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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 533

Subhash Chandra Bera

Microwave
Active Devices
and Circuits for
Communication
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 533

Board of Series editors

Leopoldo Angrisani, Napoli, Italy
Marco Arteaga, Coyoacán, México
Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi, New Delhi, India
Samarjit Chakraborty, München, Germany
Jiming Chen, Hangzhou, P.R. China
Shanben Chen, Shanghai, China
Tan Kay Chen, Singapore, Singapore
Ruediger Dillmann, Karlsruhe, Germany
Haibin Duan, Beijing, China
Gianluigi Ferrari, Parma, Italy
Manuel Ferre, Madrid, Spain
Sandra Hirche, München, Germany
Faryar Jabbari, Irvine, USA
Limin Jia, Beijing, China
Janusz Kacprzyk, Warsaw, Poland
Alaa Khamis, New Cairo City, Egypt
Torsten Kroeger, Stanford, USA
Qilian Liang, Arlington, USA
Tan Cher Ming, Singapore, Singapore
Wolfgang Minker, Ulm, Germany
Pradeep Misra, Dayton, USA
Sebastian Möller, Berlin, Germany
Subhas Mukhopadhyay, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Cun-Zheng Ning, Tempe, USA
Toyoaki Nishida, Kyoto, Japan
Federica Pascucci, Roma, Italy
Yong Qin, Beijing, China
Gan Woon Seng, Singapore, Singapore
Germano Veiga, Porto, Portugal
Haitao Wu, Beijing, China
Junjie James Zhang, Charlotte, USA
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering (LNEE) is a book series which reports the
latest research and developments in Electrical Engineering, namely:

• Communication, Networks, and Information Theory

• Computer Engineering
• Signal, Image, Speech and Information Processing
• Circuits and Systems
• Bioengineering
• Engineering

The audience for the books in LNEE consists of advanced level students,
researchers, and industry professionals working at the forefront of their fields. Much
like Springer’s other Lecture Notes series, LNEE will be distributed through
Springer’s print and electronic publishing channels.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7818

Subhash Chandra Bera

Microwave Active Devices

and Circuits
for Communication

123
Subhash Chandra Bera
Space Applications Centre
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-13-3003-2 ISBN 978-981-13-3004-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3004-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018958497

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
To Him
who gives me inspiration and patience
Foreword

It has been a pleasure for me to see this book titled ‘Microwave Active Devices and
Circuits for Communication’ written by Subhash Chandra Bera based on his long
experience on the design and development of on-board communication circuits and
systems at Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad.
This book provides extensive coverage in the field of microwave engineering for
graduate students, practical circuit designers and researchers. This book begins with
basics of device physics and ends with the design of microwave communication
systems through detailed design, analysis and realization of different circuits and
systems. Apart from classical topics in microwave active devices such as p-i-n
diode, Schottky diode, step recovery diode, BJT, HBT, MESFET, HFET and
various microwave circuits such as switch, phase shifter, attenuator, amplifier,
multiplier, mixer, the coverage extends to some modern topics such as Class-F
power amplifier, direct frequency modulator, linearizer, equalizer. The written text
of each topic is supplemented with suitable diagrams, and each chapter has various
types of solved problems for clear understanding.
It is hoped that this book will be very useful for graduate students, circuit
designers and researchers.

Ahmedabad, India Tapan Misra

May 2018 Distinguished Scientist
Director, Space Applications
Centre (ISRO)

vii
Preface

This book is about active devices and circuits for microwave communications
appropriate for undergraduate and postgraduate students, practical circuit designers
and researchers in the field of electronics and communication engineering. It pre-
sents the design and analysis of various linear and nonlinear circuits for microwave
communication systems after discussing the working principle and behaviour of
microwave diodes and transistors. This book begins with the basics of device
physics and ends with the design of microwave communication systems through
detailed design, analysis and realization of different circuits and systems. Though
this book is written focusing on microwave communications, much of the material
of this book is entirely generic and will be useful for other microwave applications.
This book starts with describing the diodes which are omnipresent in all
solid-state circuits across all the frequency ranges starting from DC to terahertz even
extending to optical frequency range as an isolated diode or as a part of other
devices. Proper understanding about diodes leads to ease of understanding about
other devices such as different types of bipolar and unipolar transistors in their
homo-junction and hetero-junction structures which are discussed subsequently.
Schottky, p-i-n, step recovery and tunnel diodes are popularly used in linear and
nonlinear microwave communication circuits such as variable attenuator, power
limiter, phase shifter, linearizer, frequency multiplier, mixer for their high-frequency
performance and simplicity in operation. With the advancement of material tech-
nologies, there are various modern transistors such as hetero-junction bipolar and
field effect transistors based on GaAs, InP and GaN technologies. These devices
offer very high-frequency performance with low noise figure and high-power-
handling capabilities with different device structures and circuit configurations. DC
biasing circuits for the diodes and transistors are very relevant which determine the
RF performance including temperature behaviour of the circuits. This book also
addresses the temperature behaviour and compensation mechanism of the micro-
wave circuits for practical applications.

ix
x Preface

This book has evolved from the author’s design and development experience on
microwave circuits and systems for Indian national satellite communication systems
at Space Applications Center, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), India.
This book is believed to be a useful one for students and microwave circuit
designers. Any suggestions for improvement of the quality of this book would be
highly appreciated.

Ahmedabad, India Subhash Chandra Bera

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Microwave Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Microwave Active Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Microwave Active Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Microwave Circuit Analysis and Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Book Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 P-I-N Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Basics of P-I-N Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 P-I-N Diode Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Nonlinearity of P-I-N Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Temperature Behaviour of P-I-N Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Temperature-Invariant RF Resistance of P-I-N Diode . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Schottky Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Basics of Schottky Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Schottky Diode Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Temperature Behaviour of Schottky Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5 Temperature Invariant RF Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Special Microwave Diodes . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Step Recovery Diode ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1 Characteristic of SRD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

xi
xii Contents

4.3 Tunnel Diodes . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.3.1 Characteristic of Tunnel Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Backward Diode . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.5 Varactor Diode . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Microwave Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.1 Frequency Limitation of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.2 Temperature Behaviour of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Hetero-junction Bipolar Transistor (HBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.1 SiGe HBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.2 III–V Group Semiconductor HBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.3 GaN HBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6 Microwave Field Effect Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Metal–Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3 Hetero-Structure Field Effect Transistors (HFETs) . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.1 High-Electron-Mobility Transistors (HEMTs) . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.2 Pseudo-morphic HEMTs (pHEMTs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.3.3 Meta-morphic HEMTs (mHEMTs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.4 Microwave GaN HEMTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.5 Equivalent Circuit of Microwave FETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.5.1 Transconductance Gain (gm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.5.2 Output Conductance (1/rds ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.5.3 Gate–Source and Gate–Drain Capacitances
(Cgs and Cgd ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.5.4 Charging Resistance (Ri ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.6 Maximum Frequency of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7 Microwave Circuit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2 Transmission Line Theory and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.3 Microwave Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.1 Losses in Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.2 Coaxial Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.3 Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3.4 Cut-Off Frequency and Guide Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.3.5 Planar Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.4 Transmission Line Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Contents xiii

7.5 Smith Chart Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

7.6 Network Theory of Circuits and Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . 158
7.6.1 S-Parameter Network Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.6.2 S-Parameters for Matched Reciprocal Lossless
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.6.3 ABCD Parameter for Network Representation . . . . . . . 174
7.6.4 Conversion in Between ABCD and S-Parameters . . . . . 177
7.7 Power Transfer in Microwave Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.7.1 Power Transfer from Source to a Load . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.7.2 Power Transfer to and from a 2-Port Network . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8 Microwave Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.2 Switch Circuits Based on P-I-N Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3 Series Switch Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.4 Shunt Switch Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.5 Compound Switch Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.5.1 Series–Shunt Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.5.2 TEE Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.6 Compound Switch Analysis Using ABCD Parameter . . . . . . . . 217
8.7 Switch Circuits Based on FETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.8 Applications of RF/Microwave Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9 Microwave Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.2 Diode-Based Attenuator Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.3 Series- or Shunt-Connected Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.4 Multiple Shunt-Connected Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.5 Matched Attenuator Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.5.1 TEE Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.5.2 p Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.5.3 Quadrature Hybrid Matched Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
9.6 Driver Circuit for P-I-N Diode Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9.7 Effect of Nonideal Components in Driver Circuits . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.8 Experimental Determination of VOPTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.9 FET-Based Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10 Microwave Phase Shifters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.2 Phase Shift and Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
xiv Contents

10.3 Types of Phase Shifter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

10.4 Realization of Phase Shifters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.4.1 Switched Transmission Line Phase Shifter . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.4.2 Varactor Diode-Based Analog Phase Shifters . . . . . . . . 285
10.4.3 Four-Quadrant Continuously Variable Phase
Shifter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10.4.4 Four-Quadrant Digital Phase Shifter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
10.5 Applications of RF/Microwave Phase Shifter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11 Microwave Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
11.2 Amplitude Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.3 Phase Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.3.1 Bi-Phase Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.3.2 Bi-Phase-Balanced Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
11.4 I–Q Vector Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
11.5 PSK Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.6 QAM Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
12 Amplitude Tilt Microwave Equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.2 Different Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
12.3 Equalizer with Adjustable Amplitude Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
12.4 Equalizer with Adjustable Parabolic Gain Slope
for Broadband MPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12.5 Equalizer with Adjustable Positive Gain Slopes
for Solid-State Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
12.6 Equalizer with Adjustable Positive as Well as Negative
Gain Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
12.7 Versatile Equalizer with Variable Gain Slope
and Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
13 Microwave Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.2 Microwave Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
13.3 Diode Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
13.4 RMS Power (Average) Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
13.5 Envelope and Peak Power Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Contents xv

14 Microwave Solid-State Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
14.2 Types of Microwave Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
14.2.1 Dynamic Range of Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
14.2.2 Spurious-Free Dynamic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
14.3 Stability of Microwave Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
14.4 Single-Stage Amplifier Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
14.4.1 Amplifiers Using Unconditionally Stable Device . . . . . 377
14.4.2 Amplifier Using Conditionally Stable Device . . . . . . . . 380
14.5 Amplifier with Specific Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14.5.1 Amplifier with Specific Transducer Power Gain . . . . . . 382
14.5.2 Amplifier with Specific Available Power Gain . . . . . . . 386
14.5.3 Amplifier with Specific Operating Power Gain . . . . . . . 394
14.6 Small Signal Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
14.6.1 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
14.6.2 High-Gain Amplifier Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.7 Large Signal Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
14.7.1 Linear Power Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.7.2 Load-Pull Characterization Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
14.7.3 Amplifiers with Reduced Conduction Angle . . . . . . . . 435
14.7.4 Nonlinear Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
14.7.5 Class-F Power Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
14.8 FETs Output Power Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
14.8.1 Microwave Power Combing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 463
14.8.2 In-Phase Power Combiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
14.8.3 Balanced Power Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
14.9 Temperature Compensation of Microwave Amplifiers . . . . . . . . 476
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
15 Microwave Limiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
15.2 Limiter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
15.3 P-I-N Diode Limiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
15.4 Schottky Diode Limiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
15.5 Amplifier-Based Limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
15.6 Closed-Loop Limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
15.6.1 Temperature Behaviour of OLC System . . . . . . . . . . . 495
15.6.2 Temperature Compensation of OLC System . . . . . . . . . 496
15.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
15.7.1 OLC for Out-of-Band Carrier Mitigation
in Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
xvi Contents

16 Microwave Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
16.2 Types of Distortion and Amplifier Nonlinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
16.3 Types of Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
16.3.1 Feedback Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
16.3.2 Feedforward Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
16.3.3 Predistortion Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
16.4 Implementation of Predistortion Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
16.4.1 Schottky Diode Predistortion Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . 508
16.4.2 Linearizer with Vector Modulator Configuration . . . . . 513
16.4.3 Temperature Behaviour of Diode Linearizer . . . . . . . . . 517
16.4.4 Broadband Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
16.5 Digital Predistortion Linearizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
17 Microwave Frequency Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
17.2 Principle of Multiplier Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
17.3 Diode Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
17.3.1 Schottky Diode Frequency Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
17.3.2 Varactor Diode Frequency Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
17.3.3 SRD Frequency Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
17.4 Transistor Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
17.5 Realization of FET Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
17.6 Balanced Frequency Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
17.6.1 Balanced Frequency Multipliers Using Diodes . . . . . . . 551
17.6.2 Balanced Frequency Multiplier Using
Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
18 Microwave Frequency Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
18.2 Working Principle of Frequency Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
18.2.1 Image Frequency in Mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
18.2.2 Conversion Loss of Frequency Mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
18.2.3 Noise Performance of Frequency Mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
18.3 Single-Ended Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
18.4 Balanced Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
18.4.1 Single-Balanced Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
18.4.2 Double-Balanced Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
18.4.3 Image Rejection Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.5 Subharmonic Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Contents xvii

19 Microwave Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
19.2 Mobile Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
19.2.1 Receiver Architecture for Mobile
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
19.2.2 Transmitter Architecture for Mobile
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
19.2.3 Transceiver for Mobile Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
19.3 Satellite Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
19.4 Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
19.4.1 Local Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
19.5 Satellite Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
19.5.1 Driver Amplifier (DA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
19.5.2 Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) . . . . . . . . . . 616
19.5.3 Solid-State Power Amplifier (SSPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
19.6 Linearizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
19.7 Microwave Power Module (MPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
19.8 Multiport Amplifier (MPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
20 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
20.1 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
20.2 Answers of MCQs with Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
About the Author

Subhash Chandra Bera received his B.Sc. degree

(with honours) in physics from Presidency College,
Calcutta, and B.Tech. and M.Tech. degrees in radio
physics and electronics from the Institute of Radio Physics
and Electronics, University of Calcutta. He also received a
Ph.D. degree in microwave and antenna engineering from
Gujarat University, India. Since 1994, he has been with the
Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO), Ahmedabad, India, where he has
been involved in the design and development of
microwave circuits and systems for various INSAT and
GSAT series of Communication Payload projects as well
as GAGAN/IRNSS Navigation Payload projects. He has
developed several state-of-the-art microwave subsystems
that are operational in various Indian national satellites.
His research interests include microwave active circuits in
general and solid-state power amplifiers, channel ampli-
fiers, linearizers, limiters, attenuator and equalizers in
particular for spacecraft use. Currently, he is Division
Head of Satcom and Navigation Systems Engineering
Division, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad,
and Associate Project Director of GSAT-24 and GSAT-31
Communication Payloads. He has authored more than 50
research publications in international journals and presented
numerous papers at national and international conferences
and symposiums. He has also delivered invited talks in the
field of microwave active devices and circuits at various
workshops and symposiums. He has also been granted four
patents.

xix
Chapter 1
Introduction

Microwave frequency region is generally considered from 1–30 GHz in electro-

magnetic spectrum which corresponds to a free-space wavelength (λo ) of 30–1 cm,
respectively. Frequencies within the range of 30–300 GHz (λo  10−1 mm) are
considered as mmwave frequency band and submillimetre wave frequency band is
considered beyond 300 GHz (λo <1 mm). The microwave and higher frequency cir-
cuits and systems show characteristics which are not seen in the lower frequency
range. The differences in characteristics are due to the smaller wavelength of the
microwave and higher frequency range which becomes comparable to the size of the
circuit elements, i.e. size of components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and
transistors) and even the transmission line elements. Due to the smaller wavelength
compared to the circuit elements, the phase of the signal varies along the dimension
of the elements, consequently, the circuit design and analysis techniques, power gen-
eration, amplification as well as measurement techniques are different from those at
lower frequencies. Thus, materials, structures of the active and passive components,
topology, and realization of circuits at microwave frequency are different from those
at lower frequencies. Microwave frequencies are used in communication, naviga-
tion, remote sensing, radar applications, industrial measurements, and even heating
and drying of food products. This book will focus on active devices and circuits for
microwave communications. However, much of the materials covered by the book
are entirely generic and will be useful for other applications.

1.1 Microwave Communications

Microwave frequencies have distinct advantages over lower frequencies due to its
higher percentage bandwidth, higher directive coverage and higher penetration capa-
bility through the atmosphere. It is easy to design a circuit with 10% bandwidth, for
example, to get 1 GHz bandwidth around 10 GHz centre frequency. Whereas, it is
very difficult to design a circuit of 200% bandwidth to achieve the same bandwidth
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1
S. C. Bera, Microwave Active Devices and Circuits for Communication, Lecture Notes
in Electrical Engineering 533, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3004-9_1
2 1 Introduction

around 500 MHz centre frequency. Another advantage for microwave communi-
cation is the ability to use smaller aperture antenna with high directivity because
antenna beam-width is inversely proportional with the ratio of antenna aperture size
to the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted/received. Due to the availability
of higher percentage bandwidth and highly directive coverage, it is possible for
very high data rate communication of the order of multi-Gbps. With the maturity of
microwave technology, it is used as the major trunk channel for long distance com-
munication. Microwave communication is easier over difficult terrain and removes
the requirement of land acquisition as required for cable systems. Infrastructure
needs for short-term communication systems are possible without the high cost of
installing permanent network cabling that will only be required for a limited time.
These are the reasons for using microwave communication in spite of the difficulty in
implementation of microwave circuits and limitation of communications within the
line-of-sight range. As the lower frequency bands become congested, the communi-
cation systems need to shift towards higher and higher frequency bands to meet the
capacity and data rate targets. Higher microwave and millimetre wave frequency
bands are less congested and can potentially provide multi-gigahertz spectrum
[1, 2]. This is the reason that satellite communication systems already using the
higher microwave and mmwave frequency bands for high throughput applications. It
is also envisaged that the next-generation (5G) mobile communication system needs
to use higher microwave and mmwave frequency bands to meet the requirement of
spectrum [3].
Block diagram of a wireless communication system such as mobile communi-
cation is shown in Fig. 1.1. It consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and a channel.
RF section of the transceiver mainly consists of low-noise amplifier (LNA), power
amplifier (PA), up- and downconverters, IF amplifiers, phase shifters, modulators,
switches, and filters. Signal quantization, coding and decoding are performed in the
digital domain. Practically, at each end of the link, a transmitter and a receiver, i.e.
integrated transceiver is used. In a transmitter, the signal modulates a carrier using a
particular modulation scheme and transmitted through a transmit antenna, whereas
the receiver recovers the information from the received signal through the receiving
antenna. In case of mobile communication system, at least one of the transceivers is
mobile. It may be a handheld unit used by a pedestrian or at on-board a vehicle that
can move at high speed.
The transmitter consists of a modulator, an upconverter, filters and PA. Baseband
signals are modulated by the modulator then filtered, amplified and upconverted by
the upconverter to a higher frequency carrier. The upconverted signal further ampli-
fied, filtered and finally amplified by a PA and transmitted by the transmitting antenna.
The receiver consists of a low-noise amplifier, downconverter, bandpass filters and
demodulator. The receiver shall perform the signal amplification and filtering func-
tionality to meet the system sensitivity, channel selectivity, spurious response and
power control requirements to meet the required signal-to-noise ratio.
Unlike lower frequencies, microwave frequencies are not reflected and practically
not absorbed by the ionosphere on account of their small wavelength, and thus they
penetrate the atmosphere without significant attenuation except at certain absorp-
1.1 Microwave Communications 3

Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of a mobile communication system

tion bands of atmospheric gases & subject to clear weather. This leads to the use
of microwave frequencies for satellite communication. Presently, microwave fre-
quencies are widely used in satellite communication for telephony, broadcasting,
television systems and various data communication systems. Satellite microwave
communication is also very useful for disaster-prone regions due to the possibil-
ity of quick and easy establishment of ground infrastructure considering the prior
existence of space segment for satellite communication. Block diagram of a satel-
lite microwave communication system is shown in Fig. 1.2. The system consists of
ground and space segments. Both the segments consist of transmitter, receiver and
antenna systems like any other communication systems.
A ground transmitter section starts with the processing of information to be sent
which is then suitably modulated. The filtered modulated signal is then upconverted
(frequency translated) to microwave frequency by using a mixer and followed by
several stages of amplification. Finally, the microwave signal is amplified by a high
power amplifier (HPA) and transmitted by a highly directive antenna towards satellite.
Generally, the high power amplifier operates in power back-off condition to minimize
the addition of noise due to nonlinearities of the power amplifier. Sometimes, a
linearizer is used before the HPA to improve the linearity of the transmitter. In general,
the signal is modulated by a low-frequency carrier and then upconverted to microwave
frequency as shown in the block diagram. Thus, the upconverter and amplifier section
operate in microwave frequency band. However, the direct modulation scheme also
can be used to modulate the microwave carrier frequency directly by the baseband
signal. In this case modulator, upconverter and amplifier sections operate in the
microwave frequency band.
4 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.2 Block diagram of satellite microwave communication system

The space segment is a repeater in space with a sizable amount of

gain and frequency translation, sometimes with signal processing also. It
consists of receiving antenna followed by a preselect filter to select only the desired
frequency band transmitted by the ground transmitter and rejecting undesired fre-
quency bands. Since the received signal is very feeble (of the order of pW), the signal
is first amplified by a low-noise amplifier (LNA) and then downconverted using a
mixer circuit. The output of the downconverter is filtered and processed by a signal
processing (S/P) unit. The signal processing unit may be a transparent or regenerative
processor. Transparent processing is only to provide flexibility in frequency, band-
width and signal routing at lower Intermediate Frequency (IF) level for multichannel
multibeam transponders. Regenerative processor extracts the information by using
a demodulator and then processed. The processed signal is then remodulated before
being upconverted to the transmit microwave frequency. The upconverted microwave
signal is subsequently amplified by a driver amplifier (DA) and high power amplifier
(HPA) before being transmitted by a transmit antenna. A predistortion linearizer is
1.1 Microwave Communications 5

used to improve the linearity of a satellite transmitter which is cascaded at the input
of the high power amplifier.
The ground receiver consists of receive antenna followed by a low-noise ampli-
fier. The amplified signal is downconverted to an intermediate frequency (IF) to ease
the signal demodulation and processing for information extraction. Thus, a typical
microwave communication system consists of various diode and transistor-based
microwave circuits and systems such as modulator, demodulator, receiver, IF ampli-
fiers, high power amplifier, linearizer, converters, etc.

1.2 Microwave Active Circuits

In microwave communication systems, various types of amplifiers are used in receive

and transmit sections. A microwave amplifier takes the signal of low or intermedi-
ate level as its input over a range of frequency band and significantly boosts its
power level. In addition to amplification of the desired signal, a practical amplifier
introduces noise generated within it and also distorts the signal. Based on the signal
power level to be amplified, there are three types of microwave amplifiers: low-noise
amplifier (LNA), high gain amplifier and high power amplifier (HPA). Low-noise
amplifiers are used as the front end of a receiver where the strength of the desired
signal is very low. High gain amplifiers are used in the intermediate stages of a trans-
mitter–receiver section to boost the signal strength to the desired level. The high
power amplifiers (HPAs) are used as the final power amplifying unit of a transmitter.
At low frequencies, the design of an amplifier involves mainly designing a proper DC
bias circuit for maximum power output. However, at microwave frequency range, in
addition to the design of appropriate DC bias circuit, it involves the design of input
and output matching networks based on the requirements of noise figure, gain and
output power over the desired frequency band.
The linearity of the amplifier plays a major role in a communication system.
Ideally, throughout the receive–transmit (repeater) chain, linear amplification of mod-
ulated signal is required to accurately decode the information. Amplifiers’ nonlinear-
ity becomes more severe when higher order modulations such as 8APSK, 16APSK,
16QAM, etc. are used to achieve improved spectrum efficiency. Problem arises when
linear amplification is required throughout the chain where power amplifiers are used.
To operate the power amplifiers in their linear region, it is required to operate them
in power back-off condition which reduces the DC to RF efficiency. The solution is
the use of amplifier near its saturation condition and use a linearizer to improve the
overall linearity of the transmitter section. There are various types of linearization
techniques used in baseband as well as at RF and IF level. At the baseband level, dig-
ital linearization technique is used. However, at RF level, diode-based predistortion
linearization technique is mostly used due to its low power consumption, broadband
performance and compact size.
Various sensitive microwave devices are used in receivers, solid-state power
amplifiers, detectors, etc. Limiter circuits are used to protect sensitive devices from
6 1 Introduction

intentionally or unintentionally exposure of high power levels. Basically, two types of

limiter circuits are used, one is open-loop limiter and another is closed-loop limiter.
Limiting device of an open-loop limiter works with self-bias condition. Whereas
closed-loop limiter circuit uses a separate detector circuit to detect the RF power
level. Then, the detected signal is applied to other device such as voltage-variable
amplifier/attenuator to limit the power level in a closed-loop configuration. Schottky
diodes, p-i-n diodes as well as various types of Field Effect Transistors (FETs) are
the most suitable limiting devices for microwave applications.
Microwave signal power level is an important performance parameter of any
communication system. At lower frequency range, signal power is calculated from the
measured voltage and current. Direct measurement of power is more convenient and
accurate starting from the microwave frequency range to optical spectrum. Thus, as
the frequency increases, power level is measured from which voltage and current are
calculated. Microwave power detectors are used to detect/measure the power level.
Schottky barrier and tunnel diodes are also popularly used as microwave power level
detectors. Depending upon the signal structure and applications; average, envelop,
peak or pulse powers are measured.
Mixers are used in up- and downconverters to convert/translate signals in fre-
quency domain. They use a stable local oscillator to translate the spectrum containing
information to other frequency band. It is fundamentally a multiplier having three
ports: a radio frequency (RF) port, a local oscillator (LO) port and an intermediate
frequency (IF) port. In practice, the LO signal is CW, whereas the RF and IF signals
are modulated carriers. Generally, Schottky barrier diodes and various types of FETs
and Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) are commonly used as nonlinear device for
realization of microwave mixers.
Frequency multipliers are used to realize microwave frequency source, e.g. local
oscillator (LO) of higher frequency from a low-frequency standard. Performance
of microwave solid-state oscillator degrades with increasing frequency. To over-
come this problem, highly stable oscillators operating at a lower frequency are used
followed by frequency multipliers with low conversion loss. The basic realization
principle for frequency multiplication is the generation of multiple higher frequen-
cies by distorting (amplitude or phase) a sinusoidal signal and then filtering out the
desired higher frequency component. The distortion is realized using nonlinear char-
acteristic of semiconductor devices. Varactor diodes, Schottky barrier diodes (SBD),
step recovery diodes (SRD) and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) or field effect
transistors (FETs) are used as nonlinear device.
Microwave and RF amplifiers are used in many broadband applications such as
meeting the increasing demand for Internet and multimedia applications. Modern
microwave receivers use equalizers to compensate the excess passband negative
gain slope due to the reduction in gain of transistors as the frequency increases.
Amplitude tilt equalizer provides predetermined gain/loss slope over an operating
range of frequency. It is mainly used in cascade with other circuits or systems to
improve the overall frequency response. Microwave-variable gain slope equalizers
are used for the compensation of gain roll-off of microwave and RF circuits and
systems using the provision of slope adjustability.
1.2 Microwave Active Circuits 7

Modulators are three port networks. One of the ports is for modulating signal
and other two ports are RF ports. A conventional modulator is designed by using
a complex chain of downconverter, mixers, filters and upconverter. Most frequently
used digital modulation techniques are the discrete phase modulation, i.e. M-ary
phase shift keying (PSK). BPSK and QPSK are the most popularly used digital
phase modulations techniques for wireless and satellite communication systems.
Direct carrier modulation at RF/microwave frequency avoids the use of upconverter
and downconverter assemblies leading to less hardware complexity and cost. In case
of direct modulation techniques, p-i-n diode or FET-based voltage/current-controlled
RF resistance are used to modulate the amplitude and phase of the carriers by using
the modulating signal as control voltage/current of the device.
Phase shifter provides a known and controllable phase shift when a RF/microwave
signal passes through it. Phase shifters are used for the realization of phase array
antenna systems, linearizers for high power amplifiers, various types of phase mod-
ulators, etc. True time delay (TTD) and phase shifters (PS) are the basic functional
blocks for complex signal processing used in variety of applications including arbi-
trary waveform generation, filtering, antenna beam forming and reconfiguration abil-
ity in communication systems.
Attenuators are used to control signal level in the signal path. They provide fixed
attenuation or variable/adjustable attenuation depending upon control voltage or cur-
rent. Fixed attenuators are realized using a combination of RF resistive elements with
fixed values. Voltage/current controlled attenuators are realized using combination
of voltage/current dependent resistors. At RF/microwave frequency range, forward-
biased p-i-n diodes are used as voltage/current dependent RF resistors. Voltage-
variable p-i-n diode attenuators are used to control signal level of communication
systems by controlling gain of the system. In case of satellite transponders, p-i-n diode
based attenuators are used for on-board gain control of a communication transponder
by issuing command from ground or automatically by sensing RF power.
RF/microwave switches are used to reconfigure communication systems by divert-
ing signals from one path to another. The switches are also used to realize stepwise
variable attenuators, phase shifters and other elements. Realization point of view,
there are two types of RF and microwave switches: electromechanical and solid-
state switches. Generally, solid-state switches are very compact in size, faster in
operation and more reliable than their electromechanical counterparts. However,
solid-state switches have higher insertion loss and also exhibit more nonlinearity
at higher signal power. Though CMOS and GaAs FETs are also used as switching
devices, p-i-n diodes are used widely as solid-state switching device due to high RF
power handling capability and low insertion loss at high-frequencies.
Microwave circuits are used for many applications including airborne and space-
based systems where temperature-invariant performance is always demanded over
a very wide operating temperature range. The success of electronic systems for
these applications relies on the ability to design high performance, highly reliable
circuits which function in demanding thermal environments. Performance parameters
of the microwave diodes and transistors change with temperature. Attenuation and
phase shift of p-i-n diode circuits, limiting power level, attenuation and phase shift
8 1 Introduction

of Schottky barrier diode circuits and gain, saturated power, nonlinear parameters
of transistor-based circuits are all function of temperature. Therefore, microwave
active devices need proper bias circuit with temperature compensation mechanism
to achieve temperature-insensitive performance [4].

1.3 Microwave Active Devices

Transistors are three-terminal solid-state devices used for the realization of ampli-
fiers, multipliers, mixers, linearizers and other electronic circuits in communication
systems. Among the various types of transistors, bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was
the first three-terminal device and still being used for many low frequency as well
as microwave applications. With the advancement of hetero-junction technology,
hetero-junction bipolar transistor (HJBT or HBT) uses a high bandgap semiconduc-
tor as emitter material offers better performance in terms of gain at higher microwave
frequency and provides sufficient gain over mmwave frequency regions.
With the advancement of microwave transistors fabrication facilities, solid-state
amplification is dominated by the use of three-terminal device transistors. Among the
microwave transistors, all the low-noise amplifiers for communication systems are
dominated by the psuedomorphic and metamorphic High Electron Mobility Transis-
tors (pHEMTs and mHEMTs). High gain with moderate output power amplifiers are
also dominated by MEtal Semiconductor FET (MESFET) and Heterojunction FETs
(HFETs). With the advancement of high bandgap semiconductor materials such as
GaN and SiC, single-ended high power amplification beyond 100 W is achievable
from solid-state technology. However, at higher microwave frequency bands and
higher output power, travelling wave tube amplifier (TWTA) is the most preferable
option and is the only choice in today’s scenario.
Currently, Field Effect Transistor (FET) is the most utilized three-terminal semi-
conductor device used in microwave and mmwave frequency bands. FETs are used
as linear, nonlinear as well as control devices. These are used for realization of low-
noise amplifier (LNA) and high-gain amplifier as well as high power amplifiers.
As nonlinear devices, these are used to realize multipliers, mixers and oscillators.
FETs are also used in RF control device applications as switches and attenuators
in which they dissipate essentially no power and can easily be designed into broad-
band circuits. There are various types of field effect transistors (FETs) based on the
use of different materials and structures with different doping profiles. FETs can be
fabricated from a wide variety of materials like Si, SiGe, GaAs, InP, InGaAs, GaN,
SiC, etc. These are unipolar devices since only one type of carrier, mostly electrons,
take part for the channel current. Being a unipolar device, FET does not suffer from
minority carrier storage delay time & thus have higher cut-off frequency compared to
bipolar devices like BJTs. Field effect transistors based on III-V group semiconduc-
tors provide superior performance at microwave and mmwave frequency bands for
their higher electron velocity at low electric field. MEtal Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistors (MESFETs) based on GaAs are the better microwave device compared
1.3 Microwave Active Devices 9

to junction field effect transistors (JFETs) and Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) with respect to gain, noise figure and power handling
capability at microwave and mmwave frequency bands.
Hetero-structure Field Effect Transistor (HFET) are also known as MOdulation-
Doped FET (MODFET) and High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) because of
the doping variations within the structure and higher electron mobility, respectively.
Depending on structure, doping profile and materials, there are different variations of
HFETs suitable for various applications. InP-based HEMT provides the highest fre-
quency of operation with the best noise figure. On the other hand, high bandgap semi-
conductor such as GaN- and SiC-based HFETs provides hundreds of watt microwave
power due to their higher breakdown voltage, higher electron mobility at high electric
field and high thermal conductivity.
Schottky barrier diode is a metal–semiconductor junction diode where only major-
ity carrier takes part for device operation. The non-existence of minority carrier
injection and extraction leads it to a very high speed of operation. High-speed oper-
ation capability of the Schottky diode makes it suitable to use widely for microwave
and mmwave applications. Lower cut-in voltage of the Schottky diode makes it suit-
able for very low-voltage high-current operation. The device is used as RF detector,
multiplier, mixer, limiter, attenuator, etc. This is also used to generate nonlinear char-
acteristic for linearizer and microwave phase shifter for microwave beam forming
network.
A microwave p-i-n diode behaves as current controlled resistance at microwave
frequency. The resistance of the diode may vary from 10,000  to less than 1  by
control of its bias current. Though all the junction diodes show this type of character-
istic, structure and doping profile of p-i-n diodes is designed to achieve wide variable
resistance range and linearity with low bias current level. These characteristics of the
p-i-n diode made it most suitable for variable attenuators, switches, limiters, phase
shifters, modulators, etc.
Step recovery diode (SRD), varactor diode and tunnel diodes are popular devices
used for microwave communications. The step recovery diode has ultra-fast switch-
ing speed, typically in the range of picosecond, and is used as nonlinear device for
multiplier, mixer, etc. Nonlinear behaviour of tunnel diodes is used for low-level RF
power detection and multiplier applications. Nonlinear characteristics of varactor
diodes are also used to realize multiplier, mixer and linearizer.

1.4 Microwave Circuit Analysis and Measurements

At low frequencies, where circuit dimensions are relatively smaller than the oper-
ating wavelength, circuit elements can be considered as lumped components as the
phase change along the circuit elements is negligible. Similarly, at low frequencies,
the interconnection between two elements is treated as an ideal connection, with no
loss, no characteristic impedance and no transmission phase angle. At microwave fre-
quencies, circuit components and interconnecting elements may not conveniently be
10 1 Introduction

scaled down with the reducing wavelength. Thus, the circuit analysis cannot be done
using conventional circuit voltage and current methodology. Microwave circuits may
consist of elements with dimensions such that the voltage amplitude and phase over
the length of the device can vary significantly. In this case, the current that flows in
the interconnecting wires or through the circuit elements is not the same at differ-
ent points along the wire or elements. To accurately calculate the behaviour of an
element, it is required to consider its length, width and thickness of metal and its
proximity to the ground plane, i.e. the element is considered as a distributed element.
Similarly, when interconnects become an appreciable fraction of the signal wave-
length, these interconnections themselves must be treated as distributed elements or
transmission lines.

1.5 Book Outline

The book consists of 20 chapters including this introduction.

Chapters 2 and 3 describe microwave p-i-n diodes, and Schottky barrier diodes
respectively. Step recovery, tunnel, backward and varactor diodes are discussed in
Chap. 4. These chapters also describe temperature behaviour of the diodes and effect
on the performance of the diode-based circuits.
Chapters 5 and 6 describe microwave bipolar and field effect transistors respec-
tively. Chapter 5 also describes hetero-junction bipolar transistors (HBTs) based on
GaAs and SiGe semiconductors. Chapter 6 gives a detailed description about metal
semiconductor FETs (MESFETs), various types of hetero-junction FETs (HFETs)
including pseudomorphic HEMT (pHEMT), metamorphic HEMT (mHEMT) and
GaN-based HEMTs.
Chapter 7 describes details about microwave circuit analysis including the concept
of S-parameters, ABCD parameters and their inter-relationships through various
examples.
The working principle of microwave switches is given in Chap. 8, and about atten-
uators and their performance dependency on operating temperature and compensa-
tion techniques are given in Chap. 9. Chapter 10 describes RF and microwave phase
shifters. Chapter 11 describes various RF and microwave modulators. Chapter 12
describes various amplitude tilt active equalizers operating at RF and microwave
frequency range. Chapter 13 described various types of microwave detectors for
measurement of power level.
The design and analysis of different types of microwave amplifiers is given in
Chap. 14. The chapter contains design and analysis of low-noise amplifier (LNA),
high gain amplifier and high power amplifier with examples using transistors. This
chapter also gives detailed design and analysis of Class-F amplifiers. Chapters 15
and 16 describe design and analysis of various types of microwave limiters and
linearizers respectively.
1.5 Book Outline 11

Chapter 17 describes microwave frequency multipliers using various types of

diodes and transistors. Chapter 18 provides details on the design and analysis of
microwave mixers.
Chapter 19 presents an overview of terrestrial mobile and satellite communication
systems with examples of design and development of complete microwave subsys-
tems such as receiver, local oscillator, channel amplifier, and linearized high power
amplifiers. Chapter 20 provides various types of multiple choice questions (MCQs)
and answers with their explanations.

References

1. Huang X, Guo YJ, Zhang J, Dyadyuk V (2012) A multi-gigabit microwave backhaul. IEEE
Commun Mag 50(3):122–129
2. Huang X, Guo YJ, Zhang JA (2014) Multi-gigabit microwave and millimeter-wave communi-
cations research at CSIRO. In: 2014 14th International Symposium on Communications and
Information Technologies (ISCIT)
3. Wang CX, Haider F, Gao X, You XH, Yang Y, Yuan D, Aggoune H, Haas H, Fletcher S, Hepsaydir
E (2014) Cellular architecture and key technologies for 5G wireless communication networks.
IEEE Communications Magazine, February 2014
4. Bera SC (2006) Temperature behavior of active circuits at microwave frequency. Ph.D. disser-
tation, Gujarat University, India
Chapter 2
P-I-N Diode

Abstract This chapter presents the basic working principle of p-i-n diodes including
their characteristics, equivalent circuits at different bias conditions and applications
in communication systems. Nonlinear behaviours of p-i-n diodes under different
bias conditions are presented. Temperature behaviour of p-i-n diodes and concept
of equiresistance curves for achieving temperature-invariant RF resistance is also
presented.

2.1 Introduction

A microwave p-i-n diode behaves as current-controlled resistance at microwave fre-

quency. The resistance of the diode may vary from 10,000  to less than 1  by
controlling its bias current. Though all the junction diodes show this type of charac-
teristic; structure and doping profile of p-i-n diodes are designed to achieve a wide
range of variable resistance and linearity with low-bias current level. These char-
acteristics of the p-i-n diodes made them most suitable for realization of variable
attenuators, switches, limiters, phase shifters, modulators, etc.

2.2 Basics of P-I-N Diode

A p-i-n diode has a high resistivity nearly Intrinsic (I) layer sandwiched in between
a heavily doped p-region and a heavily doped n region as shown in Fig. 2.1 [1]. The
thickness of the intrinsic layer is usually in the range of 10–200 μm. The intrinsic
layer is either lightly doped p-type or n-type having resistivity of about 1000 ohm-
cm. Practically, the lightly doped layer is ν-type or π -type depending upon whether
the conductivity is n-type or p-type, respectively.
At zero-bias condition, in case of diodes with purely intrinsic middle layer, there
will be no mobile charge carriers in the I (intrinsic) layer, and thus the p-i-n diode
exhibits very high resistance. However, in case of ν-type or π -type middle layer,

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 13

S. C. Bera, Microwave Active Devices and Circuits for Communication, Lecture Notes
in Electrical Engineering 533, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3004-9_2
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