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Textbook An Introduction To Integral Transforms Baidyanath Patra Ebook All Chapter PDF
Baidyanath Patra
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An Introduction to Integral Transforms
An Introduction to
Integral Transforms
During my fifty years teaching and research experiences at the Indian Institute
of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, formerly known as Bengal
Engineering College and Bengal Engineering & Science University, I have been
introduced to the subject of Integral Transforms.
Here an attempt has been made to cover the basic theorems of commonly used
various integral transform techniques with their applications.
The transforms that have been covered in this book in detail are Fourier Transfoms,
Laplace Transforms, Hilbert and Stieltjes Transforms, Mellin Transforms, Hankel
Transforms, Kontorovich-Lebedev Transforms, Legendre Transforms, Mehler-
Fock Transforms, Jacobi-Gegenbauer-Laguerre- Hermite Transforms, and the Z
Transform.
This textbook targets the graduate and some advanced undergraduate students.
My endeavor will be considered fruitful if it serves the need of at least one reader.
I would also like to thank my sons and their families for their constant
encouragement during the writing of this book. Special thanks goes to my
grandsons for their support for this work despite all the time it took me away from
them.
During the process of writing, I have been greatly inspired by the textbooks of
I. N. Sneddon and L. K. Debnath on this subject. Many other books and research
papers, all of which are not possible to be mentioned individually, have also been
consulted during this process.
1 FOURIER TRANSFORM 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Classes of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Fourier Series and Fourier Integral Formula . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Fourier sine and cosine Transforms. . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Linearity property of Fourier Transforms. . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Change of Scale property. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 The Modulation theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Evaluation of integrals by means of inversion theorems. . 11
1.9 Fourier Transform of some particular functions. . . . . . . 13
1.10 Convolution or Faltung of two integrable functions. . . . . 20
1.11 Convolution or Falting or Faltung Theorem for FT. . . . . 21
1.12 Parseval’s relations for Fourier Transforms. . . . . . . . . 23
1.13 Fourier Transform of the derivative of a function. . . . . . 26
1.14 Fourier Transform of some more useful functions. . . . . . 30
1.15 Fourier Transforms of Rational Functions. . . . . . . . . . 36
1.16 Other important examples concerning derivative of FT. . 37
1.17 The solution of Integral Equations of Convolution Type. . 47
1.18 Fourier Transform of Functions of several variables. . . . . 53
1.19 Application of Fourier Transform to Boundary Value Prob-
lems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Appendix 390
Bibliography 405
Index 407
Chapter 1
FOURIER TRANSFORM
1.1 Introduction.
The method of integral transforms is one of the most easy and effective
methods for solving problems arising in Mathematical Physics, Applied
Mathematics and Engineering Science which are defined by differential
equations, difference equations and integral equations. The main idea
in the application of the method is to transform the unknown function,
say, f (t) of some variable t to a different function, say, F (p) of a complex
variable p. Then the associated differential equation can be directly re-
duced to either a differential equation of lower dimension or an algebraic
equation in the variable p. There are several forms of integral transforms
and one form may be obtained from the other by a transformation of the
coordinates and the functions. The choice of integral transform depends
on the structure of the equation and on the geometry of the domain
under consideration. This method of integral transform simplifies the
computational techniques considerably.
Suppose that there exists a known function K(p, t) of two variables
p and t and that
b
K(p, t) f (t) dt = F (p) (1.1)
a
is convergent. Then F (p) is called the integral transform of the function
f (t) by the function K(p, t), which is called the kernel of the transform.
Here, the variable p is a parameter, which may be real or complex. Dif-
ferent forms of kernels will generate different form of transforms. Below
we discuss a variety of integral transforms with their applications after
using different forms of kernels in variety of domains. To begin with, we
consider Fourier Transform.
2 An Introduction to Integral Transforms
A1 (R). Let the principal period of f (x) be 2 l. Then f (x) admits of the
Fourier series
∞
nπx nπx
f (x) = a0 + an cos + bn sin
l l
n=1
1 l
where a0 = f (x)dx
2l −l
1 l nπx nπx
(an , bn ) = f (x) cos , sin dx
l −l l l
1 l −inπx
so that an − i bn = f (x) e l dx
l −l
Let us now set a0 = c0
an = cn + c−n
i bn = cn − c−n
∞
−inπx inπx
Then, f (x) = c0 + cn e l + c−n e l
n=1
+∞
−inπx
= cn e l (1.2)
−∞
l l
1 inπx 1 inπt
where, cn = f (x) e l dx = f (t) e l dt
2l −l 2l −l
(1.3)
This form of Fourier series is called the complex form of Fourier series
in (−l, l). Thus, from (1.2) and (1.3), one gets
+∞
l
1 inπt
e−
inπx
dt
f (x) = f (t) e l l (1.4)
−∞
2l −l
Thus,
∞ ∞
λ λ
∈
dy f (t) cos[y(t − x)]dt < dy |f (t)|dt < .
0 k 0 k 2
Also, since
λ
sin[λ(t − x)]
cos[y(t − x)]dy =
0 t−x
it follows that
∞
∞ ∞
sin λ t
f (t)dt cos[y(t − x)]dy = f (t + x) dt
k 0 k−x t
Thus, there exists a number K2 such that if k > K2 + x,
∞
∈
f (t + x)[sin λt/t]dt < .
k−x 2
∞ λ λ ∞
f (t)dt cos[y(t − x)]dy − dy f (t) cos[y(t − x)]dt <∈,
k−x 0 0 k
for k > K = max(K1 , K2 ) even for large values of λ
In other words,
∞ λ
lim f (t)dt cos[y(t − x)]dy
λ→∞ 0 0
λ ∞
= lim dy f (t) cos[y(t − x)]dt (1.9)
λ→∞ 0 0
We have,
1 1 +∞ sin λ u
[f (x + 0) + f (x − 0)] = lim f (x + u) du
2 λ→∞ π −∞ u
1 +∞ sin[λ(t − x)]
= lim f (t) dt
λ→∞ π −∞ t−x
λ
1 +∞
= lim f (t)dt cos[y(t − x)] dy
λ→∞ π −∞ 0
+∞
1 λ
= lim dy f (t) cos[y(t − x)] dt
λ→∞ π 0 −∞
From eqn. (1.11) the result in eqn. (1.8) of article 1.3 will follow.
Let in addition belonging to the classes P 1 (R) and A1 (R), the function
f (x) be an odd function of x ∈ R. Then, clearly f (−x) = −f (x), Now,
by (1.12)
∞
1
F [f (x); x → ξ] = F (ξ) = √ f (x) eiξx − e−iξx dx
2π 0
2 ∞
= i f (x) sin ξx dx
π 0
≡ i Fs (ξ), say (1.17)
∞
2
where, Fs (ξ) = f (x) sin ξx dx (1.18)
π 0
Fs (ξ) in (1.18) is defined to be Fourier sine transform of the function
f (x). Its connection with the Fourier transform is given by (1.17) pro-
vided f (x) in an odd function of x ∈ R. The inversion formula of (1.18)
is then defined by
2 ∞
f (x) = Fs (ξ) sin ξx dξ (1.19)
π 0
8 An Introduction to Integral Transforms
Proof.
1 ξ
(ii) If Fs [f (x)] = Fs (ξ), then Fs [f (ax)] = a Fs a
Proof. By definition
∞
2
Fs [f (x); x → ξ] = f (x) sin ξx dx = Fs (ξ).
π 0
Therefore,
∞
2
Fs [f (ax); x → ξ] = f (ax) sin ξx dx
π 0
1 2 ∞ ξ
= f (t) sin t dt
a π 0 a
1 ξ
= Fs
a a
10 An Introduction to Integral Transforms
1
Fs [f (x) cos ax ; x → ξ] = [Fs (ξ + a) + Fs (ξ − a)]
2
(b) if Fs [f (x); x → ξ] = Fs (ξ) then
1
Fc [f (x) sin ax ; x → ξ] = [Fs (ξ + a) − Fs (ξ − a)]
2
and (c) if Fc [f (x); x → ξ] = Fc (ξ) then
1
Fs [f (x) sin ax ; x → ξ] = [Fc (ξ − a) − Fc (ξ + a)]
2
These results can similarly be proved as was done in the first case on
replacing cos ax and sin ax by their exponential forms in the definitions
of the corresponding transforms of the left hand side.
These results means that if we set f (x) = e−bx , then its cosine and
sine transforms are given by
2 b
Fc e−bx ; x → ξ =
π ξ 2 + b2
2 ξ
Fs e−bx ; x → ξ =
π ξ + b2
2
1, 0<x<a
As a second example, if we take f (x) =
0 , x > a,
then a
2 2 sin ξa
Fc (ξ) = 1 cos ξx dx =
π 0 π ξ
and so it gives
2 ∞ sin ξa 1, if 0 < x < a
cos ξx dξ =
π 0 ξ 0, if x a
⎧
⎪
⎨ 0, 0<x<a
Let us consider a third example when f (x) = x, a≤x≤b
⎪
⎩ 0, x>b
Then,
b
2
Fs (ξ) = x sin ξx dx
π a
2 a cos ξ a − b cos ξ b sin ξ b − sin ξ a
= +
π ξ ξ2
and this result gives
⎧
⎪
⎨ 0, 0<x<a
2 ∞
sin ξ x [Fs (ξ)] dξ = x, a≤x≤b
π 0 ⎪
⎩ 0, x>b
1, 0 < x < a
In the fourth case if we choose f (x) =
0, x > a
Then
1 − cos ξ a
Fs (ξ) =
ξ
and it gives
2 ∞ 1 − cos ξ a 1, 0<x<a
sin ξ x dξ = f (x) =
π 0 ξ 0, x>a
1, a < x < b
Similarly taking f (x) =
0, otherwise
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Symptoms. In horses and cattle these are very obscure, being
mainly in the nature of chronic gastritis. In both there are recurrent
attacks of slight colicy pains, with tympany in cattle, and gradual
emaciation. Vomiting has been exceptionally seen in both class of
animal and if the rejected matters are very acid and above all if
mixed with blood it is more suggestive of ulcer. In the horse the
attacks of colic are mostly in connection with eating. or (in case the
ulcer is duodenal) an hour or two after a meal. In this animal it is
possible to withdraw liquids from the viscus by the stomach pump,
and any hyperacidity or blood may be almost diagnostic. Tenderness
to pressure on the epigastrium or hypochondrium is often present,
yet the colics of ulceration are often relieved by pressure and friction.
Blood is sometimes present as such in the excrements, but more
commonly these are simply blackened by the exuded blood as acted
on by the gastric acid and intestinal liquids. The bowels may be
alternately constipated and relaxed. A gradually increasing
feebleness is a characteristic feature and in cattle paraplegia may
precede death.
In the carnivora the symptoms are less obscure. The animal is
dull, prostrate, weak, lies on its belly, but rarely long in one place,
and when up has arched back, stiff movements, and tucked up
abdomen. The epigastrium is painful to touch, which tends to arouse
vomiting of food or bloody mucus. As in the horse the rejected
matters are very acid. Constipation may alternate with diarrhœa, the
fæces being blackened (melæna) or even streaked with blood. The
occurrence of suffering after meals, the constancy and persistency of
the symptoms and the steadily advancing emaciation and weakness
are very characteristic. If the tenderness is referable to a given point,
it is even more distinctive.
Lesions. In the horse ulcers and erosions occur in the cardiac sack
in connection with œstrus larva and spiroptera which destroy and
remove the cuticular covering, or with sarcoma or epithelioma
growing in the gastric walls. In the right sac there may also be round
ulcers from the hooklets of the œstrus, or irregular excavations on
the summits of the folds in connection with catarrhal inflammation.
Ulcers from autodigestion are usually in the right sac, in the most
dependent part of the viscus, between the folds, and of a more or less
circular outline. The raw surface is black, brown, slaty gray or white.
The ulcers which result from petechial fever are irregularly notched
and marked by a mass of dark blood coagulated in their depth.
In cattle and dogs the ulcers are most frequent near the pylorus,
and when of catarrhal origin may be round or irregular, and on the
summit of the fold, or if peptic, may be round and between the folds.
In malignant catarrh and rinderpest, they are mostly formed on the
summits of the folds. They may vary in size from a pea to a quarter of
a dollar. The surrounding mucosa is usually congested, swollen, and
projecting, and the surface of the ulcer itself of a dark red, black,
yellowish, slaty or gray.
The round ulcer is usually marked by surrounding infiltration and
by a tendency to become deeper and to perforate the gastric walls,
with the result of inducing an infective peritonitis. This is more
common in cattle and carnivora than in solipeds.
Treatment. If a reasonably certain diagnosis can be made the
patient should be put on a restricted diet of easily digested materials,
given at regular intervals. For the carnivora scraped or pulped raw
meat, and milk, and for the herbivora milk and well boiled flax seed
or other farina are appropriate.
Violent emesis in carnivora may demand washing out of the
stomach with tepid water with or without the aid of a stomach tube.
This may be seconded by anodynes, chloral, cyanide of potassium, or
even morphia.
Bismuth trisintrate or oxide is appropriate in all animals, also
sodium bicarbonate, chalk or magnesia to neutralize the muriatic
acid.
As antiseptics calculated to obviate the formation of irritant
products from the gastric contents and to check the progress of the
microbian infection in the wound such agents as the following may
be used: Salol (horse or ox 1 dr., dog 5 grs.), naphthol or naphthalin
(same doses), chloral (horse 2 drs., dog 5 grs.).
Sometimes it is well to relax the bowels by small doses of Glauber
salts, and in all cases an abundance of fresh water, butter milk, or
other bland drink.
Cases of the kind are slow in their progress and unless the animal
is specially valuable, treatment may be a source of loss.
PERFORATING ULCER OF THE STOMACH
This may be the result of the gradual deepening of the round ulcer,
yet in the domestic animals it mostly comes from the presence of
sharp pointed bodies. These may be enumerated as needles, pins,
nails, wires, sharp bones (dog), whalebone (horse), forks, knives
(cattle), and even gravel. The burrowing of the spiroptera has seemed
to cause perforation in the horse. All causes of ulceration may,
however, lead to perforation.
The symptoms are those of gastric ulcer, already given, followed by
the more specific ones of perforation. These in their turn differ
according to the parts involved. In the horse and dog the perforating
ulcer usually opens into the peritoneum, inducing a fatal infective
peritonitis. In cattle the foreign body sometimes passes toward the
heart, enveloped in a protecting mass of new formed tissue and
proves fatal by heart disease. In other cases it has been found to
proceed downward toward the sternum and to escape by a fistula
formed beside the ensiform cartilage. In other cases it has taken a
direction toward the right wall of the abdomen where it formed a
fistula, discharging alimentary matters. In still other cases it has
opened into the peritoneal cavity with fatal effects.
Treatment in the case of external fistula, without implication of
the peritoneum, consists in the removal of the foreign body, and the
stimulation of granulations along the tract of the fistula by the
application of an ointment of tartar emetic to the interior. Should
this fail the fistulous tract may be scraped to make it raw, and the
edges may then be drawn together with sutures taking a deep hold of
the skin.
DILATATION OF THE STOMACH.
Hair balls, wool balls, bristle balls, cotton balls, clover-hair balls, oat-hair balls,
paper balls, phosphatic calculi, sand and gravel, nails, wires, needles, pins, etc.,
cloth, leather, whalebone, playthings, etc. Symptoms: of catarrh or colic, dullness,
restlessness, arched back, in dog vomiting of blood, fistula. Diagnosis. Treatment:
emetic, feed potatoes, laparotomy.
Hair Balls. These are common in the rumen of cattle and have
been found in the fourth stomach. They are especially injurious to
young animals by reason of their irritating the gastric mucosa, but
they also occasionally block the pylorus, producing indigestion,
gastric dilatation, gradually advancing emaciation and even a fatal
result.
Wool Balls. These are found in sheep and are especially injurious
in young lambs.
Bristle Balls. These are found in swine as round, or ovoid balls
or long ellipses bent upon themselves. The sharp projecting ends of
the bristles render them very irritating, especially to young pigs.
All of these are caused by licking themselves or their fellows, and
particularly during the period of moulting or as the result of some
skin affection. Lambs which are nursed by ewes with an excess of
wool on and around the mammæ, and old sheep with a disposition to
eat wool are frequent victims.
Cotton Balls. These have been found in lambs fed on cotton seed
cake. A certain amount of the cotton fiber is incorporated in the cake,
and this is rolled together and felted by the movements of the
stomach and agglutinated by mucus.
Clover-hair Balls. The fine hairs from the clover leaf have been
found rolled into balls in the abomasum of lambs producing all the
evil effects of the other pilous masses.
Oat-hair Balls. The fine hairs which cover the seed of the oat are
found matted together and cemented by mucus in the stomach of
horses fed on the dust of oatmeal mills. They are especially common
in Scotland, where oatmeal has been so extensively used.
Paper-ball. In the museum of the N. Y. State Veterinary College
is a conglomerate ball of paper taken from the stomach of a hog by
Dr. Johnson, Sioux City.
Phosphatic Calculi have been described as found in the
stomach, but this is evidently an error, as the acid secretion would
have speedily dissolved them. The error doubtless came from
mistaking the transverse colon for the stomach.
Sand and Gravel arrive in the stomach of the horse from
pasturing on loose sandy land, the plants being pulled up by the
roots and swallowed together with the sand adherent. Also from
drinking water from shallow streams with sandy bottoms. Feeding of
grain from the ground is a cause of swallowing sand, earth and
pebbles. Licking the soil in acidity of the stomach is another cause.
Fodder that has been packed down and mixed with earth, and that
which has been blown full of sand or dust, and roots eaten from the
ground in wet weather lead to the ingestion of much sand or earth.
Shetland ponies taken from the islands pass sand for some weeks.
Dogs taught to fetch and carry, swallow stones, pebbles, marbles,
etc., accidentally.
Nails, Wires, Needles, Pins, etc. More or less pointed metallic
objects are often taken in with the food by gluttonous horses and
though usually arrested in the intestines they sometimes irritate or
wound the stomach.
Fragments of cloth, leather, or whalebone are similarly
taken with the food, or in case of depraved appetite are deliberately
chewed and swallowed.
Playthings and small household articles are especially taken
by puppies through mere wantonness. Rubber balls, pieces of metal,
thread, cord, cloth, bits of leather, sponge, horse hair, human hair,
corks, bits of wood and everything obtainable of small size may be
swallowed and found in the stomach.
Pigs swallow pieces of wood and other objects.
Birds habitually swallow pebbles and ordinary objects are ground
down in the gizzard. They also readily vomit feathers, bones and
other offensive matters that have proven indigestible.
Symptoms. In horses there are no especial symptoms, though the
foreign bodies sometimes cause gastric catarrh, and in other cases
produce wounds and ulcers or block the pylorus causing violent colic.
Most commonly the foreign bodies pass on into the intestines, where
they may directly wound the walls, form nuclei for the deposition of
earthy salts in the form of calculi, or in case of fibrous materials
(cords) roll into firm balls.
In dogs the foreign bodies may cause gastric catarrh, or puncture
or abrasion of the mucosa, and they may be rejected by vomiting.
The more rounded, smooth bodies may lie for a length of time in the
stomach without doing any manifest injury, as in the case mentioned
by Nichoux in which a dog carried in its stomach for twelve years a
four franc piece and a large sou. Sometimes the objects block the
pylorus. Then the subject is dull, depressed, inclined to lie on the
right side but continually changing his position, gives a stifled yelp
when he lies down or occasionally when he stops walking. He carries
the back arched, and the abdomen tucked up, and drags his hind
limbs. Vomiting, is frequent and accompanied by violent and painful
retching. The vomited matters may be mixed with blood. The
epigastrium is tender to pressure. Death may ensue in twenty-four
hours or not until after weeks or even months.
In other cases there is gastro-enteritis with vomiting, colic,
anorexia, trembling, hyperthermia, constipation or diarrhœa, and
finally the passage of the offending agent per anum, when recovery
ensues.
In other cases sharp pointed bodies perforate the walls of the
stomach, and determine the formation of abscess or fistula opening
at any point around the abdominal cavity. This may be followed by
recovery, by gastric or intestinal fistula, or by chronic disease of
some important organ like the liver.
In dogs, diagnosis is often possible by manipulation of the
stomach through the walls of the abdomen. If the belly is very lax it
may be compressed between finger and thumb, or between the two
hands; if more tense, pressure with both hands just behind the
sternum may detect the resistance of a solid body.
Treatment. In the horse this is hopeless.
In the dog much may be expected from the use of emetics,
(ipecacuan, tartar emetic, apomorphine, tepid water, tickling the
fauces). In some cases of sharp pointed bodies an exclusive and
abundant diet of well boiled potatoes proves successful. The object is
to pass much of the starchy matter through the small intestines
undigested, so that it may envelop the sharp body and protect the
mucosa. When it reaches the colon, the ingesta as a whole becomes
more solid and invested by this, the body is often passed without
danger. Other methods failing laparotomy remains. The dog is
stretched on his back on a table with the forelimbs held well apart.
The skin of the epigastrium is denuded of hair and washed with
antiseptics (mercuric chloride solution 1:500). Hands and
instruments are also made aseptic. Then an incision is made in the
epigastrium or in the situation where the offending body has been
felt, and the finger is introduced to locate the body. At this point a
thread is passed through the walls of the stomach, and these are
drawn well out through the abdominal wound and incised to the
extent of an inch or more. Through this orifice the foreign body can
be easily felt and extracted. Then in case the stomach is over-filled it
may be emptied, and the edges washed with the antiseptic and
carefully sutured with sterilized catgut. The usual care must be taken
to turn the mucosa inward and bring the muscular and serous coats
in accurate opposition. Finally the abdominal wound is closed by a
continued suture of silk or catgut.
The greatest care must be taken to prevent the escape of any of the
gastric contents into the abdominal cavity, to render both wounds
aseptic and to protect the external wound especially against
infection. A wash of carbolic acid (1:100) with a little of some intense
bitter (quassia) will often succeed in preventing licking or gnawing.
Even greater care must be given in the matter of diet. At first a few
teaspoonfuls of cold water only need be given. After twenty-four
hours a little well strained beef tea; later milk or gruel may be added,
and by degrees more solid food. In three weeks the ordinary food
may usually be resumed.
In case the foreign body has escaped into the peritoneal cavity, the
same method may be pursued, the edges of the gastric or intestinal
wound being made raw, treated antiseptically and carefully sutured,
and the abdomen washed out with an antiseptic solution (aluminum
acetate solution) and closed.
TUMORS OF THE STOMACH.