Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282

WEEK 1: Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923)

A conference was held in Lausanne, Switzerland. The Treaty of Lausanne was signed
within this conference by Britain, Turkish Grand National Assembly, France and Italy in 24
July 1923. Japan joined as an observer state to the conference. İsmet Pasha was present at the
conference with his committee to represent the Turkish nation. It is the treaty that ended the
Turkish War of Independence and established an independent Turkish State. With this treaty,
the National Oath was realized to a great extent.

Britain invited Istanbul Government to this conference too. On this situation, Turkish
Grand National Assembly declared that it abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922.
Thus, Istanbul Government, whose legal existence ended, could not join the conference.

NOTE: The main purpose of Britain inviting the Istanbul Government to the Lausanne
Conference is to create a difference of opinion among the Turks and to benefit from this
situation.

Atatürk asked the Turkish committee attending the conference not to make compromises
on the following issues;

* Absolute rejection of the request to establish an Armenian State on Turkish land.

* The return of Kirkuk and Mosul to Turkey.

* Pulling the Syrian border as far south as possible.

* Giving back the islands which were closer to Turkey.

* No foreign soldiers in the straits.

* Absolute abolition of capitulations.

* Announcement that an exchange can be accepted in the case of minorities.

* Ensuring that the Ottoman debts are shared with the countries that left the Ottoman Empire.

* Foreign companies’ being subject to Turkish law in Turkey.

 The century-old issues that emerged with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire were
discussed at the conference. İsmet Pasha said the following in his speech; “Gentlemen, we
have suffered a lot, we have shed a lot of blood. We want freedom and future like all
civilized nations.”

Terms of the Treaty:

* Greek border: The Meriç River was determined as the border. Karaağaç region of Edirne
was taken instead of war compensation from Greece.

* Islands: Bozcaada and Gokceada was left to Turkey; other Aegean islands were left to
Greece. However, Greece would not have weapons and soldiers on the islands close to the
Anatolian coast.

* Eastern border: Kars and Ardahan were left to Turkey; Batumi was left to Georgia.

* Syria border: Anatolian lands occupied by France, except Hatay, were left in Turkey. The
privileges granted to the Turks living in Hatay continued.

* Iraqi border: Iraqi border could not be resolved because of the Mosul issue of Turkey and
Britain.

NOTE: The only unresolved problem in the Lausanne Peace Treaty was the Mosul
issue.

* The straits: Merchant ships, warships and aircraft have had the freedom to pass through
the Turkish Straits in peacetime. In wartime, merchant ships of neutral states could pass if
they do not aid to the enemy. There would be no troops in certain areas around the Straits. An
international commission headed by Turks would oversee compliance with the order
stipulated by the treaty.

NOTE: Decisions like, "Straits being directed by an international commission would be

chaired by Turkey and not keeping soldiers in the straits" were against our goal in the
National Oath.
*Capitulations: The privileges called capitulation granted to foreign countries in the field of
judicial, financial and administrative were completely abolished.

NOTE: The complete abolition of capitulations is the biggest success in Lausanne. It is

an important step for economic independence of the Republic of Turkey that would be
established shortly after.

* Foreign debts: Ottoman debts would be shared in proportion to the incomes of the states
that left. All foreign oversight regarding the payment of debts would be abolished. Turkey
would agree to share the Ottoman debt with certain installment payments.

* Patriarchate: The continuation of the existence of the Fener Greek Patriarchate in Istanbul
was accepted.

* Foreign Schools: It was decided that foreign minority schools would continue in
accordance with Turkish laws. Other states have agreed that this issue is Turkey's own
internal affair.

* Minorities and Population Exchange: It was accepted that all minorities are Turkish
citizens and that those who are Turkish citizens are equal before the law. Also, it was decided
that Greeks living in Turkey and Turks living in Greece would replace. Only Greeks in
Istanbul and Turks in Western Thrace were excluded from this change.

Importance and Results of the Treaty of Lausanne:

* The existence, independence and territorial integrity of the new Turkish state has been
recognized by all the states of the world.

* This treaty definitely ended the Turkish War of Independence.

* With the treaty of Lausanne, the Treaty of Sevres lost its validity.

* Our struggle for independence has set an example for the nations in captivity.

* The treaty is still valid today.

* Turkey's present borders (except Hatay) have been drawn.

* The National Oath has been realized to a great extent.

* The terms situated in the Treaty of Sevres which limited Turkey's sovereignty and
independence were removed.

* After the Peace Treaty of Lausanne, the Turkish Grand National Assembly was able to start
innovation and revolution movements.
 Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282
WEEK 2: Revolutions; A) Revolutions in the Political Field.

Revolutions

Revolution means reforming and changing the existing institutions by force. There are
revolutions in various fields. For example; Revolutions in the political field are the abolition
of the sultanate, the proclamation of the Republic and the abolition of the Caliphate.

A) Abolition of the Sultanate (1 November 1922)

Sultanate is the name of the throne that passed from father to son in the Ottoman Empire.
The first step to strengthen the political structure of the new Turkish State was to abolish the
sultanate. An understanding of national sovereignty was adopted with circulars and
congresses. With the opening of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, the principle of
national sovereignty was put into effect.

The Istanbul government cooperated with the Entente states in order to continue the
Sultanate. Istanbul government did not help the country in the war of independence and tried
to prevent the national movement. The invitation of the Istanbul government to the Lausanne
conference was a proof of their desire to divide the country. It was understood that the
sultanate had to be abolished in order to achieve national sovereignty and establish a
democratic order.

The reasons for the abolition of the sultanate;

* The sultanate was incompatible with the Turkish Grand National Assembly which is based
on national sovereignty.

* The desire to realize national sovereignty.

* The contradiciton of the two-headed government to the national interests.

* Assembly's deprivation of the sultan and the caliph from religious and legal powers in the
constitution adopted on January 20, 1921.

* Ottoman government still seeing itself as a legitimate government.

* Negative attitude of the sultanate in the War of Independence.

* The Entente states’ inviting the Istanbul Government to the Lausanne conference.
The results of the abolition of the sultanate;

* The six hundred-year-old Ottoman sultanate came to an end. Thus it ended the duality and
the presence of two governments in Turkey.

* A critical step was taken to ensure national sovereignty as a whole.

* It is the second major revolution after the opening of the Turkish Grand National
Assembly.

*With the abolition of sultanate, Turkish Grand National Assembly government has become
the only institution that governs the country.

* The first step was taken to make the state secular. Religion and state affairs were separated
from each other.

* Presidential issue emerged in Turkey. This issue accelerated the proclamation of the
Republic and the presidency problem was resolved together with the proclamation of the
Republic.

The importance of the abolition of the sultanate;

* The transition to the Republic has accelerated.

* The Caliphate has been turned into a symbolic institution linked to national sovereignty.

* It is the first and only revolution of the First Turkish Grand National Assembly.

* It is the main revolution made in line with the principle of republicanism.

* The Ottoman state has officially come to an end.

B) Proclamation of the Turkish Republic (29 October 1923)

Republic is the name of the administration determined by the "majority". It is the form of
administration whose administrators are elected by public. These administrators should
govern the country in accordance with the common values, demands, wishes and
characteristics of the individuals who choose them. Republic also includes the concept of
democracy.
The reasons of Proclamation of the Turkish Republic;

* To ensure the realization of national sovereignty.

* To solve the presidential problem that emerged after the abolition of the sultanate.

* To determine the regime of the new Turkish state established by the opening of the Turkish
Grand National Assembly and to end discussions on this issue.

* The problems caused by the government system and the government crisis that arose.

The Republic was proclaimed on October 29, 1923 and Mustafa Kemal Pasha was elected
the first President of the new Turkish State.

The Results and Importance of the Proclamation of the Republic;

* The regime of the state has been determined. The head of the state has been announced.

* The "Cabinet System" has been adopted instead of the Parliamentary Government system.

* With the proclamation of the Republic, the government crises ended, the Prime Ministry
problem was solved.

* A suitable environment was prepared for other revolutions to be made.

C) Abolition of the Caliphate (3 March 1924)

The reasons of abolition of the Caliphate;

* During the War of Independence, the Sultan and the Caliph opposed the National Struggle.

* There was no place for the caliphate in the new Turkish State founded on the basis of
nationalism.

* As long as the caliphate continued, there was always the danger of interference in the
internal affairs of Muslim countries.

* The caliphate had already lost its true meaning.

* The idea that the caliph and his supporters would prevent innovations.
* The caliph began to act not only as a "caliph", but like a sultan making negative propaganda
against the country.

The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924. On the same day, some other decisions were
also made; The Ottoman dynasty was taken abroad, the Law on Unification of Education
(Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu) was adopted and with this law, all schools in the country were
connected to the Ministry of National Education.

The results of abolition of the Caliphate;

* It is the most important step taken in secularization of the state.

* Domestic and foreign policy has also ensured full independence.

* It has strengthened the understanding of national sovereignty.

* The influence of dissenting opinions in the Assembly has declined.

NOTE: Abolition of the caliphate is the most important step taken towards the
secularization of Turkey.
 Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282

WEEK 3: Attempts for a Multiparty Life and Movements Against the Regime

Attempts for a Multiparty Life

There were no political parties in the first Assembly. All the deputies were united around
the idea of realizing the National Oath. However, during the period of Lausanne negotiations,
differences of opinion emerged in the assembly on the state's regime and the internal politics
after peace. Then, it was decided that elections and the assembly would be renewed and just
after, the elections were held on April 23, 1923. The concept of multi-party management
came to the fore.

The reasons for attempting for a multiparty life;

* Ensuring the formation of democratic institutions by applying democracy in the country,

*Determining the needs and tendencies of the people

*Developing a free thinking environment

*Discussing country problems

*Supervising the government through effective opposition activities

*Desire to capture the contemporary world

1. Republican People's Party, 9 September 1923: (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi)

In his statement to the newspapers in December 1922, Mustafa Kemal announced that he
would establish a political party called People's Party. In addition, he stated some articles
available in the charter such as;

1. Sovereignty belongs to the nation unconditionally. This is our constant motto.

2. Sultanate was abolished and representatives of the Turkish people gathered within the
Turkish Grand National Assembly.
3. Maintaining safety and security in our country is our most important duty.
4. Our courts will be ensured to dispense justice swiftly.
5. Economic development will be ensured.
On September 9, 1923, the People's Party was established by accepting this charter and
Mustafa Kemal became the leader of the party. Full independence and unconditional
national sovereignty were declared as the basic principles of the party. It was stated that the
whole nation would be represented in the party. This party took the name of the Republican
People's Party with the proclamation of the Republic on October 29, 1923.

NOTE: The first political party of Turkish Republic state is the Republican People's
Party.

2. Progressive Republican Party, 17 November 1924: (Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet

Fırkası)

Progressive Republican Party is considered to be the first opposition party in our

Republican history and an experience of democracy. The people who founded this party were
close associates of Mustafa Kemal Pasha; Adnan Adıvar, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Kâzım Karabekir,
Rauf Orbay, Refet Bele and some others. They claimed that the Republican People's Party
was putting pressure on the Assembly and they wanted this situation to be ended. The
Progressive Republican Party was founded on 17 November 1924 and Kâzım Karabekir
Pasha was appointed as its leader.

In the program of the party, it was stated that sovereignty belonged to the public and that
the main purpose was keeping and developing the Republic administration. It was also
declared to be respectful of democratic, liberal ideas and beliefs. Also, principles such as that
religion and state affairs would be separate, but religion would not be despised, new reforms
would not be made without the permission of the nation were emphasized. However, the
political and social turmoil of the period drove the party to the point of closure and The
Progressive Republican Party was closed on June 3, 1925.

3. Free Republic Party, 12 August 1930: (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası)

Paris Ambassador Fethi Okyar had examined the socio-economic and political
developments in Europe and started a search for our country’s development. As a result of
these searches, Fethi Okyar officially established the Free Republic Party in Istanbul on
August 12, 1930. Nuri Conker, Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Ağaoğlu Ahmet, Tahsin Uzer were
among the founders of the party. In the party program it was argued that the principles of
Republicanism, Nationalism and Secularism would be adhered to. Free Republic Party
received great attention from the public in a short time. However, Free Republic Party
claimed that the government resorted to repressive methods and carried out illegal deeds in
elections (1930). Then Fethi Okyar who did not want to have an argument with Mustafa
Kemal Pasha, dissolved and closed the party.

Movements Against the Regime

1. Sheikh Sait Rebellion, 13 February 1925: (Şeyh Sait Ayaklanması)

This rebellion is of a religious character. It was launched by Sheikh Sait on February 13,
1925 in Diyarbakır and it affected most of our eastern provinces in a short time.

Independence Courts were established against these rebellions. As a result of the harsh
measures taken by the government, the rebellion was brought under control, Sheikh Sait and
other ringleaders were caught on April 15, 1925. At the end of the trials, the court ruled that
many innocent citizens and soldiers were killed during the rebellion, and pillage and theft
were carried out.

The results of Sheikh Sait Rebellion;

* Progressive Republican Party was closed for its role in the rebellion.

* It was understood that Turkey wasn’t ready for a multiparty system.

*The British gained an advantage in Mosul. Since our army, which had just come out of the
war, was dealing with this rebellion, it wasn’t possible to take Mosul and Kirkuk through
military means.

*The first rebellion to overthrow the republican regime was suppressed.

*Peace and trust in the country was shaken for a while.

2. Attempted Assassination of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Izmir (1926)

A group that did not believe in what Mustafa Kemal Pasha did or would do, took a
negative attitude towards him for purely personal reasons. For months, the assassination
network had decided to assassinate him with some special equipment, and thereby to
overthrow the government. Those who prepared the assassination were also some members of
the Progressive Republican Party. Contrary to the plans of the assassins, the assassination
could not take place as a result of a one-day delay in Mustafa Kemal Pasha's travel schedule
and the absence of the expected train to Izmir. The assassins were caught, along with their
bombs and weapons.

Established Independence Court sentenced those whose crimes were proven to be

executed. This incident was met with a great reaction in the whole country and it was strongly
condemned. In his speech addressed to the nation, Atatürk said: “One day my mortal body
will certainly depart this life, but the Republic of Turkey will remain constant forever.”

3. Menemen Incident (23 December 1930)

On December 23, 1930, Derviş Mehmet and his followers started a rebellion in the town
of Menemen in Izmir. They martyred the teacher lieutenant Kubilay, who came to suppress
the rebellion. The troops sent to the region suppressed this rebellion in a short time. Those
involved in the rebellion were tried in a military court and the criminals were punished.
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who meticulously focused on the Menemen (Kubilay) Incident, stated
that this incident was intended to destroy the republic. The Menemen Incident revealed the
importance of providing peace and tranquility in our country and the necessity of explaining
the reforms to the public.

NOTE: Sheikh Sait Rebellion and Menemen Incident aimed to overthrow the regime. It
showed that Turkey was not yet ready to genuine democracy. Then Ataturk did not
attempt to try a multi-party regime. Only after 1945, a multi-party regime was possible
with the establishment of the National Development Party in Turkey.
 Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282

WEEK 4: Revolutions in the Field of Law and Revolutions in Education and Culture

Revolutions in the Field of Law

The Turkish Republic wanted to adopt modern legal rules, apply the principle of
secularism in the field of law, and base the law on reason, logic and scientific results. For this
reason, important reforms have been made in the field of law, especially since 1926.

1.Adoption of the Turkish Civil Code (1926)

Civil code is a law based on male and female relationships and family law in a society.
According to secular and rational principles, the preparation of this law could take a long
time. So, it was decided to adopt the Swiss Civil Code. The reasons for this preference were
as follows:

* The Swiss Civil Code was the latest of the laws in the civil law prepared in Europe

* Remediation of some deficiencies in the previously enacted civil laws in this law

* This law would bring highly practical and rational solutions to various problems

* Expressions and concepts were not complicated

The Swiss Civil Code was translated into Turkish by a board. With some changes, it was
accepted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly as the Civil Law of the Turks and entered
into force. (17 February 1926). With the adoption of this law, complete equality between
women and men in the social and economic field has been achieved, women have been able to
do every profession, equality between spouses has also been brought in family life, marriage
with a single woman is essential, the right to divorce has also been given to the women, the
family has been preserved as the foundation of society, and obligations have been placed on
parents for the good upbringing of their children and so forth.
NOTE: Legal unity has been established with the Civil Code and different practices
have been terminated.

NOTE: Turkish women were given rights only in the social field with the Civil Code.
The rights given to women in the political sphere would be realized in the early 1930s.

2.Rights Granted to Women in the Political Field

Despite many rights provided to women by the Civil Code, there was still a great
inequality with men in the political sphere. Women could neither participate nor be a
candidate in parliamentary elections. So, first, women were given the right to participate in
municipal elections in 1930. In 1933, the right to be a headman was given. In 1934, Turkish
women were given the right to elect and be elected as deputies. Thus, the other half of the
society actively participated in guiding national life.

Even in some advanced western countries in 1934, women were not fully granted these
rights. This attitude of the republican regime set an example even for some western countries.

NOTE: Turkey has led many European countries to recognize the social and political
rights to women. Turkish women have previously gained the right to vote and be elected
from women in France, Bulgaria, Hungary, Greece and Switzerland.

3. Other Developments in the field of law

The Sharia Courts were closed. The 1924 Constitution came into force. Ankara Law School
was opened. The Criminal Code and Aministrative Law was adopted. In 1937, Atatürk's
principles were put into the constitution.

Revolutions in Education and Culture

The aims of the revolutions in the field of education were as follows;

*To provide secular and contemporary education

*To promote scientific education

*To ensure unity in education

*To ensure equality between girls and boys in the field of education

*To train technical staff in every field

*To facilitate and generalize education

*To nationalize education

1.Unification of Education Law, 3 March 1924: (Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu)

*The Ministry of National Education has become the sole responsible of all education and
training affairs.

*All education and training institutions have been affiliated to the Ministry of National
Education.

*Minority and foreign schools were prevented from teaching for religious and political
purposes.

*An important step has been taken in the secularization of education. Madrasas were closed.

NOTE: With the Unification of Education, the foundation of the "Secular Education
System" was laid, and the cultural duality was ended with the closure of the madrasas.

2.Law on the Education Organization, 1926: (Maarif (Eğitim) Teşkilatı Hakkında

Kanun)

Primary school, high school and higher education in the country were organized according to
certain principles. The new Turkish State opened new schools. The number of teacher training
schools has been increased. Thus, the foundation of our current education and training system
was laid with this law.

3.Adoption of the New Turkish Letters (1 November 1928)

Atatürk adopted the Latin alphabet instead of the Arabic alphabet in order to make it easier to
read and write and to increase the literacy rate. Nation Schools (Millet Mektepleri) were
opened in order to increase the number of people who can read and write new letters. Mustafa
Kemal himself, personally gave lectures and was awarded the title of “head teacher” on
November 24, 1928.

4.Other Developments in Education

*Primary, secondary, high school and vocational schools were expanded.

*Istanbul University was established.

*Law School (1925), High Institute of Agriculture (1933), Faculty of Language, History and
Geography (1935) were established in Ankara.

*Fine Arts Academies and State Conservatory were established.

*The Painting and Sculpture Museum was opened in 1937.

5. Developments in the Field of Culture

*In 1931, the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) was established. Atatürk
established this institution in order to reveal the Turkish history by researching every aspect
of it from the beginning until today and to raise the consciousness of history.

* The Turkish Language Association (Türk Dil Kurumu) was established in 1932. Atatürk
had this institution founded in order to save Turkish language from the influence of foreign
languages and to reveal the richness of Turkish.

NOTE: These two institutions also served the development of the Nationalism Principle.

* Community Centers (Halk Evleri) were opened in 1932. The main purposes of the
community centers were; to gather the Turkish nation around new ideals, to establish a unity
of culture and thought among the people, to realize the adoption of Atatürk's revolutions and
to make the cultural breakthrough of the Republic.
 Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282

WEEK 5: Revolutions in the Social Area

Turkish society had to rise to the level of modern societies as soon as possible and
necessary relations should have been established with the civilized world. Despite the
challenges, in the first decade of the Republic of Turkey, priority to reforms made in the
social sphere was given. The utmost care was taken to ensure that the new regulations
introduced were national.

1.Closing Dervish Lodges and Tombs (September 2, 1925)

These religious orders, which were initially interested only in religious issues and tried to
increase their supporters by developing different systems of thought on religious issues,
gradually deviated from their aims and became elements of religious exploitation and started
to play an effective role in political events in a way that affected the welfare of the state and to
provoke the people as their interests were endangered. Dervish lodges were closed as they
continued these activities after the proclamation of the republic and caused rebellions. This
law also prohibited the use of the titles and actions such as fortune-telling, witchcraft and
making amulets which deceive and exploit people's religious feelings.

NOTE: The obstacles to Turkey's modernization were eliminated by closing these

institutions that created dichotomy in society and it paved the way for the modern
scientific studies. It was ensured that the religion can be explained and learned
correctly. Closing dervish lodges and tombs is one of the important stages of secularism.

2.The Dress and Hat Law (November 25, 1925)

The hat law and the regulations on clothing symbolize an important change in daily life
of the people. The need for innovation in this field emerged with the understanding of
westernization, and the style of dress adopted by western societies entered the lives of Turks
starting with the dressing of civil servants. By the decesion of the Council of Ministers, the
obligation to wear common clothes and hats was imposed on public officials. After the use of
hats became widespread among the public, it was decided that the clergy should wear
religious clothing only during religious ceremonies, and at other times should wear civilian
clothes. The use of chador and veil among women has declined significantly, and the coat and
head cover have replaced this.

NOTE: The Dress and Hat Law is a revolution made in line with the principles of
Populism and Secularism.

3.The Surname Law (21 June 1934)

Identity Card of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

The most important legal development that laid the groundwork for the surname law in
the Republican era was the adoption of the Civil Code in 1926. By the surname law, it was
aimed to ensure that people with different identities have a national consciousness beyond
ensuring that citizens are distinguished from each other. By the law on 24 November 1934
Mustafa Kemal was given the surname Atatürk.

NOTE: With this law, which is related to populism principle, the confusion in social life
and problems in official affairs have been eliminated.
4.Changes in Units of Measure and Holidays

Change in clock system: New clock system was discussed and adopted in the Assembly.
Accordingly, the day starts at midnight and the hours are counted from zero to twenty-four.
The national clock system was created based on the 30th meridian passing through Izmit.

Change in calendar system: On December 26, 1925 Gregorian calendar was adopted as the
official state calendar in the Republic of Turkey. Previously, Hijri and Rumi calendars had
been used.

Adoption of International Numbers: On May 20, 1928, it was decided to use international
Latin numbers instead of Eastern Arabic numerals.

Changing Weight and Length Measures: Instead of weight and length measures used until
then, length and weight measurements suitable for the decimal method were adopted. By
these changes, a unity of measurement within the country was achieved and foreign trade
became easier.

Arrangement of National Days and Holidays: On May 27, 1935, the week holiday changed
from Friday to Saturday afternoon and Sunday. Thus, problems with countries taking vacation
on Sunday could be solved.

NOTE: With the changes made in the measurement units, our commercial and
economic relations with Europe have been facilitated. These changes and taking the
weekend to Sunday are also for the purpose of removing the dichotomies seen in the
field of application.
 Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282

WEEK 6: Revolutions in the Economical Field

Mustafa Kemal believed that a country that is economically dependent on foreign

countries cannot be an independent one. So, after the Republic was established, the economy
had to be nationalized as soon as possible. Some efforts have been made to keep the Turkish
economy independent.

1.Izmir Economy Congress (17 February-4 March 1923)

Under the auspices of Mustafa Kemal, a congress was held in Izmir to make the country
one that stands on its own feet and aims to have an independent economy. Shortly, the
decisions taken at the congress were as follows;

* National Economy Oath (Misak-ı İktisadi-Milli Ekonomi) was accepted.

* Monopoly Administration was abolished.

* The tithe tax (Aşar vergisi) was abolished.

* Businesses with foreign capital and foreign companies were canceled.

*National Industry branches whose raw materials are domestically would be established.

* The use of domestic goods would be encouraged.

NOTE: National Economy principle has been adopted in this congress. Thus, our
economic development would be realized within our national independence.

2.Developments in the Agricultural Field

Agriculture is the basis of the national economy. In order to make progress in this area, it
was necessary to improve the peasant situation. For this purpose, the following developments
have been achieved;

* Agricultural loans were given to farmers.

* Atatürk Forest Farm (Atatürk Orman Çiftliği) was established.

* The tithe tax (Aşar vergisi) was abolished.

NOTE: The abolition of the tithe tax (Aşar vergisi) is a development in line with the
Populism principle.

* Territory reform was carried out.

*Agricultural Credit Cooperatives were established.

3.Developments in the Trade Field

As a result of the capitulations and weakening of the Ottoman Empire, agriculture

declined. The means of trade in our country passed into the hands of minorities, especially
Ottoman citizens of Greek Armenian and Jewish descent. On the other hand, the Turkish trade
was completely dominated by the Western imperialist states.

The first step to develop agriculture was the abolition of capitulations within the Treaty
of Lausanne. Ataturk founded Turkey Business Bank (Turkiye İş Bankası) with his
personal efforts to ensure the development of the national economy and trade. In this way, a
source of credit was provided to local entrepreneurs, namely national capital to make
commercial enterprises and invest within the country and Turkish merchants started to
dominate the commercial life for the first time instead of minorities. To ensure the national
capital accumulation and regulate the financial affairs of the Turkish economy, The Central
Bank of the Turkish Republic (Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Merkez Bankası) was founded in June
11, 1930.

A large part of the maritime transport and the entire operation of the important ports were
in the hands of foreigners. Accordingly, the Cabotage Law was enacted. The right to
transport cargo and passengers in the seas belonging to the Turkish state was given only to
Turkish ships. In order to facilitate trade, highway and railway construction was focused on.

NOTE: Taking over the railways and commercial enterprises belonging to foreigners
with the Cabotage Law is a work carried out in line with the principle of Nationalism.
4.Developments in the Industry Field

In the Ottoman state, the industry collapsed due to the capitulations. Industrialization was
a necessity for development. For the purpose of developing and protecting the industry,
Industry Incentive Law (Teşvik-i Sanayi Kanunu) was enacted. The private sector was
encouraged to establish an industry. Later, upon understanding that industrialization cannot be
done by the private sector, since 1933, the principle of statism started to be applied. Thus,
heavy industry investments would be made by the state.

In addition, the First Five-Year Development Plan was put into practice (1934-1939).
During this period, the Karabük Iron and Steel Factory (Karabuk Demir Çelik Fabrikası)
and glass, leather, paper and sugar factories were opened by the state. Mineral Research and
Exploration Institute (Maden Tetkik Arama Enstitüsü - MTA) was established to explore
our underground resources (1935). In addition, Etibank was established to operate our mines
and to meet loan needs. Also, on April 26, 1926, the State Institute of Statistics (Devlet
İstatistik Enstitüsü) was established.

Developments in Public Works; New railways, highways and bridges were built.
Importance was attached to the construction of ports, piers and airports. Dams and modern
cities were built. Public buildings, hospitals and schools were opened.

Developments in the Maritime Field; The Cabotage Law was enacted. Deniz Bank was
established in 1937 to perform maritime business and banking operations.

Developments in Forestry; At the Izmir Economy Congress, it was decided to protect and
reproduce forests and to organize tree festivals all over the country. In 1945, all forests were
nationalized.

Developments in Animal Husbandry; In 1925, animal culture and breeding started in

Karacabey Basin. Poultry was developed. Animal diseases were fought.

Developments in the Field of Transport; Central Anatolia, Western and Eastern Anatolia
were connected to each other by railway. State road network was determined.

Fiscal Policy; In 1930, The Central Bank of Republic of Turkey (T.C. Merkez Bankası)
was established.
Adoption of the State Economic Model; State control over domestic markets increased.
State industry was established in areas such as textiles and sugar. State Industry Office
(Devlet Sanayi Ofisi) was established in 1932.

The First Five-Year Industrial Plan (1934 – 1937): The purpose of this plan was to set up
industrial enterprises in Turkey especially based on agricultural production and raw materials.
Weaving, mining, chemical and porcelain industries were established.

The Second Five-Year Industrial Plan (1937 – 1938): Infrastructure facilities such as
electrification, mining, ports, machinery, food, chemical, fuel industries, sea transportation
and export were targeted. However, it could not be implemented after the outbreak of the
Second World War.

Nationalization Studies in Turkey; The first nationalization took place in 1924 with the
purchase of some railways, Haydarpaşa port and dock. The National Protection Law (Milli
Korunma Kanunu) was enacted in 1940. Concession guarantee for foreign companies has
ended. Some private Turkish organizations were nationalized by paying compensation to their
owners.

NOTE: The main purpose of the economic activities in Ataturk's period was to make
Turkey, which is a raw material provider, a rich industrial country that processes its
resources itself.
 Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution II AIT182-AIT282

WEEK 7: Establishment and Development of the Constitutional System

Establishment and Development of the Constitutional System

The constitution is the whole set of laws that determines how a state will be
governed and regulate the rights and freedoms of individuals. A constitutional
administration is established within legislative, executive and judicial branches.
Constitutionalist movements in our country started towards the end of the 19th century. In
Turkey, the first constitution in the modern sense was the Ottoman constitution of 1876
(Kanun-i Esasi). This constitution was established by a special council and the public did not
play a role. With this constitution, a parliamentary order was adopted for the first time.

NOTE: The first constitution in Turkish history is the Ottoman constitution of 1876
(Kanun-i Esasi).

The Turkish Grand National Assembly convened on April 23, 1920. On January 20, 1921,
with the adoption of the Constitution of 1921 (Teşkilat-ı Esasiye), a system based directly
on "parliamentary supremacy" was established. This constitution was made by the Grand
National Assembly of Turkey under those difficult conditions in the War of Independence.
Atatürk had a great influence in the making and implementation of this constitution.

After this constitution, with the proclamation of the Republic, 1924 Constitution, which tried
to bring the Assembly Government system and the Parliamentary system together, was
established.

Later, after 1960 coup, May 27, the Constitution of 1961 entered into force which was
prepared by the Constituent Assembly and presented to the public opinion.

The National Security Council, which took over the power with the September 12, 1980 coup,
prepared and presented a constitution to the public opinion. 1982 Constitution entered into
force on November 7, 1982.

In Turkey, totally 4 times the constitution was declared; these were 1921, 1924, 1961 and
1982 constitutions.
1.Constitution of 1921 (Teşkilat-ı Esasiye)

The Turkish Grand National Assembly announced and adopted the 1921 Constitution
(Teşkilat-ı Esasi), which was the first constitution of the Turkish State, on 21 January
1921. This constitution was based on the unity of powers and the system of parliamentary
government.

Features of the 1921 Constitution:

*It is the first constitution of the Turkish state.

*The Assembly Government System and the supremacy of the assembly were adopted.

* “Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the nation.” With the adoption of this discourse,
the principle of national sovereignty, which is the foundation of the republic, was adopted.
The most important innovation brought by the 1921 Constitution has been the principle of
national sovereignty.

*Unity of Powers principle was adopted (Legislative and executive powers were gathered
within the assembly).

*There was no provision regarding the judiciary.

* “The regime of the Turkish state is the Republic.” has been put into the constitution by
the proclamation of the Republic in 1923.

*The phrase “The religion of the state is Islam.” was added to the constitution.

*The phrase “The language of the state is Turkish.” has been added to the constitution.

2. 1924 Constitution

The 1924 Constitution, which entered into force and adopted by Turkish Grand National
Assembly on 20 April 1924, abolished the 1921 Constitution. It remained in effect until 1961
with several important changes (such as the addition of six principles, removing the statement
that the state's religion is Islam, and granting women the right to elect and be elected
deputies).

*The regime of the state is the republic.

* The language of the Turkish State is Turkish, and its capital is Ankara.
* Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the nation. The only representative of this
sovereignty is the Turkish Grand National Assembly.

Amendments in the 1924 Constitution:

*The second article in the constitution, “The religion of the state is Islam.” was removed.
(This amendment intended to make the Republic of Turkey a secular state.)

*In 1934, women were given the right to elect and be elected as a deputy.

*In 1937, the principles of “Republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism, secularism and
revolutionism” have been added to the Constitution and defined as basic qualifications of the
Republic of Turkey.

*1924 Constitution was the longest remaining in force constitution of the Republic of Turkey,
it was in force until May 27, 1960.

3. 1961 Constitution

1961 Constitution, which was prepared after 1960 coup and adopted by Turkish Grand
National Assembly on July 9, 1961, abolished the 1924 Constitution. 1961 constitution was
put to the vote of the public and accepted by 60.4% of the voters.

Features of the 1961 Constitution:

*The unity of powers (Legislative, executive and judicial powers) were separated.

* The principle of pluralist democracy has been adopted.

* Judicial independence has been ensured.

* The Constitutional Court has been established to check the constitutionality of the laws to
be enacted.

* Fundamental rights and freedoms of the person have been guaranteed by the Constitution.

* The concept of social state has been added.

4. 1982 Constitution

It is the constitution of the Republic of Turkey in force today. It was prepared after
the 12 September 1980 coup and it was adopted by Turkish Grand National Assembly on 18
October 1982 and entered into force. While preparing the 1982 constitution, the 1961
Constitution was taken as basis. With the 1982 Constitution, the Senate of the Republic was
abolished and it was returned to the rule of a single parliament. The fundamental rights and
freedoms section is one of the most criticized parts of the 1982 Constitution. An
understanding that restricts fundamental rights and freedoms prevails in a large part of the
broad section. Until today, many changes have been made on this constitution in order to
make it better.

NOTE: Our current constitution is the 1982 Constitution. Until today, many changes
have been made on this constitution.