Kemalist reforms in Turkey in the 20-30-ies.

Announcement of the republic and

the adoption of the Constitution in 1924 cemented the country's bourgeois order.
The Constitution proclaimed the bourgeois principles of personal integrity,
freedom of conscience, thought, speech, press and assembly.
Mustafa Kemal was the initiator of a wide range of reforms for
modernization that have affected the polity, culture and life of the Turks.
unification of national education, closed religious schools was conducted,
passed a law on the abolition of the sharia courts.
Instead of religious marriage introduced civil marriage. Women have equal
rights with men. Introduced rules about wearing European clothes and
headdress, the transition from the Arabic alphabet to the Latin. Laws on the
introduction of civil, criminal and commercial codes, the law on the introduction
of surnames, for voting rights to women.
Economic policy was based on the foundations of the Kemalist statism state
capitalism. Using the assets of the Central Bank, and Sumerbanka Etibank state
lend to businesses. a five-year industrial development plan was developed
(1934- 1938 gg.). Depleted Ataturk principles of domestic and foreign policy
played a crucial role in the development of an independent Turkey. Ideological,
the ideological foundations of Kemalism were registered in the Program
Republican People's Party in 1931 They consisted of the famous "six arrows -
alty ok" and included the following principles: republicanism, nationalism,
nationality, statism, secularism and revolutionary.
Turkey during the Second World War. After the death of M. Ataturk was elected
president of the Republic Ismet Inonu. As the military action to the borders of
the Turkish Government has taken steps to move the country's economy on a
war footing. In February 1940 was enacted the Law "On the Protection of the
Nation", gives the government extraordinary powers for the transition of the
economy in the state of war. Work began on the strengthening of the Bosporus
and the Dardanelles. Based on the Law "On the Protection of the Nation", the
government introduced labor conscription, increased working hours, canceled
the weekend, allowed to use child labor in the mines and on the night shift,
abolished unions.
Translation of all sectors of the economy on the needs of the army caused
the collapse of the economic life of Turkey. There was an acute food crisis. In
large cities have introduced rationing food dispensing system.

1
 At the end of the war, anticipating the defeat of Germany, the Turkish rulers
went on a rapprochement with Britain and the United States. At the end of 1943
in Cairo, Roosevelt and Churchill met with Ismet Inonu, where the question of
Turkey's participation in the war. Armed Forces of the USSR's success on the
fronts of World War II and the pressure of the Anglo-American military
command forced the ruling circles of the Republic of Turkey to break off
diplomatic relations with Germany, and February 23, 1945 to declare formal war
Nazi Germany. Such an act on the part of Turkey, gave her the opportunity to be
invited to the UN conference and to become a member of this authoritative
international organization.
The fate of most of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire has been identified in
the secret treaties of the Entente during the war. Mudros truce, signed by
representatives of the sultan's government October 30, 1918, meant the end of
the Ottoman Empire, but the imperialists of the Entente did not satisfy the
capture of the Arab regions, they are ready to share openly and Turkey itself.
Turkish territory attracted them as the object of colonial exploitation and as a
springboard for deployment of anti-Soviet intervention.
The leading role in the political powers in the Middle East belonged to England
then, possessed the greatest military forces here. Britain's plan was to divide
Turkey to convey the most important part of the English vassals - Greece
Dashnak Armenia projected "independent" Kurdish state, and the straits zone
and Istanbul pose a supposedly international, in fact, the English, the control (it
should be recalled that Russia had promised the Black Sea straits, including
Istanbul, but the October revolution of 1917 led to the cancellation of these
agreements). France counted in this division to acquire the entire Cilicia and
comprehensive "sphere of influence" to the north of it. Italy claimed the South-
western Anatolia, including Izmir region, is meant Greece. There was also a
plan for the establishment of the United States domination over the Straits and
Istanbul, Anatolia, Armenia. The contradictions in the matter of "the Ottoman
legacy" section have been profound and irreconcilable.
A few days after the signing of the Armistice Moudros Allied powers imposed
their military fleet to the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, appointed High
Commissioner in Istanbul and completely subdue the sultan's government. After
the Allies began the occupation of Anatolia. English, French, Italian, and later
the Greek army occupied a number of important areas of Turkey: the straits
zone, the west coast of Anatolia, including Izmir, the southern ports, Cilicia.

2
They based their calculations based on the erroneous assumption that the ruined
and defeated country will not be able to provide them with any resistance.
British, French and Italian troops occupied different parts of Turkey. With the
support of the Entente fleet in May 1919 the Greek armed units landed in Izmir,
and began to advance into the interior of Asia Minor, to take under the
protection of the Greeks in the Western Anatolia. Finally, the Treaty of Sevres
was signed in August 1920.
Treaty of Sevres - one of the treaties of Versailles-Washington system, the
establishment of which marked the end of the First World War. Signed August
10, 1920 in the city of Sevres (France) Entente and joined them states (Italy,
Japan, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes, Hejaz, Czechoslovakia and Armenia), on the one hand,
and the government of the Ottoman Empire - with the other.
In the world of Sevres, Turkey renounced claims to the Arabian Peninsula
(Hijaz) and North African countries, recognized the British protectorate over
Egypt and the annexation of Cyprus; the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon
were transferred as a mandated territory of France; Palestine, Transjordan, and
Mesopotamia were passed as a mandated territory of the UK; Dodecanese
islands were passed in Italy; Turkish continental possessions in Europe (Eastern
Thrace and Edirne (Adrianople), Gallipoli peninsula) and the Aegean islands
(with the exception of the Dodecanese archipelago) handed Greece. Greece also
received a number of territories in Asia Minor (Smyrna
now Izmir) and surroundings and other.); Constantinople and the zone Straits
declared a demilitarized zone and passed under the international control; Turkey
recognized Armenia as a "free and independent state."
Turkey and Armenia agreed to obey US President Woodrow Wilson on
Arbitration within the boundaries of the vilayets of Van, Bitlis, Erzurum and
Trabzon and accept its conditions on Armenia's access to the Black Sea (via
Batum).
Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan were to establish their mutual border by direct
negotiations between the two states, and in case of impossibility to reach an
agreement - through the mediation of the allied powers.
It was also the creation of an independent Kurdistan, whose borders were to
define together Britain, France and Turkey.

3
Thus, the Treaty of Sèvres designed the section of the Arab and European
possessions of the Ottoman Empire between the European powers and the
dismemberment of Turkey itself, securing it in a semi-colonial regime.
Sevres treaty was perceived in Turkey as a clear manifestation of the inability of
the Sultan to protect national interests. Treaty of Sèvres, never actually entered
into force, de jure completely ceased to function after a review of conditions at
the Lausanne Conference in 1923.
In 1919-1923 gg. was made the Turkish (Kemalist) Revolution (national
liberation struggle), which united the patriotic forces, strive to maintain the
independence of the Turkish state and the Turkish nation. July 24, 1923 was
signed the Treaty of Lausanne, through which Turkey recognized the full
independence. They were abolished Ottoman public debt management and
surrender, abolished foreign control of the country. At the same time, Turkey
has agreed to demilitarize the Black Sea straits. Mosul province, with its oil
fields, moved to Iraq. October 6, 1923, British troops had left Istanbul, and
October 29, 1923, Turkey was declared a republic and its first president,
Mustafa Kemal was elected.
Of great importance for the new Turkey has been establishing close friendship
with Soviet Russia. Already April 26, 1920 Mustafa Kemal sent to Moscow for
Lenin's name letter with a proposal to establish diplomatic relations with a
request to render assistance revolutionary Turkey in its struggle against
imperialism. The Soviet government gave a positive response to the proposal of
the Turkish government. March 16, 1921 in Moscow, an agreement was signed
between the RSFSR and Turkey on friendship and brotherhood; October 13 the
same year, Turkey has signed a similar agreement with the Transcaucasian
Soviet republics - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia - and January 2, 1922, during
his stay in Ankara emergency mission headed by MV Frunze - with the
Ukrainian SSR. In December 1925 between Turkey and the Soviet Union signed
an agreement "On friendship and neutrality."
The global economic crisis of 1929-1933. hit hard by the new Kemalist
economy. Then Ataturk even more convinced of the vital need for state
regulation of the economy. This practice is called statism. USSR rendered great
support to Turkey in the implementation of statist policy, giving it in 1932 on
very favorable conditions for Turkey's long-term loan.

4
However, in the second half of the 1930s. It became apparent withdrawal of the
Turkish government on friendly relations with the USSR. At convened in 1936
in Montreux Conference on the Straits regime Turkish representatives under the
pressure of Western diplomacy supported the English project, without prejudice
to the interests of the USSR and the other Black Sea countries.
In 1938 Atatürk died. Instead, the President of the Republic and Chairman of the
CHP was elected to İsmet İnönü, who drew on a number of senior posts figures
that were previously in opposition to Ataturk.
With the emergence of international tension Turkey first joined the Anglo-
French bloc, concluded October 19, 1939 with the UK and France, a treaty of
alliance. However, in 1940, after the capitulation of France, he became closer to
Nazi Germany and 18 June 1941, keeping the union with Britain, has signed a
contract with Germany "On friendship and non-aggression." After the attack of
Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union, Turkey declared itself neutral, but actually
provided a variety of assistance to Germany: it was selling chrome ore and other
strategic materials, permit the German and Italian warships through the straits..
When the fascist powers began to suffer defeats, Turkey has moved closer again
to the UK, as well as with the United States. In August 1944, Turkey severed
diplomatic relations with Germany, and in February 1945 announced it, and
Japan war.
Ataturk, seeks to bring Turkey to the level of contemporary civilization, has
implemented a series of reforms in the country. These reforms can be grouped
into the following groups:

1. Political transformation:

• Abolishment of the Sultanate (1 November 1922).

• Proclamation of the Republic (29 October 1923).
• The abolition of the Caliphate (3 March 1924).

2. Transformations in public life:

5
• Giving women equal rights with men (1926 - 1934 years).
• Reform of hats and clothes (25 November 1925).
• The ban on the activities of religious orders and monasteries (30 November
1925).
• Law of the names (21 June 1934).
• Cancel prefixes to the names as nicknames and titles (26 November 1934).
• The introduction of an international system of time, calendar and measuring
measures (1925 - 1931 years).

3. Transformations in the legal sphere:

• Cancel medzhelle (set of laws based on the Shari'a) (1924 - 1937).

• The adoption of the new Civil Code and other laws, as a result became
possible transition to a secular system of government.

4. Transformations in education: Integration of all education authorities under

the unified leadership (3 March 1924).
• Adoption of the new Turkish alphabet (1 November 1928).
• The establishment of the Turkish linguistic and Turkish Historical Society.
• Streamlining of university education (31 May 1933).
• Innovations in the field of Fine Arts.

5. Transformation in the economic sphere:

• Cancel ashar system (old agricultural tax).

• Promotion of private enterprise in agriculture.
• Establishment of model farms.

6
• The publication of the Law on the industry and the establishment of industrial
enterprises.
• The adoption of the 1st and 2nd of industrial development plans (1933-1937
years), the construction of roads throughout the country.

In accordance with the Law of the names, November 24, 1934 Great National
Assembly has assigned the name of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
Ataturk twice, 24 April 1920 and 13 August 1923, elected to the post of Speaker
of the TGNA. This post combined the posts of heads of state and government.
October 29, 1923 Republic of Turkey was proclaimed and Atatürk was elected
the first president of it. In accordance with the constitution, presidential
elections were held every four years, and the Turkish Grand National Assembly
has elected Atatürk to this post in 1927, 1931 and 1935.

Atatürk frequently went on trips around the country and inspected the work of
the state on the site, giving instructions to persons responsible for the
elimination of deficiencies. As the President of Turkey, Ataturk tried to come to
the country heads of states and governments of other countries, ministers and
military leaders.

15-20 October 1927 Atatürk read his great speech in which he talked about the
National Liberation War and the proclamation of the Republic.

After the signing of the Armistice Moudros there is a real threat to the
dismemberment of Turkey and the loss of its independence. In late 1918, the
country began the liberation movement, whose leader was General Mustafa
Kemal. In 1919 he joined the patriotic organization and made by the Sultan of
creation of the new parliament, which was dominated by supporters of
independence. The adoption of the National Parliament vows led to his arrest
and the dissolution of the majority of deputies. In Ankara, Kemal's supporters
created the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the country's alternative
government. The inability to cope with the Sultan Kemalist Entente leaders
worried authorizing the intervention of the Greek troops. Inspired by the success

7
of the Greek army, the Entente leaders imposed Sultan Sèvres peace treaty,
under which Turkey ceased to be an independent state. Kemalists have refused
to recognize the treaty, the government announced the sultan deposed and began
the formation of a regular army, received the support of the RSFSR and the
Ukrainian SSR. In Sakariyskom battle Kemalist army stopped the Greek
offensive in Ankara, and a year later went on the offensive, and to the end of
1922 liberated the territory of the country. At the Lausanne Conference the
Entente signed with Turkey a new peace treaty, under which recognized the
independence of the country in its present borders.
The achievement of independence was the beginning of a new stage of
modernization of the country. From the reforms of the previous time it was
different depth and determination, because the Kemalists were serious about the
fact that in the short term to overcome the backwardness of the country and to
make Turkey a modern state. Reforms in the hands of a group of young
politicians, led by Prime Minister I. Inonu. Kemalist reforms can be divided into
three blocks. The first steps made to reform the political system (elimination of
the Sultanate and the establishment of the Republic). The second unit made
economic reforms. In the 20s the Kemalists, based on the experience of Western
countries sought to accelerate the economic development of the country based
on the support of private initiative. For several reasons, this course did not bring
quick returns, so the Turkish authorities in the 30 years moved to the
modernization of the economy based on statist policies. In the economic sphere
Kemalists bought foreign enterprises have introduced tax incentives and
preferential loans for the private sector, launched the construction of large
enterprises and infrastructure at the expense of the treasury, have established
strict control over foreign trade. The third block reform made the transformation
of socio-cultural nature (the struggle with Islam, the Europeanization of the
culture and way of life).
The reforms have allowed for 20 years to increase the GDP by 3 times, to create
a new sector of the economy, have led to the appearance of the layers of the
industrial society and to the dynamic development of secular culture. At the
same time, ignored the rights of national minorities, and the fight against Islam
was accompanied by unjustified excesses.
Contradicts the reform was also the establishment of the country's authoritarian
dictatorship of the Republican People's Party, in spite of the declared Kemalists
desire for Westernization country's political system. Considering themselves as

8
the only spokesmen for the interests of the Turkish people, the Kemalists
intolerant of any manifestation of opposition. The Communist Party of Turkey
has been driven deep underground, created in 1924, the Progressive Republican
Party was disbanded after the uprising Sheikh Saeed on charges of cooperation
with Islamists, performances of national minorities and opponents struggle with
Islam brutally suppressed.
In the 30 years of Kemalist regime began to take on a totalitarian tinge. In 1931
it was established the official ideology, based on the six principles of Kemalism,
which by means of various methods implanted in the country. Trade unions
were placed under the full control of the state, and in 1938 the law on public
organizations banned political parties. The death of Kemal in 1938 did not
change the essence of the political regime. The head of state was elected for life
I. Inonu with awarding the title of "leader of the nation."
Before and at the beginning of the 2nd World War, Turkey was guided by
England and France, which in October 1939 signed an agreement on mutual
assistance. After the defeat of France, the Turkish authorities have started
maneuvering between the "axis countries" and the anti-Hitler coalition. In order
to prevent the capture of Turkey by Germany in June 1941 signed an agreement
with its treaty of friendship and non-aggression, began to purchase German
arms, did not interfere with the activities of pan-Turkic organizations calling for
the capture of the Turkish-speaking territories of the USSR. But Germany's ally,
Turkey has not become. After the Battle of Stalingrad Turkish government
ceased operation of the pan, to intensify contacts with the United States and
Great Britain broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, and in February
1945 formally declared war in August 1944. maneuvering Policy was used by
the USSR leadership to increase pressure on Turkey, the Kremlin after the war
intended to include in its sphere of influence.
loading...
In the inner life of Turkey during the war has worsened the situation of the
population due to halving the volume of agricultural production and reduce the
production of consumer goods. At the same time, the volume of industrial
production increased by 35%, while foreign exchange reserves increased 8 times
by the sale of raw materials to the warring coalitions. The economy increased
private business sector, representatives of which were to raise the question about
the weakening of state control over the economy and the democratization of the

9
regime. Within the Republican People's Party was a group of politicians, and
advocating for change
Turkey during the Second World War, took a position of neutrality and joined
the anti-Hitler coalition only at the last stage of the war. However, given the
important strategic position of Turkey, the warring parties have made active
diplomatic efforts to attract her to his side. In Turkey, there were also political
forces believe that the country should take part in the global conflict on the side
of the Axis or the anti-Hitler coalition.
September 1, 1939 with the German attack on Poland started World War II. A
week before the start of hostilities after the failure of the British-French-Soviet
negotiations Soviet-German non-aggression pact was signed. According to a
number of Western and Turkish historians, the conclusion of the Soviet-German
treaty in August 1939 was seen in Turkey negatively and led to further cautious
about Soviet diplomatic initiatives.

At the same time the Soviet-Turkish negotiations were continued in September

and October 1939, during a visit to Moscow, Turkish Foreign Minister Sukru
Saracoglu. The negotiations have not been successful for several reasons. First,
the Turks have had a secret preliminary agreement on signing of the Turkish-
British-French military alliance, and British Foreign Secretary Edward Halifax
was categorically against joining the treaty, and the Soviet Union, and the
Turkish Government itself has stated that it is prepared to conclude an
agreement only if if it is made a reservation about Turkey's commitment to
France and Great Britain. Vo-vtoryh, the Soviet Union during the negotiations,
trying to take into account the interests of Germany and the balance agreement,
taking into account the proposals of the Turkish, the Turkish government has put
forward a number of unacceptable conditions for it (changing the conditions of
use in favor of the Black Sea straits Soviet unwillingness to help Turkey in case
of a conflict with Germany ).

As a result, October 19, 1939 the Turkish government signed the British-French-
Turkish military alliance of mutual assistance in the event of transfer of combat
operations in the Mediterranean region. However, the protocol number 2 on the
conclusion of the contract the Turkish government Union indicated that its
provisions do not apply to the Soviet Union. According to some historians, it is

10
the presence of the item and the negative position of Turkey prevented the
forthcoming Franco-Britishbombardment of Baku.
After the British-American Conference in Casablanca in January 1943,
Churchill went to Turkey to persuade the Turks to enter the war as soon as
possible. At a conference Adana Churchill tried to persuade Turkish President
İnönü go to war no later than August 1943, promising that by the time Italy will
be destroyed and the danger from the Mediterranean to the Turks away. Despite
the fact that Turkey has refused immediate entry into the war and announced the
continuation of the policy of neutrality, the Turkish government has not refused
to accept the British assistance in the form of weapons and ammunition. In the
course of 1943, Turkey maintained a benevolent neutrality towards Germany.

At the Moscow conference in October 1943, Allied foreign ministers, it was

decided to seek Turkey's entry into the war until the end of 1943 and to provide
the ability to use Turkish airfields to attack German troops. At the Cairo
Conference in November 1943, the British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden in
conversation with Turkish Foreign Minister Numan Menemencioglu threatened
him, in case of refusal to enter the war, stop supplying military cargo.
Menemencioglu said that Turkey is not ready for war. At the Tehran Conference
in December 1943, the question of Turkey's participation in the war was also
discussed. Churchill declared its readiness to provide Turkey with accession to
the side of the Allies support weapons, air cover and 2-3 divisions, and in the
event of failure to stop military supplies, refuse to participate in the peace
conference and threaten post-war claims of the Soviet Union in respect of the
Black Sea straits. At this time, the Soviet and American delegations did not
support the proposal of Churchill, because they believed that the opening of the
Balkan front to distract the forces of the Allied landing in Normandy. During a
conference in Tehran on the initiative of Churchill raised the question of the
Straits. November 30, Churchill said that it is unfair that the Soviet Union has no
outlet to the Mediterranean Sea and that, if before the British were opposed, but
now will not object.

After the Teheran Conference on 4-6 December in Cairo met Churchill and
Roosevelt with President İnönü Turkey. Roosevelt and Churchill asked the
Turkish head of before February 15, 1944 to provide the airfields for the British

11
and American air forces. İnönü repeated thesis of the Turkish weakness and
asked for weapons. As a result, in April 1944 the United Kingdom and the
United States stopped military aid to Turkey. Furthermore, since the autumn of
1942, Turkey Germany supplied a much-needed one chromium, which also
irritated allies. After the cessation of supplies from the allies with the Turkish
government in April 1944 stopped supplying chromium in Germany. The
situation is even more acute when in June 1944 through the straits to the Black
Sea were two German warships. The Allies demanded a complete break from
the Turkish economic and diplomatic relations with Germany. Turkey August 2
announced the rupture of economic and diplomatic relations with Germany.
Since the autumn of 1944 the Soviet government, considering the non-
constructive position of Turkey, starts out feelers to amend the Montreux
Convention after the war. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Stalin
made a special statement on the Black Sea straits, demanding free passage of
Soviet warships through the straits at any time. Churchill and Roosevelt agreed
with such demands. In addition, at the Yalta Conference, it was decided that
only those states will participate in the creation of the United Nations, which has
declared war on Germany before 1 March 1945. Once this decision was made
aware the Turkish government, 23 February 1945 it formally declared war on
Germany, but the fighting did not participate.

Postwar Soviet territorial claims against Turkey

March 19, 1945, the Soviet government denounced the Soviet-Turkish treaty of
friendship from 1925, and then began informal consultations and negotiations on
a new treaty. In May, Turkey has proposed a draft agreement under which in
case of war would guarantee the free passage of the army and navy of the USSR
through Turkish territory; it caused a temptation to "put the squeeze on" Turkey
to fully meet the requirements of the Soviet. In June 1945 at a meeting of
Turkey's ambassador to Moscow S. Sarpera with VM Molotov, the Soviet
People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, said such desired conditions of a new
agreement, a joint Soviet-Turkish control regime in the Black Sea straits (with
the placement of Soviet naval base) and the return of the territories to the Soviet
Union in the South Caucasus, Turkey ceded the Moscow treaty of 1921.

12
Subsequently, these requirements have led to Turkey's accession to NATO.
Mudros truce, signed by representatives of the sultan's government October 30,
1918, meant the end of the Ottoman Empire, by the imperialists of the Entente
did not satisfy the capture of the Arab regions, they are ready to share openly
and Turkey itself. Turkish territory attracted them as the object of colonial
exploitation and as a springboard for deployment of anti-Soviet intervention.
The leading role in the policy of the imperialist powers in the Middle East
belonged to England then, possessed the greatest military forces here. Britain's
plan was to divide Turkey to convey the most important part of the English
vassals - Greece Dashnak Armenia projected "independent" Kurdish state, and
the zone of the straits and Istanbul (Constantinople) supposedly put under
international, in fact, the English control. France counted in this division to
acquire the entire Cilicia and comprehensive "sphere of influence" to the north
of it. Italy claimed the South-western Anatolia, including Izmir region, is meant
Greece. There was also a plan for the establishment of the United States
domination over the Straits and Istanbul, Anatolia, Armenia. Imperialist
contradictions in the matter of the "Ottoman heritage" (as well as in other areas
of the postwar division of the world) have been profound and irreconcilable. But
the imperialists united unanimous desire for subjugation of the Turkish people.
A few days after the signing of the Armistice Moudros Allied powers imposed
their military fleet to the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, appointed High
Commissioner in Istanbul and completely subdue the sultan's government. After
the Allies began the occupation of Anatolia. English, French, Italian, and later
the Greek army occupied a number of important areas of Turkey: the straits
zone, the west coast of Anatolia, including Izmir, the southern ports, Cilicia. The
imperialists based their calculations based on the erroneous assumption that the
ruined and defeated country will not be able to provide them with any resistance.
However, as noted later, Lenin, "robbery, which Turkey condemned imperialist
governments, has caused resistance, forced the most powerful imperialist
powers to take his hands off" in Turkey a widespread national liberation
movement. At first it was of spontaneous character. Its main driving force was
the working masses brought disasters World War II, economic management of
the German imperialists and the reactionary regime of the Young Turks of the
sultan, to the last degree of poverty and despair. During the war, Turkish
soldiers, unwilling to fight for interests alien to them, returning with arms in
their villages and towns, and created guerrilla units. When Turkey was subjected
to foreign occupation and faced the threat of total loss of state independence, the

13
guerrilla units first went on the struggle for independence. In January 1919 the
guerrillas protested against French invaders in Cilicia. In May, after the
occupation of Izmir by the Greeks, the guerrilla war engulfed western Anatolia.
Working class of Turkey participated in the people's struggle, but it was too
small in numbers and weak to manage it. Throughout Turkey, then there were
no more than 60-70 thousand. Workers. There was no trade union or political
party of the proletariat. In addition, foreign occupation immediately cut all more
or less large proletarian centers of the inner regions Anatolii- Centre of the
Turkish nation and the main focus of the spontaneous guerrilla warfare. Because
of this hegemony in the anti-imperialist movement in the hands of the Anatolian
national bourgeoisie (mainly trade).
Anatolian national bourgeoisie at that time could still act as a revolutionary
force. In contrast to the comprador bourgeoisie of Istanbul, are agents of the
imperialists, it is perceived foreign occupation and imperialist plans for the
dismemberment of Turkey as a direct threat to its vital interests.
However, within a few months after the Armistice Moudros bourgeois-national
organization, formed in various cities of Turkey and aims to counter foreign
occupation, limited paper protests, declarations and appeals to the "generosity"
of the Sultan and the Entente Powers. Some of the bourgeois intellectuals of
Istanbul expressed for the transfer of Turkey under the mandate of the United
States of America. Supporters of the mandate of the US were among the
Anatolian bourgeois figures. Only after it became utter hollowness of hope for
the sultan's government and the imperialist condescension and self-sacrificing
struggle of partisans demonstrated that there are forces in the country to repel
the invaders, Anatolian bourgeoisie began to act more boldly.
In the summer and autumn of 1919 in Balikesir, Erzurum and Sivas congresses
held national-bourgeois organizations, which were called the "Society for the
Protection of the rights." The class composition of the congress, as well as
general management of the Anatolian movement, distinguished by great
diversity. There were small and large merchants, officials, military officers,
lawyers, journalists, landowners, mullahs and even tribal sheikhs. Feudal lords
and clerics, who joined the movement, set themselves the aim of preserving the
old feudal theocracy in Turkey. Representatives of the national bourgeoisie
sought to create a new, bourgeois-national state. Initially, these differences were
not very noticeable, but the very nature of the Anatolian movement ordained a
predominant role of the national bourgeoisie.
14
The central core of leadership of the movement made up of intellectuals, mostly
officers, circles. From their midst came to the fore a prominent military and
political leader, General Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later he received the name
Ataturk, meaning "father of the Turks"), on behalf of which the whole
movement was called Kemalist.
At the Sivas Congress was created by the executive body - the representative
committee headed by Kemal, who took over the leadership of the anti-
imperialist struggle. At his request the sultan's government convened at the
beginning of January 1920 the Chamber of Deputies, has not met since the end
of World War II. Sultan and British imperialists behind him had hoped that with
the opening of
Istanbul, Parliament will be able to eliminate "illegal" national-revolutionary
organizations in Anatolia. But deputies from Anatolia were elected
overwhelmingly Kemalists. A representative committee endured by that time its
headquarters from Sivas to Ankara, requested that the Istanbul Chamber of
Deputies openly supported the national movement, and 28 January 1920 it
adopted the so-called National vow - a solemn declaration of independence of
Turkey.
Alarmed by the growth of national movements, the British imperialists decided
to use repression. March 16, 1920 Powers of the Entente troops, mainly British,
occupied Istanbul. Parliament was disbanded, its members, except for those who
managed to escape to Anatolia, were arrested, all power in the Turkish capital
was transferred to the Allied High Commissioner, in fact to the British military
command.
Repression only exacerbated the situation. In response to the occupation of
Istanbul Chamber of Deputies and the dispersal Kemalists convened April 23,
1920 in Ankara, the new parliament - Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Among his deputies formed a government headed by Kemal. Grand National
Assembly declared itself the sole authority in the country and decided that all
the orders of the Sultan and the Sultan's government published after the
occupation of Istanbul, is not subject to execution. Now Anatoly has formally
ceased to obey Istanbul.
The British imperialists were trying to assign to the task of suppressing the
Sultan Anatolian movement. But the reactionary uprising, provoked in Anatolia
Sultan's agents failed. Sent by the Sultan against the Kemalists' Khilafat army

15
"too crumbled under the blows of the partisans. Then the Entente Powers on the
initiative and under the leadership of England began to direct military
intervention. Implementation of the intervention took over Greece, where
significant territorial increment by Turkey were promised. In June 1920, the
Greek army, equipped and armed by the British, led the attack from the area of
Izmir, in the interior of Anatolia. Another Greek army entered and occupied
Thrace Edirne. Considering that the Kemalist resistance will be quickly broken,
the Entente Powers forced the sultan's government to sign the Treaty of Sevres,
in which Turkey was deprived of most of their lands, and leaves her a small area
was fixed semi-colonial regime in Central Anatolia.
But the Turkish people has rejected the conditions of the Treaty of Sevres.
English-Greek invaders met strong resistance in Anatolia.
Of great importance for the new Turkey has been establishing close friendship
with Soviet Russia. The Ankara government is well aware that only by fighting
the Soviet Russia, Turkey can obtain disinterested support. Already April 26,
1920, three days after the opening of the Grand National Assembly, Mustafa
Kemal was sent to Moscow in the name of VI Lenin's letter with a proposal to
establish diplomatic relations with the request to the revolutionary
Turkey in its struggle against imperialism. The Soviet government, seeking to
help the Turkish people in their just struggle, gave a positive response to the
proposals of the Ankara government. Soon we arrived in Moscow, the Turkish
delegation for the negotiation of the contract.
On the way to strengthen the Soviet-Turkish friendship has repeatedly had
serious difficulties. The imperialist powers have tried every possible way to
prevent the rapprochement between Turkey and Soviet Russia. Among the
Anatolian political and military leaders have been hidden and even explicit
enemies of Kemal, the supporters of compromise with the imperialists. They
wanted to divert the Turkish national movement from the struggle against the
imperialist intervention and send it to the chauvinist direction, against the
peoples of the Caucasus. For its part, Britain and other imperialist powers had
hoped that the complications in the Caucasus will make stop Kemalist liberation
war and conflict with Soviet Russia. To this end, the imperialists in the autumn
of 1920, provoked the Dashnak Armenia on an armed uprising against the
Turks, and then left her to fend for themselves. Treacherous in relation to their
own peoples policy Armenian Dashnaks and Georgian Mensheviks helped to
implement the ideas of the Western imperialists and Turkish chauvinists.
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Especially tense situation in the Soviet-Turkish relations has been created in late
1920 and early 1921, when Turkish troops under the command of General
Kazim Karabekir, defeating Dashnak part, invaded Armenia and seized a
number of its regions, and then, with the connivance and assistance of the
Georgian Mensheviks took some regions of Georgia.
The consistent peace policy of the Soviet government, the victory of Soviet
power in Armenia and Georgia destroyed the provocative plans of the
imperialists. In turn, the leading core of Kema-lists headed by Kemal, is fully
aware of the need for closer relations with Soviet Russia. March 16, 1921 in
Moscow, an agreement was signed between the RSFSR and Turkey on
friendship and brotherhood; On 13 October the same year, Turkey has signed a
similar agreement with the Transcaucasian Soviet republics - Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia - and January 2, 1922, during his stay in Ankara emergency
mission headed by MV Frunze - with the Ukrainian SSR.
Even before the signing of the Moscow Treaty, the Soviet government began to
provide assistance to the Turkish people. In the future, this assistance has
increased and expanded, although the Soviet Union itself experienced
tremendous hardships. The Soviet government has donated to the Turkish
people over 10 mln. Rub. gold, a significant amount of weapons, ammunition,
and so on. d.
Selfless Soviet support has allowed Turkey to gather strength, to organize a
regular army and suspend offensive Anglo-Greek invaders. The situation in
Turkey eased further imperialist contradictions in the camp of the Entente,
especially between England and France. An important role was played by the
sympathy shown to other nations fighting Turkey East. All this means that the
Turks were able in 1921 to break the invaders at the Battle of Inonu on p.
Sakarya, and a year later, in September 1922, the final defeat them, free of
Izmir, the whole of Anatolia and reset the Greek army in the sea.
Переводчик Google для бизнеса –Инструменты переводчикаПереводчик
сайтовСлужба "Анализ рынков" the failure of the Anglo-Greek intervention
meant the collapse of the imperialist policy of the Turkish issue. October 11,

17
1922 in the port of Mudanya on the Sea of Marmara Entente Powers signed an
armistice with Turkey Act and 24 July 1923 in Lausanne - the final peace treaty.
For Turkey persisted Eastern Thrace, Izmir and other Turkish areas which were
subject to rejection by the Treaty of Sevres. Allied occupation forces withdrew
from Istanbul and the Straits area. Was abolished the capitulations, was not
"spheres of influence" of the international financial control, the political
privileges of foreign concessionaires. Turkey has achieved international
recognition of its independence.
The victory over foreign invaders were at the same time winning the Turkish
national bourgeois revolution over the old, feudal-clerical regime. November 1,
1922 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey has destroyed the sultanate, ie the
temporal power of the Ottoman monarch, October 29, 1923 was proclaimed a
republic, and six months later, March 3, 1924, eliminated the last attribute of the
old order -.. Caliphate. On the ruins of the Ottoman Empire to create a new,
bourgeois-national Turkish state.
Kemalist revolution did not allow all the bourgeois-democratic tasks facing
Turkey. In fact, it came to the conquest of national sovereignty, the fight against
the sultan regime, the elimination of the reactionary remnants in the state
system, partly in the area of culture, law, life and aspirations of the Kemalists
and the people's interests coincided. But Kemalist government defended the
interests of the national bourgeoisie, not the whole nation.
The peasantry, which bore the brunt of the war of liberation, they did not receive
the expected relief. Mustafa Kemal said that "the plow - here's a pen that writes
the history of Turkey", and that the Turkish peasant - not just a farmer, and the
"gentleman farmer". However, this "gentleman farmer", returning home after a
victory over the external enemy, fell under the same brutal oppression of the
landlord, moneylender, gendarme. Even the old feudal tax Ashar (tithe) and
paying off the system survived until 1925
Turkish proletariat was in a difficult situation. As before, there was no labor
laws, no regulated working hours, wages, employment of women and children,
there were no trade unions.
The labor movement was persecuted.
.

18
Kemalist government even during the imperialist war, to prevent the spread of
Marxism-Leninism in Turkey pursued emerged in 1920, the Communist Party,
peasant organizations. After the war, the class nature of the Kemalist manifested
more clearly. In the autumn of 1922, immediately after the victory over the
Greeks, the government banned convened with his own resolution in Ankara
Congress of the Communist Party. Many communists were arrested, and soon
the Communist Party had to finally go into hiding.
Nevertheless Kemalism as a trend, which had the aim of strengthening the
independence of Turkey, has maintained its progressive significance. Kemalists
carried the bourgeois-national reforms in the field of state restructuring,
administrative regulations, the judicial system, education, culture, tried to raise
the level of the national economy, supplanted compradors and foreign capitalists
to deal with them before commanding position. National character wore in this
period, and the foreign policy of the Kemalists. Aware that between Turkey and
the independent imperialist powers there is an irreconcilable contradiction,
Kemalists opposed the attempts of the imperialists to enslave Turkey again,
maintained friendly relations with the Soviet Union. This course is carried out
consistently, but for a number of years, still served as an obstacle to the
implementation of the aggressive plans of the imperialist powers and to
contribute to peace in the Middle East.
World War II brought untold hardships to the Iranian people. Iran has officially
declared neutrality, but the warring coalition did not reckon with this act. From
the first days of the war the Iranian territory became a theater of military
operations of the Turkish-German and Anglo-Russian troops. Many towns and
villages were destroyed.
Population suffered from requisitions, requisitions. Agriculture and animal
husbandry have declined catastrophically reduced trade. By the end of war,
famine struck, accompanied by epidemics of typhus, smallpox and the "Spanish
flu". On the roads of the crowd wandering homeless and hungry people.
Iran lost independence residues. The foreign imperialists, relying on its armed
forces, do not hesitate sway in the occupied areas of them. The central
government in Tehran has lost all credibility. Ahmed Shah, the Qajar dynasty,
numerous princes, court dignitaries and favorites, ministers, governors enriched
themselves at the expense of the public treasury. Hannah, prevailed over whole
provinces, and other large and small feudal lords ruthlessly exploited the
enslaved peasants. To ruin and starvation of the masses grew rich as
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moneylenders, the comprador bourgeoisie, commissioners of foreign firms. The
ruling circles did not show any patriotic feelings, they were satisfied that part of
the political power that allowed them to foreign imperialists.
Broad layers of the population - workers, peasants, urban petty bourgeoisie, the
national bourgeoisie, the intelligentsia - burdened by the imperialist and feudal
oppression. Large and had a direct impact on Iran Great October Socialist
Revolution. Statement of the Soviet Government on the withdrawal of Russian
troops from Iranian territory and on the recognition of full independence of Iran
filed in the Iranian people are deeply sympathetic to Soviet Russia and revived
hope for the liberation of the country from the imperialist yoke. On this ground
in Iran immediately after the war began to develop the national liberation
movement. Its characteristic features are, however, the weakness of the
democratic forces and the inconsistency of the national bourgeoisie, which tried
in some places lead the national liberation struggle, but at the same time, fear of
the activity of the masses. The national liberation movement of the Iranian
people has met strong opposition from the British imperialism. With the
departure of Russian troops started the occupation of England in all of Iran. The
British helped some Russian officers, who did not want to return to Russia and
the rest of Iran; hatred of the Soviet regime turned them into the Whites and the
imperialist mercenaries.
Plans for the British imperialists against Iran were quite extensive. Iran would
become a springboard Soviet intervention (hence went interventionist troops led
by General Denstervilem in Baku and led by Malleson General in Central Asia),
and at the same time part of the "Middle East empire" - a continuous chain of
British colonies and semi-colonies, from India to the Bosphorus .
In 1918 the British imperialists forced the Shah's government in Petrograd began
to interrupt the negotiations on the establishment of Soviet Russia and Iran
friendly, equitable relations. The Soviet government sent a diplomatic mission in
Tehran, headed by IO Kolomiytseva, but the members of the mission were
arrested and sent to the British authorities in India through Baghdad.
Kolomiytseva himself managed to avoid arrest and in a roundabout way to get to
Soviet Russia. In the summer of 1919 he again went to Iran to present
themselves with a note to the Soviet Government, sets out the basis of Soviet
policy toward Iran: cancellation of the Anglo-Russian agreement in 1907 on the
Iranian section of "spheres of influence", the rejection of Capitulations
privileges, exemption from Iran tsarist government debt and by enslaving

20
concessions obtained Russian citizens, etc. This Kolomiytseva trip ended
tragically.. immediately on his arrival at the White Guards of Iran, using the
auspices of the British and the Iranian authorities and their military aid, seized
him and shot.
Occupied Iran, England decided to issue its relationship. August 9, 1919 Anglo-
Iranian agreement, essentially means the establishment of the British
protectorate was signed. The Ministry and the Iranian authorities appointed by
the British advisers. The British military mission received unlimited powers to
create the Iranian Army with the British command staff. England was granted
the exclusive right to the Building There were fluctuations in ruling circles. In
November 1919, Ahmed Shah went to London to seek protection from the
British from their own people. In his absence, appeared on the streets of Tehran
to protest against the proclamation of the Anglo-Iranian treaty and persistent
'advice' Shah did not return home. The government, fearing the British, did not
give up the contract, but not solved, and the Majlis convened to present an
agreement for ratification.
The indignation of the Iranian people the British occupation led to the
emergence of several hotbeds of anti-imperialist uprisings. They merged into a
general armed uprising across the country. But even these local rebellion a
serious blow to British rule and the Qajar monarchy.
In April 1920, a major national-democratic revolt broke out in the main town of
Iranian Azerbaijan - Tabriz. Its driving forces were the artisans, small traders,
workers and intellectuals. Supervised uprising election committee headed by
Sheikh Mammedov (Mohammed) Khiabani. The rebels demanded independence
for the whole of Iran and autonomy for Azerbaijan province. At first the uprising
was a success. Having expelled the shah's officials, the rebels established a
virtually independent government. But it lasted only a few months. Khiabani
failed, and did not try to raise the peasantry to the anti-feudal struggle, unable to
communicate with the revolutionaries the neighboring province of Gilan.
Timidity leaders, their indecision in the struggle against reactionaries and direct
betrayal on the part of some members of the Committee allowed the shah's
government in the autumn of 1920, to crush the rebellion. Khiabani and many of
his supporters were murdered.
Serious anti-imperialist speech occurred in the same year in Khorasan province
(the main city - Mashhad). It was also suppressed the Shah's troops.

21
The most significant in its scope and consequences of the national liberation
movement began in Gilan province. It was attended by teams Jangalis (forest
partisans; forest in Persian - Jangal) headed by the bourgeois nationalist Tunb
Kh The main force Jangalis were peasants, workers, artisans. In Gilan
movement also involved workers and the petty bourgeoisie, Rasht, Anzali Gilan
and other cities.
Direct push performance gave the victory of Soviet power in Baku and the flight
of the White Guard and British troops from Anzali in connection with the arrival
there of the Soviet Caspian Flotilla. June 5, 1920 in the regatta formed an
independent government Gilan province. Under the influence of the October
Revolution and sympathy for Soviet Russia Gilan-cal revolutionaries gave their
governments the Soviet form. Ki-liang was declared a Soviet republic.
provincial administration led by the Council of People's Commissars. His
militias Gilaki people named by the Red Army, putting it at the head of the
Revolutionary Military Council.
The similarities with the Soviet state system was merely external. Gilan Soviets
were organs of the proletarian dictatorship. In essence, the national liberation
movement in Gilan was of a bourgeois-democratic character.
In the midst of the revolutionary upsurge was formed Communist Party of Iran.
The main role in its creation played by members of the working party "Adalat"
( "Justice"), which arose in 1916, held June 22, 1920
The Iranian Anzali I Congress of the Communist Party approved the program
and the charter party and called for the formation of a united democratic front
against British imperialism and the Shah's regime.
The first important statement of the Iranian Communist Party was involved in
Gilan revolution. The leadership of this revolution carried revolutionary
democratic bloc, headed by Tunb Khan and the Communists. It was also
supported by some merchants and landlords. The block was unstable. Kuchek
Khan and his movement hindered the development toward democracy and
Iranian communists, especially in the beginning of his career, did not have the
necessary experience and often allow left-sectarian errors. Between Tunb Khan
and the Communists had conflicts, which were used by internal and external
enemies of the national liberation movement, including secret agents of the
imperialists. Gilan undertaken by the Red Army military operations have failed

22
against the Shah's troops. Gilaki people's attempts to win over the neighboring
provinces also had no success.
Despite these negative aspects, Gilan national liberation movement has had a
serious impact on the entire course of the historical development of Iran. Events
in Gilan pushed Iranian national bourgeoisie in search of new ways for the way
out of the crisis. The small and weak, she could not bring herself to join the open
revolutionary anti-imperialist struggle, but at the same time more and more
convinced of the need for the expulsion of the British imperialists and the
overthrow of the Qajar regime.
The ruling circles of Iran tried to maneuver. Under pressure not only from the
masses, but also by merchants interested in the restoration of trade with Soviet
Russia, the Shah's government in the autumn of 1920 sent its ambassador to
Moscow for talks on the conclusion of the Soviet-Iranian treaty, and in the
beginning of 1921 gave consent to the arrival of the Soviet plenipotentiary
representative in Tehran. The talks in Moscow were successful, and soon the
Soviet-Iranian treaty was ready for signing. At this point, the British
imperialists, seeing the fragility of the Shah's regime and the inevitability of its
overthrow, decided by means of apical coup prevent simmering revolutionary
explosion. To this end, they supported the bourgeois-landlord opposition, is
preparing action against the government. One of its leaders, is closely associated
with the British journalist and diplomat, Seyyed Zia al-Din, recently lavished
praise Anglo-Iranian agreement, it is now acted as a champion of the
independence of Iran. Having organized a secret conspiratorial Committee, he
drew on its side of the Iranian Cossack Division Lieutenant Colonel Reza Khan
and produced with the help of 21 February (the Iranian calendar - Hoot 3) 1921
coup. The old government was overthrown. Seyyed Zia al-Din became prime
minister, and Reza Khan - the commander of the Cossack Division and then as
Minister of War. The British imperialists had hoped that Seyid Zia ed-Din
suppress the national liberation movement, will break the agreement with Soviet
Russia and will enforce the Anglo-Iranian treaty of 1919 the first of these
objectives coincide with the plans of the bourgeois-landlord opposition Qajar
regime, and the new government, indeed, led the fight against the revolutionary
actions, especially in Gilan. However, it was impossible to completely keep the
same position. "Flip 3 Huta", although he was inspired by the British agents, it
reflects the dramatic changes in the balance of class forces in the country. In
place of the feudal aristocracy came to power of the bourgeois-landlord bloc,
where the national bourgeoisie has considerable influence.
23
Seyyed Zia al-Din could not break an agreement with Soviet Russia, and
February 26, 1921, the treaty was signed. It contained extremely favorable
conditions for Iran. In addition to recognizing the independence of Iran's refusal
to surrender and unequal treaties, the Soviet government freed Iran from
repayment of loans granted by the tsarist government and the Iranian people
gratuitously convey great wealth.
It was especially great political significance of the Soviet-Iranian treaty. For the
first time Iran has entered a truly equal relationship with a great power.
Henceforth, England could no longer expect to maintain their domination over
Iran in the previous form. It was of great importance, and Article 6 of the Treaty
provides for the right of Soviet Russia temporarily to invade Iran if its territory
to be used for hostile activities of Soviet Russia, and if he is not able on their
own to protect their independence.
Seyid Zia ed-Din did not spend long in power. In May 1921 he had to flee from
Tehran o Baghdad under the protection of their British patrons. In fact, since
that time, power passed into the hands of Reza Khan, although formally it is up
to the fall of 1923 he held the post of minister of war only.
The bourgeois-landlord bloc, headed by Reza Khan, spent some progressive
measures.

24