quartz and sandstone, a range of hills closing round to
the right. Passed two villages, at which my honest escort levied a
tribute of goats and fowls. At nine A.M. we arrived at the city of
Kiama, and rode instantly up to the house of the chief; where, after
waiting under the shade of a wide spreading tree for a few minutes, I
paid my respects to the chief, or sultan, as they call him: his name is
Yarro. He was sitting in the porch of his door, a stout, good looking
man, past the middle age, dressed in a white tobe or large shirt, with
a red Moorish cap on his head. We shook hands; and after telling
him who I was, and where I wished to go, he said, Very well, I had
better go and rest from the fatigues of my journey, in the house that
was prepared for me; and sent his head man to conduct me to it. He
was attended by a mob of people, who were lying on their bellies
and their sides, talking to him in this posture. After taking my leave, I
went with his head man to my house, which proved to be a very
good one. It consisted of three large huts inside a square, in one of
which I put the baggage; occupied the second myself; and the
servants the other. I had not remained long, before Yarro sent me a
present of milk, eggs, bananas, fried cheese, curds, and foo-foo; and
I was left alone until the heat of the day was over, when I received a
visit from Yarro himself. He came mounted on a beautiful red roan,
attended by a number of armed men, on horseback and on foot; and
six young female slaves, naked as they were born, except a stripe of
narrow white cloth tied round their heads, about six inches of the
ends flying out behind; each carrying a light spear in the right hand.
He was dressed in a red silk damask tobe, and booted. He
dismounted, and came into my house, attended by the six girls, who
laid down their spears, and put a blue cloth round their waists before
they entered the door. After he was seated, he began by asking after
the health of the king of Yourriba, who, I said, I had left very well. I
then told him I had been sent by the king of England to visit Bornou;
that I was the king of England’s servant, and hoped he would assist
me in proceeding on my journey; and that I intended to make him a
suitable present; that I wanted thirty-six men to carry my baggage,
and two horses for my servants to ride; and that I wished to stay as
short a time as possible, as the rains were near at hand, which, if
overtaken by them, would prevent my travelling; that the season of
the rains was very sickly, and fatal to white men; that three of the
white men who had left England with me had died in Yourriba, and it
was more than probable that I should die also, if exposed in any of
these countries to the rains. He said I was going to stay but a short
time, and that he would send me to Wawa; from thence I should be
forwarded to Boussa; then to cross the river Quorra to Injaskee, and
thence to Bornou. On his leaving me, I attended him to the door. He
mounted his horse, the young ladies undressed, and away went the
most extraordinary cavalcade I ever saw in my life.
After sunset I had a visit from the taya or chief of the caravan
belonging to Houssa, which had arrived yesterday from Gonja and
Ashantee, and a trader of Bornou who had known me when I was in
that country. They advised me by all means to leave this country as
soon as possible, as they were all kaffirs; that they would plunder me
of every thing I had; and that on no account ought I to go by the way
of Youri, as they were now at war with the Fellatas, and the road
entirely shut up; that, besides, the road by Youri was the most
distant; and that I must urge this chief to send me away as soon as
possible.
Tuesday, 14th.—This morning I waited on Yarro with my present,
which consisted of the following articles:—a large blue silk umbrella,
one of Tatham’s African swords, three fathoms of blue cloth, three
fathoms of red, some red beads and coral, an imitation gold chain,
two bottles of rum, two phosphorus boxes, four knives, and six pair
of scissars, and some prints. The cloth I had spread out at full length:
the large mock coral beads he shook at the naked young females, as
much as to say, Which of you will get these? On seeing the sword he
could not restrain his delight, and drawing it, and brandishing it
around his head, he called out, “Ya baturi! Ya baturi!” “Oh, my white
lord! Oh, my white lord!” He was certainly more pleased than any
man I ever saw with a present; his eyes sparkled with joy, and he
shook me about a dozen times by the hand. I pressed the necessity
of my departure, which he said should be the day after to-morrow. I
then took my leave; and a short time after returning to my house he
sent me some milk and a sheep; and in the afternoon, by his head
man, Abubecker, an earthenware jug to look at: it was of English
earthenware, representing old Toby Philpot with a flowing jug of ale
in his hand. I have seen more European articles, such as
earthenware jugs, brass and pewter dishes, pieces of woollen and
cotton cloth, within these two days that I have been in Kiama, than I
saw during the whole time I was in Yourriba.
In the evening I had a visit from the head man of the Houssa
goffle, or caravan, which is on its way from Gonja and Ashantee:
they consist of upwards of 1000 men and women, and as many
beasts of burthen. He offers to carry all my things to Kano for a
certain sum. He says that they had been detained in Gonja a long
time, twelve months, on account of the wars; that the king of
Ashantee was dead, as also the heir, and that the Ashantees were
now without a king. This taya, as the head man of the goffle is called,
is named Abdullah, a native of Kano. I heard a great many inquiries
made after myself, they not knowing me in my English dress, and
without a beard. They talk to me about having seen me in Bornou
and Soudan: I do not yet tell them that I am the same person.
The principal part of the cargo of these Houssa merchants
consists in gora or kolla nuts, which they receive in exchange for
natron, red glass beads, and a few slaves, principally refractory ones
which they cannot manage. They carry their goods on bullocks,
mules, asses, and a number of female slaves are loaded; even some
women hire themselves to carry loads to and from Nyffé. Some of
the merchants have no more property than they can carry on their
own heads. The duty they pay to the chief of Kiama is ten kolla for
each load.
Wednesday, 15th.—I early visited the chief this morning, to urge
my departure. He was surrounded by a number of his head men;
and when I had finished my story, he made a number of objections to
my going off to-morrow. One of his fellows said I had given nothing
to be allowed to go. I said I was not a merchant, possessed of a
great quantity of goods to give away; that I had only a few things to
give to the different sultans on the road, to afford me protection to
and from Bornou, and pointed out to Yarro each separate place
where I should be obliged to give. He said that, before I left Kiama, I
must give a present to his governor and the head men of the town,
whom he would send to me. I told him, if this was to be the way, I
should very soon have nothing to give: that at Wawa, Boussa, and
Injaskie, they would be sure to hear what I had given here, and that
they would expect the same. He then said, that as soon as his
messenger arrived from Katunga, who was a very trusty man, I
should go to Wawa. I informed him that the chief of the Houssa
caravan had offered to take me to Kano from Wawa, and that he
would carry every thing for me. “Oh,” says he, “you must not believe
these stories; he would take you a day or two on the road, and then
leave you: where is he to get the means to carry your things? and
besides, he has not paid his custom yet, and until that is paid he
cannot go: you shall go to-morrow or next day.” On which I thanked
him, and took my leave. On my return I had a messenger from his
principal wife, to say she wished to see me; and she sent me five
yams and a fowl.
In the afternoon I went to visit her sable majesty. I first repaired to
Yarro’s house, where, after some conversation about my going away,
I told him I wished to send a letter to Badagry, and if he wanted a
tea-pot like mine I should send for one for him: he said yes, he
wanted a tea-pot and a pair of gold bracelets, and some other things,
which he would mention to me by and by. His wife and daughter
came in: the first old and ugly; the next about twenty-five years old,
which is past the meridian in this country. After paying their respects
to Yarro, which is after the Yourriba fashion, I gave them one fathom
of red cloth, one fathom of blue, some scissars, needles, beads, and
silk. Yarro asked me if I would take his daughter for a wife; I said
“Yes,” after a great many thanks for my present. The old woman
went out, and I followed with the king’s head man, Abubecker. I went
to the house of the daughter, which consists of several coozies
separate from those of the father, and I was shown into a very clean
one: a mat was spread: I sat down; and the lady coming in and
kneeling down, I asked her if she would live in my house, or I should
come and live with her: she said, whatever way I wished: very well, I
said, I would come and live with her, as she had the best house. She
kept her kneeling posture all the time I was in the house. I took leave
of her, and went home, when one of the great men mentioned by
Yarro waited upon me, and I gave him a present of two knives, some
beads, and a yard of cloth.
Thursday, 16th.—The king’s son came to-day for my advice: a fat,
gross, tall man. He said, on my inquiring after his disorder, that every
month he had a great throbbing of blood in his head, attended with
pain; that he lost the use of his limbs, and could not stand; that the
pain then fell down to his breast, and remained altogether four days,
coming on always a few days before the new moon. I weighed him
out nine doses of calomel, of seven grains each, desiring him to take
them one at a time when the throbbing came on, and if he could get
bled in the head to have that done also; and, with the assistance of
God, I hoped he would get well before he had taken the nine doses. I
had a visit also from the princess, for the purpose of receiving a
small donation of beads. She would not sit down on the carpet or
mat, as her father had sat on it when he had been in my house.
Such is the custom: a daughter must not presume to sit where her
father has sat. A wife of the governor of the town also came to see
me. She brought me a present of some cowries, as she said her
father had been a servant to white men: she would sleep well and
happy to-night, as the joy or wish of her life was accomplished—she
had seen me.
I had a present of a sheep, four fowls, and some yams, from a
young man related to Yarro, for my advice and assistance; as I now
intend my advice in the medical way shall turn to some account:
without that I should never have a moment’s peace for patients. This
young man had nothing the matter with him: he was only afraid he
was going to get the disorder his mother died of, which he described
as follows:—First, swellings of the eyes and ears, then contracting of
the toes and fingers; the skin on the body peeling off, and the flesh
looking red and raw; then death. I gave him twelve papers of
calomel, of two grains each, desiring him to take one every morning,
besides giving him a strong dose of Croton oil (three drops), and a
dose of Seidlitz to wash it down.
Every night we have dancing and singing. Their music is the
Bornou flute, the Arab fiddle, and the drum. There appears not the
least jealousy to exist in Kiama: men’s wives and maidens all join in
the song and dance; even those of the Moorish belief seem to forget
that part of their creed in Kiama.
Friday, 17th.—This being jama, or the day Mahometans attend
the mosque, kept by them as we keep our Sunday, the pagans also
take advantage of the day, and spend it in showing their fine clothes,
and paying and receiving visits. I had a visit from the governor, who
came in state: he was attended by a great rabble, and two drums: he
had on a turban over a European foraging cap, two or three tobes of
Manchester cotton; the rest of his dress was of country-made cloth.
After the governor left me I visited Yarro with a present of six wax
candles, and the remains of my red beads of the largest size, as he
says his women are very fond of them; and this is to be my last
present, as I am to go away to-morrow. He says he will give me
carriers; lend me horses; and, as I will have to sleep in the woods,
he would send plenty of provisions: his people should sleep on one
side the baggage, and mine on the other, at night; and then, when
every thing went safe, I could not but say Yarro was a good man.
After the heat of the day was over, Yarro came, attended by all his
train. The most extraordinary persons in it were himself and the
bearers of his spears, which, as before, were six naked young girls,
from fifteen to seventeen years of age. The only thing they wore was
a white bandeau, or fillet of white cloth, round the forehead, about six
inches of the ends flying behind, and a string of beads round their
waists; in their right hands they carried three light spears each. Their
light form, the vivacity of their eyes, and the ease with which they
appeared to fly over the ground, made them appear something more
than mortal as they flew alongside of his horse, when he was
galloping, and making his horse curvet and bound. A man with an
immense bundle of spears remained behind at a little distance,
apparently to serve as a magazine for the girls to be supplied from,
when their master had expended those they carried in their hands.
Yarro is a stout, good-looking man, with large eyes, a handsome
Roman nose, a short grisly beard, sits well on horseback, and was
dressed in a high red Moorish cap, a tobe or large shirt, boots, and
brass stirrup-irons. His horse’s neck was bedecked with small brass
bells and charms, and was as fine a dark bay as I ever saw. The rest
of his attendants were not worth mentioning: some on horseback,
some on foot; and one only had an old musket, which missed fire
every time they snapped it. The whole of the horse in attendance
might be about fifty, who filed past my door, and then halted, when
Yarro alighted and came in. I had tea prepared for him, which he
professed to like very much; but he would not drink milk with his tea,
as it is forbidden by his fetish. The girls came into the house with
him, but a cloth for the waist was first given them to put on. After tea
he returned, and at his request I went to the front of his house,
where there was some by no means bad horse-racing, in an oblong
square in front of his house, formed on one side by tall shady trees,
the end closed by the rocky ridge. The horses ran in pairs up this
square, sometimes a large Bornou horse paired with the small native
breed, the latter of which appeared to dispute the victory often with
the larger horses of Bornou. Towards the close, young boys rode on
bare backed young horses, which was not the worst of the sport.
After the racing I went and complimented Yarro on his riding, as he
also was one of the racers, and of course won.
Kiama, the principal city of a province of that name in the kingdom
of Borgoo, is situated in latitude 9° 37′ 33″ north, and longitude 5° 22′
56″ east of Greenwich. It is governed by a chief whose name, Yarro,
signifies The Boy; and both city and province are, as frequently
happens in Africa, sometimes called after him. The province is thinly
inhabited, and the city straggling and ill built. The houses consist of
circular huts, or coozies, built of clay and thatched: a number of
these, enclosed in a square fence of matting, generally form but one
house. The city is built on the south side of a rocky ridge, and is
surrounded by an extensive low clay wall, which is broken down in a
number of places: inside the walls are plantations of corn and yams.
The surrounding country is thickly wooded, with but few plantations,
and the country is said to abound in game of all descriptions.
Kiama is one of the towns through which the caravan from
Houssa and Bornou passes to and from Gonja, on the borders of
Ashantee: it also has a direct trade with Dahomey, Youri, Nyffé, and
Yourriba. There is no fixed duty for the merchants to pay, but the
chief takes just as much as can be squeezed from them. The
inhabitants are pagans of an easy faith; never praying but when they
are sick, or want something, and cursing their object of worship as
fancy serves. The Houssa slaves amongst them are Mahometans,
and are allowed to worship in their own way.
The town (and I think I speak within bounds) may contain 30,000
inhabitants. They are looked upon by all who know them as the
greatest thieves and robbers in all Africa; and it is enough to call a
man a native of Borgoo, to designate him as a thief and a murderer.
Their government is despotic; and it appears very little protection is
given to the subject, as one town will plunder another whenever an
opportunity offers. Their manner of salutation to superiors is by
prostration at full length on the ground, but without throwing dust on
the head or body: the women kneel on their knees and elbows,
holding the two open hands turned up towards the face. They say
that a country called Gourma lies eight days’ journey to the north of
them; Gonja is to the W.N.W.; and that a small territory called
Katakolee lies between Gonja and Borgoo. They sell in the market
Brazil tobacco, snuff, natron, yams, plantains, bananas, milk,
vegetable butter, gora nuts, and honey in great plenty and cheap.
Sheep and bullocks are abundant: the latter mostly in the hands of
the Fellatas, who inhabit the woods, shifting about from place to
place as pasture is good. The Borgoo people will not suffer them to
carry any weapons of defence. Their best horses they get from the
Bornou and Houssa merchants, who bring them for sale.
On the 18th, after breakfast, being provided with carriers and two
horses, one saddled for myself, I took leave of Yarro, and left Kiama.
The Houssa caravan left before me, but was to halt at another
village, at a little distance from my route. The road was principally
through thick woods, with a few plantations of yams, near some
villages that we passed, inhabited by Fellatas. One deserted village,
they said, had been abandoned last rainy season, on account of
sickness; but what the disease was, I could not learn. The
inhabitants of these villages were mostly Fellatas, who take care of
Yarro’s cattle. The road very winding, diversified by gentle hill and
dale; the soil red clay and gravel, with rocks and stones here and
there, of a gritty sandstone, with large square pebbles of quartz. At
11.40 A.M. halted at the village of Bonaga, where I got a good
house; and I found Yarro had sent forward two goats and a large
quantity of yams, which I shared out to the carriers of the baggage.
The day was excessively hot, and it was late before all the baggage
came up. The head man of the village sent me three large bowls of
foo-foo, with goats’ flesh dressed in the skin, which is the saving way
of this country, nothing being thrown away but the hoofs and horns.
Just as I was going to bed in the evening, Abubecker, who by Yarro’s
order had accompanied me, to see me safe on my journey, came
running into my room in his shirt, apparently in a great fright, and
said the men had run away who were engaged to carry the baggage,
and he must ride into the town to bring them back. I thanked him,
and said I hoped he would make haste. He waited a little; and I
suspected he wanted to draw a present out of me, though I had
given him more than any other person in Kiama except Yarro.
Sunday, 19th.—At daybreak I had every thing ready for starting,
but the manœuvring of old Abubecker kept me until 7.30 A.M.; and
even then I had to give three yards of blue cloth and several strings
of beads before I could get the baggage off. After starting, our road
was through a thickly wooded country of fine tall trees, with little
underwood, the country rising into gentle hill and dale, and the path
very winding. At 10 we fell in with the Houssa caravans. They
occupied a long line of march: bullocks, asses, horses, women, and
men, to the amount of a thousand, all in a line, after one another,
forming a very curious sight; a motley groupe, from the nearly naked
girls and men carrying loads, to the ridiculously and gaudily dressed
Gonja traders, riding on horseback, some of these animals being
lame, and going with a halt, and all in very bad condition. The poor
girls, their slaves, are compelled to travel with a heavy load on their
heads, yet are as cheerful and good-natured as if they were at home
grinding corn in their own native country. The road lay over a level
plain covered with trees; the soil a red clay, with gravel and ore,
among rocks of clay ironstone, appearing, from the softer parts, to
have been washed or worn away, as if it had undergone the action of
fire. We halted near to a small rainy-season stream, in which were
pools of water. Here and there saw numerous traces of the large

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September 30, 2016

II Vectors, Vector Products, Lines 15

III Planes And Systems Of Equations 69

4 Systems Of Linear Equations 81

6 The LU and QR Factorization 151

7.1.5 A Formula For The Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

8 The Mathematical Theory Of Determinants∗ 173

9 Vector Spaces Subspaces Bases 189

10 Linear Transformations 211

11 Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors Of A Matrix 227

11.11Exercises With Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

12 Curves In Space 259

13 Newton’s Laws Of Motion∗ 273

14 Physics Of Curvilinear Motion 281

IV Functions Of Many Variables 303

16 Limits Of A Function 319

18 Extrema Of Functions Of Several Variables 361

19 The Derivative Of Vector Valued Functions, What Is The Derivative?∗ 379

20 Implicit Function Theorem∗ 399

VI Multiple Integrals 407

22 The Integral In Other Coordinates 437

VII Line Integrals 471

VIII Green’s Theorem, Integrals On Surfaces 489

25 The Integral On Two Dimensional Surfaces In R3 499

IX The Divergence Theorem And Stoke’s Theorem 519

27 The Divergence Theorem 523

28 Stokes And Green’s Theorems 543

X Some Iterative Techniques For Linear Algebra 565

30 Iterative Methods For Finding Eigenvalues 579

XI The Correct Version Of The Riemann Integral ∗ 591

A.3 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

Vectors, Vector Products, Lines

Vectors And Points In Rn

1.1 Rn Ordered n− tuples

Deﬁnition 1.1.1 Deﬁne

(x1 , · · ·, xn ) = (y1 , · · ·, yn ) if and only if for all j = 1, ···, n, xj = yj . When (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ Rn ,

1.2 Vectors And Algebra In Rn

An element of Rn , x ≡ (x1 , · · ·, xn ) is often called a vector. The above deﬁnition is known

the associative law for addition,

the existence of an additive inverse, Also

As usual subtraction is deﬁned as x − y ≡ x+ (−y) .

1.3 Geometric Meaning Of Vectors

1.4 Geometric Meaning Of Vector Addition

Thus the geometric signiﬁcance of (d, e, f ) + (a, b, c) = (d + a, e + b, f + c) is this. You

1.5 Distance Between Points In Rn Length Of A Vector

Deﬁnition 1.5.1 Let x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) and y = (y1 , · · ·, yn ) be two points in Rn .

the points (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and (y1 , y2 , x3 ) .

which is again just the distance formula above.

Let (x, y, z) be such a point. Then

Squaring both sides

1.6 Geometric Meaning Of Scalar Multiplication

Exercise 1.6.1 Here is a picture of two vectors, u and v.

Sketch a picture of u + v, u − v, and u+2v.