Digital Manufacturing: The

Industrialization of "Art to Part" 3D

Additive Printing Chandrakant D. Patel
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Digital Manufacturing
The Industrialization of “Art to Part” 3D Additive Printing
This page intentionally left blank
Digital Manufacturing
The Industrialization of “Art to Part” 3D
Additive Printing

Edited by

Chandrakant D. Patel
HP Chief Engineer and Senior Fellow, HP Inc., Palo Alto, CA,
United States

Chun-Hsien Chen
HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab,
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors xiii

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii

1. A historical perspective on industrial production

and outlook 1
Chor Hiong Tee
Abbreviations 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Preindustrialization 3
1.2.1 Craft production 3
1.2.2 Agricultural revolution 3
1.3 First Industrial Revolution 4
1.3.1 Mechanization 4
1.3.2 Laissez-faire capitalism 4
1.3.3 Social and environmental impact 5
1.4 Second Industrial Revolution 6
1.4.1 Division of labor 6
1.4.2 Mass production 7
1.4.3 Batch production 8
1.5 Third Industrial Revolution 9
1.5.1 Automation 11
1.5.2 Numerical control 12
1.5.3 Industrial robots 14
1.5.4 Early computers 15
1.5.5 Group technology 18
1.5.6 Modern computers 23
1.5.7 Computer system architecture 23
1.5.8 Computer-aided applications 26
1.5.9 Computer-integrated manufacturing 33
1.5.10 Product development process 36
1.5.11 Additive manufacturing 41
1.5.12 Sustainability in manufacturing 42
1.6 Forth Industrial Revolution 46
1.6.1 Industrie 4.0 47
1.6.2 Cyber-physical system 49
1.6.3 Factory of the future 50

v
vi Contents

1.7 Summary 52
References 53

2. Digital product design and engineering analysis

techniques 57
Tianyu Zhou, Weidan Xiong, Yuki Obata, Carlos Lange and
Yongsheng Ma
Abbreviations 57
2.1 Introduction 58
2.2 Product design process 58
2.3 3D digital form creation 59
2.3.1 3D digital forms 61
2.3.2 Form modeling 64
2.3.3 Case study 66
2.4 Intent-based systemic design 69
2.4.1 Functional feature approach 70
2.4.2 Feature-based computer-aided design modeling 73
2.4.3 Two typical decision-making types: retrieval and
inspirational 80
2.5 Engineering analysis 82
2.5.1 Computational fluid dynamics simulation 83
2.5.2 Case study 86
2.6 Current challenges and future work 89
2.6.1 Current challenges 91
2.6.2 Expected future work 92
2.7 Summary 94
References 94

3. Design methodologies for conventional and additive

manufacturing 97
Xue Ting Song, Jo-Yu Kuo and Chun-Hsien Chen
List of abbreviations 97
3.1 Introduction 97
3.1.1 Design for Assembly 98
3.1.2 Design for Manufacturing 98
3.2 Design methodologies for conventional manufacturing 100
3.2.1 Design for Manufacturing and Assembly guidelines 100
3.2.2 Design for Manufacturing and Assembly procedures 101
3.2.3 Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly 108
3.2.4 Limitations of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly 110
3.3 A paradigm shift 112
3.3.1 Design for X 112
3.3.2 Design for Additive Manufacturing 113
3.3.3 Trend of hybrid manufacturing production 116
 Contents vii

3.4 Design methodologies for additive manufacturing 117

3.4.1 Notable Design for Additive Manufacturing research
works 117
3.4.2 Design stages of a general Design for Additive
Manufacturing framework 119
3.4.3 Challenges of Design for Additive Manufacturing 136
3.5 Summary 140
References 140

4. Additive manufacturing for digital transformation 145

Yu Ying Clarrisa Choong
List of abbreviation 145
4.1 Introduction to additive manufacturing 146
4.1.1 Definitions and terminologies 146
4.1.2 Overview of the additive manufacturing market 147
4.1.3 Industry drivers for additive manufacturing adoption 150
4.2 Additive manufacturing process chain 152
4.2.1 Level of additive manufacturing implementation 152
4.2.2 Design, optimization, and simulation 154
4.2.3 Material selection 155
4.2.4 Manufacturing 155
4.2.5 Postprocessing 155
4.2.6 Process monitoring and validation 157
4.3 Additive manufacturing technologies and processes 158
4.3.1 Vat photopolymerization 158
4.3.2 Material extrusion 164
4.3.3 Material jetting 165
4.3.4 Sheet lamination 168
4.3.5 Powder bed fusion 170
4.3.6 Binder jetting 173
4.3.7 Directed energy deposition 174
4.4 Case studies of additive manufacturing during the
COVID-19 pandemic 176
4.4.1 Providing rapid emergency responses 177
4.4.2 Mass customizations 178
4.4.3 Agile operations and accelerated productions 178
4.4.4 Preserving sustainability and continuity 178
4.5 Summary 180
References 180

5. Simulation and optimization for additive

manufacturing 183
How Wei Benjamin Teo, Kim Quy Le, Kok Hong Gregory Chua
and Hejun Du
Abbreviations 183
Symbols 183
viii Contents

5.1 Introduction 185

5.1.1 Macroscale modeling 186
5.1.2 Mesoscale modeling 187
5.1.3 Microscale modeling 187
5.1.4 Parameters optimization 188
5.1.5 Objectives 188
5.2 A review of models employing in additive manufacturing
simulations 188
5.2.1 Powder interaction 189
5.2.2 Heat transfer and melt pool dynamics 191
5.2.3 Light source simulation 195
5.2.4 Crystallization/microstructure simulation 198
5.2.5 Summary 206
5.3 Topology optimization 207
5.3.1 Structural optimization 208
5.3.2 Types of topology optimization methodologies 210
5.3.3 Topology optimization workflow for additive
manufacturing 211
5.3.4 Available commercial software for topology
optimization 214
5.4 Summary 216
References 216

6. Polymer materials for additive manufacturing 221

Jia An
List of abbreviation 221
6.1 Introduction 221
6.1.1 Molecular material
related classifications 222
6.1.2 Molecular structure
related classifications 223
6.1.3 Polymer classification for additive manufacturing 223
6.2 Thermosets 224
6.2.1 Curing 224
6.2.2 Curing characteristics 225
6.2.3 Dynamic covalent bonds 229
6.3 Thermoplastics 229
6.3.1 Polymer melt 229
6.3.2 Rheological properties 231
6.3.3 Thermal properties 232
6.4 Printability in 3D printing 234
6.4.1 Layering 234
6.4.2 Energy and material bonding 236
6.5 Characteristics of 3D printed parts 240
6.5.1 Porosity 241
6.5.2 Anisotropy 241
6.5.3 Heterogeneity 242
 Contents ix

6.6 Summary 243

6.7 Further recommendation 243
References 243

7. Metal additive manufacturing 247

Chao Cai and Kun Zhou
Abbreviations 247
7.1 Introduction 248
7.2 Classification of metal additive manufacturing technology 249
7.2.1 Powder bed fusion 249
7.2.2 Direct energy deposition 252
7.2.3 Binder jetting 254
7.2.4 Sheet lamination 255
7.3 Preparation and characterization techniques for metal
additive manufacturing feedstock 258
7.3.1 Powder preparation techniques 258
7.3.2 Powder characterization techniques 260
7.4 Mechanical properties standard testing for metallic
additive manufacturing components 263
7.4.1 Tension 263
7.4.2 Compression 263
7.4.3 Hardness 266
7.4.4 Fatigue performance 268
7.5 Defects in metallic additive manufacturing components 268
7.5.1 Defect categories 270
7.5.2 Defects detection techniques 277
7.6 Postprocessing 281
7.6.1 Removal of adhesive powders, support structures, and
substrate plates 281
7.6.2 Heat treatment 283
7.6.3 Surface finishing 283
7.7 Applications 284
7.7.1 Aerospace 285
7.7.2 Automotive industry 288
7.7.3 Healthcare 290
7.8 Conclusion and perspectives 293
References 294

8. The emerging frontiers in materials for functional

three-dimensional printing 299
Jia Min Lee, Swee Leong Sing, Guo Dong Goh,
Guo Liang Goh, Wei Long Ng and Wai Yee Yeong
List of abbreviations 299
8.1 Introduction 300
8.2 Composites materials for aerospace industry 302
x Contents

8.2.1 Overview of the composite industry 303

8.2.2 Composites for three-dimensional printing 304
8.2.3 Challenges and potentials in composites materials
for aerospace industry 307
8.3 Biomaterials for bioprinting 310
8.3.1 Overview of bioprinting 310
8.3.2 Bioinks for bioprinting 311
8.3.3 Challenges and potential in bioprinting of biomaterials 313
8.4 Ceramics for biomedical implants 315
8.4.1 Overview of three-dimensional printed ceramic
implants 315
8.4.2 Ceramic materials by three-dimensional printing for
biomedical implants 316
8.4.3 Challenges and potential in ceramics for
three-dimensional printing 319
8.5 Conductive materials for electronic printing 322
8.5.1 Overview of three-dimensional printed electronics 322
8.5.2 Materials for three-dimensional printing of electronics 325
8.5.3 Challenges and potential in three-dimensional printing
electronics 328
8.6 Summary and moving forward 331
References 332

9. Three-dimensional (3D) printing for building and

construction 345
Mingyang Li, Xu Zhang, Yi Wei Daniel Tay,
Guan Heng Andrew Ting, Bing Lu and Ming Jen Tan
List of abbreviations 345
9.1 Introduction 345
9.1.1 Digital transformation and automation in building and
construction 345
9.1.2 Short history of construction three-dimensional printing 347
9.1.3 Technology trends and needs—why 3D printing? 348
9.2 Current concrete printing technologies 350
9.2.1 Gantry-based systems 350
9.2.2 Arm-based systems 352
9.2.3 Multirobot printing systems 354
9.2.4 Printing process control 355
9.3 Fresh and harden properties of three-dimensional
printable concrete 355
9.3.1 Different materials used and their effect on
three-dimensional printing technology 356
9.3.2 Fresh properties of three-dimensional printable
concrete materials 360
9.3.3 Harden properties of three-dimensional printable
materials 363
 Contents xi

9.3.4 Three-dimensional concrete printing parameters 366

9.4 Three-dimensional concrete printed applications and
case study 368
9.4.1 Applications of three-dimensional printing in
building and construction 370
9.4.2 3D concrete printing technology developed by
NTU Singapore 372
9.5 Sustainable raw materials in concrete printing 373
9.5.1 Sustainable materials for cement replacement 375
9.5.2 Sustainable materials for natural sand replacement 376
9.5.3 Sustainable materials in spray-based three-dimensional
printing 378
9.6 Summary 381
References 381

10. Process monitoring and inspection 387

Tuan Tran and Xuan Zhang
Abbreviations 387
10.1 Introduction 388
10.2 Signals, sensors, and techniques for process monitoring 388
10.2.1 Optical signals 389
10.2.2 Thermal signals 394
10.2.3 X-ray signals 397
10.2.4 Acoustic signals 399
10.2.5 Other signals 402
10.3 Applications in additive manufacturing processes 404
10.3.1 PBF processes 404
10.3.2 DED processes 414
10.3.3 Material extrusion processes 415
10.3.4 Other additive manufacturing processes 420
10.4 Quality and feedback control 422
10.4.1 Process parameters 422
10.4.2 Signal processing and feedback control 422
10.4.3 Applications of machine learning in additive
manufacturing process and process monitoring 428
10.5 Standards and toolkits 431
10.5.1 Standards 431
10.5.2 Toolkits 435
10.6 Insights and future outlook 439
10.7 Summary 439
References 440

Index 443
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List of contributors

Jia An Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chao Cai State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die and Mould
Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China;
HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chun-Hsien Chen HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yu Ying Clarrisa Choong LRQA Limited, Singapore
Kok Hong Gregory Chua Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore
Hejun Du HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore; Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore; School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Guo Dong Goh Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Guo Liang Goh Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jo-Yu Kuo Department of Industrial Design, National Taipei University of
Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
Carlos Lange Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Kim Quy Le HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore
Jia Min Lee HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Mingyang Li Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Bing Lu Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yongsheng Ma Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern
University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China

xiii
xiv List of contributors

Wei Long Ng HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical

and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yuki Obata Division of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
Swee Leong Sing Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore;
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore,
Singapore
Xue Ting Song HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Ming Jen Tan Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; HP-NTU
Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yi Wei Daniel Tay Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chor Hiong Tee HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Laboratory, School of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore; Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
How Wei Benjamin Teo HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore
Guan Heng Andrew Ting Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Tuan Tran HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore,
Singapore
Weidan Xiong Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital
Economy (SZ), Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
Wai Yee Yeong HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Xu Zhang Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Xuan Zhang Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
Kun Zhou HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Tianyu Zhou Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Preface

The 21st century cyber-physical age is driving a seamless integration of digi-

tal and physical systems. In that context the current factories are undergoing
digital transformation to become digital factories. These digital factories
can be best described as an integration of operational technologies—the
manufacturing machines and processes—with information technologies.
Indeed, the rise of digital factories is synonymous with the fourth industrial
revolution. However, the game changer in the fourth industrial revolution is
the integration of 3D additive printing as operational technology into the fac-
tories to fabricate parts. Now, the digital factory can be called a 3D digital
factory made up of advanced operational technologies such as 3D additive
printing devices, robotics, and information technologies.
The 3D digital factories of tomorrow bear a great promise in creating a
novel 21st century production
consumption model that services the needs of
the customers based on their individualized needs. Indeed, this on-demand
ability of 3D digital factories not only provides customized outcomes for the
customers but also reduces waste, a key advantage in light of the social,
economic, and ecological trends. Furthermore, the ability of 3D additive
manufacturing technologies to create physical contours and shapes that were
hitherto not possible opens up immense possibilities in system optimization
to drive performance and energy efficiency. As an example, a designer can
consider shape optimization at design and analysis time for a pump impeller
to maximize the “air to water” pump efficiency—a ratio of pump work
(product of pressure drop and volume flow in Joules per second) and power
into the pump (Joules per second). Once the impeller is optimized in digital
design, the designer can send the digital file to a 3D additive printer in a dig-
ital factory. The part turned around in a matter of hours can now be tried out
before committing to large numbers. Indeed, the designer can “print” multi-
ple impellers in one batch, a feat hitherto not possible.
We contend that to imbue a holistic knowledge of 3D additive printing,
one must take an end-to-end “art to part” perspective that covers design,
device, and the 3D digital factory. This book is the first volume of the
Digital Manufacturing handbook series. The series will consist of two sepa-
rate volumes intended to cover the continuum of design, device, and the 3D
digital factory. The objective is to provide the essential knowledge necessary
for the 21st century cyber-physical engineer to be well versed in the 3D “art

xv
xvi Preface

to part” digital manufacturing pipeline. Volume 1 is focused on design and

the range of 3D additive manufacturing technologies. It covers the funda-
mentals and mechanistic insights of key technologies and material science,
before ending with computational simulation, characterization techniques,
monitoring, and inspection processes. Volume 2 focuses on the different
devices and agents at the factory level including autonomous robots, artificial
intelligence, machine learning, and cyber-physical systems. It also presents
new business models working toward a sustainable net zero operations and
economy. The chapters are mostly industry-focused with relevant real-world
case studies to educate students and train industry professionals and leaders.
G Chapters 1
4 are for everyone who could be a practitioner of engineer-
ing, finance, marketing, or a business leader planning to build 3D digital
factories. It starts from a historical perspective in digital manufacturing
(Chapter 1) to the development of various digital design practices and
engineering analysis techniques (Chapter 2). The subsequent chapters
delve into the evolution of design methodologies in manufacturing
(Chapter 3) with the advent of key additive manufacturing technologies
(Chapter 4).
G Chapters 5
10 are for those who want to go deeper into specific areas,
such as simulation and design optimization (Chapter 5), polymer materi-
als (Chapter 6), metals (Chapter 7), biomedical and conductive materials
(Chapter 8), concrete printing (Chapter 9), and process monitoring
(Chapter 10). These chapters will require undergraduate level knowledge
in any field of engineering or science.
Dissection of the 3D print engine reveals that it is a stack of science,
engineering fundamentals, and technologies. Therefore our objective is to
provide a state-of-the-art handbook which incorporates all aspects of 3D
printing with immense depth in science and engineering fundamentals, and
breadth in a range of technologies. We hope these books will serve as a one-
stop resource for those with interest in 3D additive printing to practitioners
of any art.
Acknowledgments

This book is supported under the RIE2020 Industry Alignment Fund—

Industry Collaboration Projects (IAF-ICP) Funding Initiative, as well as cash
and in-kind contribution from the industry partner, HP Inc., through the HP-
NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab.
The editors would like to express their deepest gratitude to Khoo Li
Pheng for his vision of this project. They thank all the authors who have con-
tributed to the development of this book. This project would not have been
possible without their partners from the Singapore Centre of 3D-Printing
(SC3DP), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Meanwhile, the editors are grateful to the directors of HP-NTU Digital
Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Michael J. Regan and Tan Ming Jen, for their
strong supports. They extend a great many thanks to the editorial team mem-
bers: Kuo Jo-Yu, Song Xue Ting, Frankie Tee Chor Hiong, and Clarrisa Yu
Ying Choong.
Lastly, the editors are thankful to the colleagues at Elsevier, particularly,
Brian Guerin (Acquisition Editor), Rafael Guilherme Trombaco (Editorial
Project Manager), and Prasanna Kalyanaraman (Production Project Manager)
for their warm support and painstaking efforts, which have ensured the
smooth publication of this book.

xvii
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Chapter 1

A historical perspective on
industrial production and
outlook
Chor Hiong Tee1,2
1
HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Laboratory, School of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 2Rehabilitation Research Institute
of Singapore, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore

Abbreviations
2D 2-dimensional
3D 3-dimensional
AEM Assemblability Evaluation Method
AM additive manufacturing
APT Automatically Programed Tool
CAD computer-aided design
CAE computer-aided engineering
CAM computer-aided manufacturing
CAD/CAM computer-aided design and manufacturing
CAPP computer-aided process planning
CIM computer-integrated manufacturing
CNC computer numerical control
CPS cyber-physical system
CPU central processing unit
DCS distributed computer system
DfMA Design for Manufacture and Assembly
DNC Direct numerical control
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
ERP enterprise resource planning
FMS flexible manufacturing system
GT group technology
GUI graphic user interface
I4.0 Industrie 4.0
IC integrated circuit

Digital Manufacturing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95062-6.00009-7

© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Digital Manufacturing

ICT Information and Communication Technology

I/O input/output
IoT Internet of Things
IR4 Fourth Industrial Revolution
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
NC numerical control
OS operating system
RAM random-access memory
ROM read-only memory
SLA service-level agreement

1.1 Introduction
Imagine a day in the future; you are seated in a quiet cafe sipping a cup of
aromatic Darjeeling tea and biting into a soft, creamy slice of butter cake.
You delicately savor in the familiar texture and sweetness, filling your senses
with a delightful reminiscence that brought a grin to your face. Curiously,
this existential connection between memories and the physical presence is
conceived by a 3-dimensional (3D) printer. Printed layers of molecules
bound together to form chemical chains and structures, triggering different
receptors in your nervous system to kindle back that intimate moment in
time. The concept of printing custom-designed edible “food for the soul”
does sound absurd today, but can it be our reality in the future?
Physiological needs, such as food, water, sleep, homeostasis, sex, and air,
are the most fundamental biological requirements for physical survival,
according to American clinical psychologist Abraham Maslow [1]. Sadly,
our current state of production practices and limited natural resources are
inadequate to sustain and provision everyone on planet Earth any longer.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the
world population would surpass 9.1 billion by 2050 [2]. What if we are able
to design and 3D print “sustenance for our body,” right down to the exact
dosage of micronutrients without exhausting the Earth’s natural resources.
Can that be our reality one day too? Indeed, can such need-based provision-
ing be extended to the creation of physical goods? What if we are able to
design and 3D print a physical object using the right materials, in appropriate
proportions given the ultimate functional performance, to achieve a given
objective when the need arises?
Throughout history, we have rationalized technology as an application of
science [3]. Our ancestors designed mechanical tools and invented technol-
ogy to help ease the burden of physical labor and give them access to
raw materials and energy resources to make objects they desired. Today,
technology has empowered us with the capacity to push past boundaries and
construct a world beyond our imagination. Indeed, the modern technology-
driven society we have created has brought about great improvements in
quality of life.
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 SHRIMP CHATNEY.

(Mauritian Receipt.)
Shell with care a quart of fresh shrimps (for the mode of doing this
see Chapter III.), mince them quickly upon a dish with a large sharp
knife, then turn them into a mortar and pound them to a perfectly
smooth paste. Next, mix with them very gradually two or three
spoonsful of salad oil of the best quality, some young green chilies
chopped small (or when these cannot be procured, some good
cayenne pepper as a substitute), some young onions finely minced,
a little salt if required, and as much vinegar or strained lemon juice
as will render the sauce pleasantly acid. Half a saltspoonful or more
of powdered ginger is sometimes used in addition to the above
ingredients.
When they are preferred, two or three small shalots minced and
well bruised with the shrimps may be substituted for the onions.[65]
The proportion of oil should be double that of the vinegar used; but in
this preparation, as in all others of the same nature, individual taste
must regulate the proportion of the most powerful condiments which
enter into its composition. All chatneys should be quite thick, almost
of the consistence of mashed turnips, or stewed tomatas, or stiff
bread sauce. They are served with curries; and also with steaks,
cutlets, cold meat, and fish. In the East the native cooks crush to a
pulp upon a stone slab, and with a stone roller, the ingredients which
we direct to be pounded. On occasion the fish might be merely
minced. When beaten to a paste, they should be well separated with
a fork as the chilies, &c., are added.
65. The sauce can be made without either when their flavour is not liked.
 CAPSICUMB CHATNEY.

Slice transversely and very thin, into a bowl or pan of spring water,
some large tender green capsicumbs, and let them steep for an hour
or two; then drain, and dress with oil, vinegar, and salt.
For Tomata and Sausage Chatney, see Chapter of Foreign
Cookery.
CHAPTER VII.

Store Sauces.
Mushrooms, Eschalots, and Tomatas.
 OBSERVATIONS.

A well selected stock of these will always prove a convenient

resource in simple cookery for giving colour and flavour to soups,
gravies, and made dishes; but unless the consumption be
considerable, they should not be over-abundantly provided, as few of
them are improved by age, and many are altogether spoiled by long
keeping, especially if they be not perfectly secured from the air by
sound corking, or if stored where there is the slightest degree of
damp. To prevent loss, they should be examined at short intervals,
and at the first appearance of mould or fermentation, such as will
bear the process should be reboiled, and put, when again quite cold,
into clean bottles; a precaution often especially needful for
mushroom catsup when it has been made in a wet season, or when
it has not been very carefully prepared. This, with essence of
anchovies, walnut catsup, Harvey’s sauce, cavice, lemon-pickle,
chili, cucumber, and eschalot vinegar, will be all that is commonly
needed for family use; but there is at the present day an extensive
choice of these stores on sale, some of which are excellent.
 CHETNEY SAUCE.

(Bengal Receipt).
Stone four ounces of good raisins, and chop
them small, with half a pound of crabs, sour
apples, unripe bullaces,[66] or of any other hard
acid fruit. Take four ounces of coarse brown
sugar, two of powdered ginger, and the same
quantity of salt and cayenne pepper; grind these
ingredients separately in a mortar, as fine as
possible; then pound the fruits well, and mix the
spices with them, one by one; beat them together
until they are perfectly blended, and add
gradually as much vinegar as will make the sauce
of the consistence of thick cream. Put it into
bottles with an ounce of garlic, divided into
cloves, and cork it tightly.
66. Hard acid fruit in a crude state is, we think, an ingredient
not much to be recommended; and it is always better to
deviate a little from “an approved receipt” than to endanger
health by the use of ingredients of a questionable
character. Gooseberries or tomatas, after being subjected
to a moderate degree of heat, might be eaten with far less
hazard.
Garlic.
Stoned raisins, 4 oz.; crabs, or other acid fruit,
1/2 lb.; coarse sugar, 4 oz.; powdered ginger, 2
oz.; salt, 2 oz.; cayenne pepper, 2 oz.; garlic, 1 oz.; vinegar, enough
to dilute it properly.
Obs.—This favourite oriental sauce is compounded in a great
variety of ways; but some kind of acid fruit is essential to it. The
mango is used in India; here gooseberries, while still hard and green,
are sometimes used for it; and ripe red chilies and tomatas are
mixed with the other ingredients. The sauce keeps better if it be
exposed to a gentle degree of heat for a week or two, either by the
side of the fire, or in a full southern aspect in the sun: the heat of a
very slow oven, in which it might be left for a night, would probably
have a still better effect. In this case it must be put into a jar or
bottles, and well secured from the air. Half a pound of gooseberries,
or of these and tamarinds from the shell, and green apples mixed,
and the same weight of salt, stoned raisins, brown sugar, powdered
ginger, chilies, and garlic, with a pint and a half of vinegar, and the
juice of three large lemons, will make another genuine Bengal
chetney.
 FINE MUSHROOM CATSUP.

One of the very best and most useful of store sauces is good
home-made mushroom catsup, which, if really well prepared, imparts
an agreeable flavour to any soup or sauce with which it is mingled,
and at the same time heightens the colour without imparting the
“bitter sweetness” which the burnt sugar used as “browning” in
clumsy cookery so often does. The catsup ought, in fact, to be rather
the pure essence of mushrooms, made with so much salt and spice
only as are required to preserve it for a year or longer, than the
compound of mushroom-juice, anchovies, shalots, allspice, and
other condiments of which it is commonly composed, especially for
sale.
Directions to be observed in making and for keeping the catsup.—
Let the mushrooms be collected when the weather is dry, for if
gathered during, or immediately after rain, the catsup made with
them will not keep well.
Cut off the stalk-ends to which the earth adheres, before the
mushrooms are broken up, and throw them aside, as they should
never be used for the catsup. Reject also such of the flaps as are
worm-eaten or decayed. Those which are too stale for use may be
detected by the smell, which is very offensive.
When the mushroom first opens, the underside is of a fine pale
salmon colour; this changes soon to a sort of ashy-brown, which
deepens almost to black as the mushroom passes from its maturity
to a state of decay. As it yields a greater abundance of juice when it
is fully ripe, it is usually taken in that state for these sauces; but
catsup of fine and delicate flavour, though somewhat pale in colour,
can be made even of mushroom-buttons if they be sliced up small
and turned often in the liquid which will be speedily drawn from them
by the application of salt; a rather smaller proportion of which should
be mingled with them than is directed for the following receipt.
Every thing used in preparing the catsup should be delicately
clean and very dry. The bottles in which it is stored, after being dried
in the usual way, should be laid into a cool oven for an hour or two
before they are filled, to ensure their being free from the slightest
degree of moisture, but they must be quite cold before the catsup is
poured into them. If the corks be sealed so as to exclude the air
effectually, or if well-cleansed bits of bladder first dried, and then
rendered flexible with a little spirit of any kind (spirits of wine is
convenient for such purposes), be tied closely over them, and the
bottles can be kept in a cool place free from damp, the catsup will
remain good for a long time.
 MUSHROOM CATSUP.

Receipt:—Break up small into a deep earthen pan, two gallons of

large ripe mushroom-flaps, and strew amongst them three quarters
of a pound of salt, reserving the larger portion of it for the top. Let
them remain two days, and stir them gently with a wooden spoon
often during the time; then turn them into a large stewpan or
enamelled saucepan, heat them slowly, and simmer them for fifteen
or twenty minutes. Strain the liquor closely from them without
pressure; strain and measure it; put it into a very clean stewpan, and
boil it quickly until it is reduced nearly half. For every quart allow half
an ounce of black peppercorns and a drachm of mace; or, instead of
the pepper, a quarter of a teaspoonful (ten grains) of good cayenne;
pour the catsup into a clean jug or jar, lay a folded cloth over it, and
keep it in a cool place until the following day; pour it gently from the
sediment, put into small bottles, cork them well, and rosin them
down. A teaspoonful of salad oil may be poured into each bottle
before it is corked, the better to exclude the air from the catsup.
Mushrooms, 2 gallons; salt, 3/4 lb.; to macerate three or four days.
To each quart of liquor, 1/2 oz. black pepper, or quarter of a
teaspoonful of cayenne; and 1 drachm of mace: to be reduced nearly
half.
Obs. 1.—Catsup made thus will not be too salt, nor will the flavour
of the mushrooms be overpowered by that of the spices; of which a
larger quantity, and a greater variety, can be used at will.
We can, however, answer for the excellence of the present receipt
from long experience of it. When the catsup is boiled down quite
early in the day, it may be bottled the same night: it is necessary
only, that it should perfectly cold before this is done.
Obs. 2.—When the mushrooms are crushed, or mashed, as some
authors direct, the liquor will necessarily be very thick; it is better to
proceed as above, and then to boil the liquor which may afterwards
be extracted from the mushrooms by pressure, with the sediment of
the catsup, and sufficient cloves, pepper, allspice, and ginger, to
flavour it highly: this second catsup will be found very useful to mix
with common thickened sauces, hashes, and stews.
 MUSHROOM CATSUP.

(Another Receipt.)
Break a peck of large mushrooms into a deep earthenpan; strew
three quarters of a pound of salt amongst them, and set them into a
very cool oven for one night, with a fold of cloth or paper over them.
The following day strain off the liquor, measure, and boil it for fifteen
minutes; then, for each quart, add an ounce of black pepper, a
quarter of an ounce of allspice, half an ounce of ginger, and two
large blades of mace, and let it boil fast for twenty minutes longer.
When thoroughly cold, put it into bottles, cork them well, and dip the
necks into melted bottle-cement, or seal them so as to secure the
catsup from the air.
Mushrooms, 1 peck; salt, 3/4 lb. Liquor to boil, 15 minutes. To
each quart, 1/2 oz. black pepper; 1/4 oz. allspice; 1/2 oz. ginger; 2
blades mace: 20 minutes.
 DOUBLE MUSHROOM CATSUP.

On a gallon of fresh mushrooms strew three ounces of salt, and

pour to them a quart of ready-made catsup (that which is a year old
will do if it be perfectly good); keep these stirred occasionally for four
days, then drain the liquor very dry from the mushrooms, and boil it
for fifteen minutes with an ounce of whole black pepper, a drachm of
mace, an ounce of ginger, and three or four grains only of cayenne.
Mushrooms, 1 gallon; salt, 3 oz.; mushroom catsup, 1 quart;
peppercorns, 1 oz.; mace, 1 drachm; ginger, 1 oz.; cayenne, 3 to 4
grains: 15 minutes.
 COMPOUND, OR COOK’S CATSUP.

Take a pint and a half of mushroom catsup when it is first made,

and ready boiled (the double is best for the purpose), simmer in it for
five minutes an ounce of small eschalots nicely peeled; add to these
half a pint of walnut catsup, and a wineglassful of cayenne vinegar,
or of chili vinegar; give the whole one boil, pour it out, and when
cold, bottle it with the eschalots in it.
Mushroom catsup, 1-1/2 pint; eschalots, 1 oz.; walnut catsup or
pickle, 1/2 pint; cayenne or chili vinegar, 1 wineglassful.
 WALNUT CATSUP.

The vinegar in which walnuts have been pickled, when they have
remained in it a year, will generally answer all the purposes for which
this catsup is required, particularly if it be drained from them and
boiled for a few minutes, with a little additional spice, and a few
eschalots; but where the vinegar is objected to, it may be made
either by boiling the expressed juice of young walnuts for an hour,
with six ounces of fine anchovies, four ounces of eschalots, half an
ounce of black pepper, a quarter of an ounce of cloves, and a
drachm of mace, to every quart; or as follows:—
Pound in a mortar a hundred young walnuts, strewing amongst
them as they are done half a pound of salt; then pour to them a quart
of strong vinegar, and let them stand until they have become quite
black, keeping them stirred three or four times a day; next add a
quart of strong old beer, and boil the whole together for ten minutes;
strain it, and let it remain until the next day; then pour it off clear from
the sediment, add to it half a pound of anchovies, one large head of
garlic bruised, half an ounce of nutmegs bruised, the same quantity
of cloves and black pepper, and two drachms of mace: boil these
together for half an hour, and the following day bottle and cork the
catsup well. It will keep for a dozen years. Many persons add to it,
before it is boiled, a bottle of port wine; and others recommend a
large bunch of sweet herbs to be put in with the spice.
1st Recipe. Expressed juice of walnuts, 1 quart; anchovies, 6 oz.;
eschalots, 4 oz.; black pepper, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 1/4 oz.; mace, 1
drachm: 1 hour.
2nd. Walnuts, 100; salt, 1/2 lb.; vinegar, 1 quart; to stand till black.
Strong beer, 1 quart; anchovies, 1/2 lb.; 1 head garlic; nutmegs, 1/2
oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; black pepper, 1/2 oz.; mace, 2 drachms: 1/2
hour.
 ANOTHER GOOD RECEIPT FOR WALNUT CATSUP.

Beat a hundred green walnuts in a large marble mortar until they

are thoroughly bruised and broken, and then put them into a stone
jar, with half a pound of eschalots, cut in slices, one head of garlic,
half a pound of salt, and two quarts of vinegar; let them stand for ten
days, and stir them night and morning. Strain off the liquor, and boil it
for half an hour with the addition of two ounces of anchovies, two of
whole pepper, half an ounce of cloves, and two drachms of mace;
skim it well, strain it off, and when it is quite cold pour it gently from
the sediment (which may be reserved for flavouring common
sauces) into small dry bottles, secure it from air by sound corking,
and store it in a dry place.
Walnuts, 100; eschalots, 1/2 lb.; garlic, 1 head, salt, 1/2 lb.;
vinegar, 2 quarts: 10 days. Anchovies, 2 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz.;
mace, 1/4 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.: 1/2 hour.
 LEMON PICKLE OR CATSUP.

Either divide six small lemons into quarters, remove all the pips
that are in sight, and strew three ounces of salt upon them, and keep
them turned in it for a week, or, merely make deep incisions in them,
and proceed as directed for pickled lemons. When they have stood
in a warm place for eight days, put into a stone jar two ounces and a
half of finely-scraped horseradish, and two ounces of eschalots, or
one and a half of garlic; to these add the lemons with all their liquor,
and pour on them a pint and a half of boiling vinegar in which half an
ounce of bruised ginger, a quarter of an ounce of whole white
pepper, and two blades of mace have been simmered for two or
three minutes. The pickle will be fit for use in two or three months,
but may stand four or five before it is strained off.
Small lemons, 6; salt, 3 oz.: 8 days. Horseradish, 2-1/2 oz.;
eschalots, 2 oz., or garlic 1-1/2 oz.; vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; ginger, 1/2
oz.; whole white pepper, 1/4 oz.; mace, 2 blades: 3 to 6 months.
Obs.—These highly-flavoured compounds are still much in favour
with a certain class of housekeepers; but they belong exclusively to
English cookery: they are altogether opposed to the practice of the
French cuisine, as well as to that of other foreign countries.
 PONTAC CATSUP FOR FISH.

On one pint of ripe elderberries stripped from the stalks, pour three
quarters of a pint of boiling vinegar, and let it stand in a cool oven all
night; the next day strain off the liquid without pressure, and boil it for
five minutes with a half-teaspoonful of salt, a small race of ginger, a
blade of mace, forty corns of pepper, twelve cloves and four
eschalots. Bottle it with the spice when it is quite cold.
 BOTTLED TOMATAS, OR TOMATA CATSUP.

Cut half a peck of ripe tomatas into quarters; lay them on dishes
and sprinkle over them half a pound of salt. The next day drain the
juice from them through a hair-sieve into a stewpan, and boil it for
half an hour with three dozens of small capsicums and half a pound
of eschalots; then add the tomatas, which should be ready pulped
through a strainer. Boil the whole for thirty minutes longer; have
some clean wide-necked bottles, kept warm by the fire, fill them with
the catsup while it is quite hot; cork, and dip the necks into melted
bottle-resin or cement.
Tomatas, 1/2 peck; salt, 1/2 lb.; capsicums, 3 doz.; eschalots, 1/2
lb.: 1/2 hour. After pulp is added, 1/2 hour.
Obs.—This receipt has been kindly contributed by a person who
makes by it every year large quantities of the catsup, which is
considered excellent: for sauce it must be mixed with gravy or
melted butter. We have not ourselves been able to make trial of it.