HIS101 HISTORY

OF TURKISH
REVOLUTION
AND
ATATURK’S
PRINCIPLES I

WEEK 8: START OF INVASIONS

AND NATIONAL REACTIONS
Secret Agreements About Partition of the Ottoman Lands
the Allied Powers had shared almost all of the Ottoman territory while the First World War was still ongoing!

• Ottoman Empire's entry into the war on the side of the alliance states aroused the issue of sharing. In order to avoid future conflicts on
sharing the Ottoman lands, the Allied Powers agreed secretly within the framework of closed diplomacy. The secret agreements were
officially surfaced by the new Bolshevik regime in Russia on 24 November 1917.
• The Treaty of London in on April 26, 1915 agreement between England, France, Italy and Russia stands important. At the first step,
Russia opposed to the possibility of settling down of the British and French navies in Dardanelles and Istanbul. Russians considered the
Straits as the keys to their homeland. Secondly, Russia did not favor the idea of placing the Greeks in control of Bosporus. At the end,
Russia demanded a written agreement confirming Istanbul and Bosporus under the Russian sovereignty. In the end, England and France,
albeit reluctantly, bowed to Russia's demands. In return, Russia acknowledged the interests and shares of these two allies in Asia.
• By the Treaty of London, Antalya and its surroundings were left to Italy. In addition, Italian sovereignty in Tripoli was made certain.
• The Sykes-Picot Agreement signed by England and France on January 3, 1916 is another important agreement. Russia
stated that it would approve this agreement on the condition that its demands in Northern Anatolia were accepted. As a
result, the agreement, which took its final form between 10-23 October 1916, was accepted by the parties. Accordingly,
Adana, Antakya region, Syrian coasts, Lebanon were given to France. Iraq, except Mosul, was left to England. In addition
to Russia's share in the Bosporus region, the Eastern Black Sea coast up to Trabzon and Erzurum, Van and Bitlis were left
to Russia.
• The Treaty of Saint-Jean de Maurenne, dated April 1917, was signed upon the requests of Italy. The agreement was
signed by Italy, England and France. With this agreement, Antalya, Konya, Aydin and Izmir were accepted as Italy's share.
Although the validity of the agreement was conditioned on Russia's approval, the regime change in Russia prevented this
condition from being fulfilled. This situation later constituted the reason why England and France did not consider this
agreement valid.

Since the Wilson Principles were based on open peace treaties
and open diplomacy, American side questioned the validity of
such treaties. But colonial states remembered these principles as
it suited their convenience. Russia's withdrawal from the war and
the disclosure of these secret agreements and other developments
after the war led to some changes in the agreements.
Wilson's Principles
The fact that the First World War was longer, more costly and
more destructive than expected had worn out both sides. In order
to ensure peace between the parties, American president
Woodrow Wilson, who joined the war in late 1917, determined
some principles, claiming to take into account the general
interests of the parties.
The principles, known as the Wilson Principles, are explained in
14 articles.
Wilson's Principles
1. Openness will prevail in peace agreements and diplomacy
2. Countries will have full freedom in the seas outside their territorial waters.
3. Economic obstacles will be removed as much as possible
4. Adequate guarantees will be introduced to ensure the disarmament of countries
5. Problems in the colonies will be resolved with complete impartiality, taking into
account the interests of the people and the colonial states equally.
6. All occupation forces from Russian territory will be withdrawn, and Russia's national
development will be enabled.
7. Belgium will be given back its full independence
8. All occupied French territories will be evacuated
9. Italy's borders will be arranged on the basis of nationality
10. Development opportunities will be provided for the people of Austria-Hungary
under self-government
11. The territory of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro will be evacuated and the
opportunity to go to sea will be given.
12. Sovereignty will be ensured in the Turkish parts of the Ottoman Empire, non-
Turkish nations will be given the opportunity for autonomous development, the
Dardanelles will be constantly open to international traffic and the provinces will
be kept under control.
13. Poland's independence will be achieved
14. A League of Nations will be established to mutually guarantee the sovereignty
and territorial integrity of all states.
 • After the end of the First World, the Allied Powers held a meeting in Paris on
January 18, 1919, to discuss the international affairs. From among the victorious
states, England, France, America, Italy and Japan participated. The aim of United
States President Wilson was to establish the League of Nations, which would
ensure permanent peace in international relations. However, England and France
were more concerned with their own interests. There were two issues on the
conference agenda. These are the situation of Europe, the drawing of borders and

Paris Peace
the sharing of the heritage of the Ottoman Empire. Greeks, Arabs and Armenians
also attended the conference and were among those who shared the Ottoman
Empire.

Conference • The lands to be given to the Greeks became a big problem. England and France
had previously promised Izmir and Western Anatolia for Greeks. However, they
had to give the same lands to Italy with secret agreements.
• The Western Mediterranean Region was left to the Italians. At the end, it was
decided that Greece would occupy Izmir. Also, the establishment of the League of
Nations was accepted at the conference. The mandate system was adopted and the
Ottoman lands were divided into sections to be managed accordingly.
 The Armistice of Mudros
• The Armistice Treaty was in the form of a document stipulating the unconditional surrender of the Ottoman Empire.
• According to the Armistice of Mudros, the Allied Powers would occupy the Dardanelles and Istanbul. The Ottoman army
would be disarmed; and weapons, ammunition and other equipment would be delivered. The entire navy, except for small ships,
would be under the supervision of foreign forces. On the Eastern Front, the Ottoman Forces in Iran and the Caucasus would
withdraw to the pre-war borders, and the Ottoman forces outside the ceasefire border in the south would surrender to the Allied
forces. The entire transportation and communication network would be put under the control of the enemy.
• The most serious article of the ceasefire was Article 7, which allowed the enemy to occupy any part of the country they
wished. Accordingly, the Allied Powers could occupy any strategic point if it was in a situation that would threaten their
security. According to the 24th article, if unrest broke out in 6 provinces, the Allied Powers would occupy any part of
these provinces. This article is an indication that the Allied Powers desired an Armenian State in the Anatolia Region. As
a matter of fact, in the English text of the ceasefire, these 6 provinces were mentioned as 6 Armenian provinces.
• The Armistice of Mudros caused different reactions in the first days of its signing. Non-Muslims, who have lived with the Turks
on Anatolian lands for centuries and had always been tolerant, tried to become the dominant element in the country. The
Ottoman Government, which came to power after the departure of the Unionists in power, was in complete despair in the face
of what was happening. The Armistice Agreement was initially perceived as a positive development for the Turkish nation,
which had been at war for a long time. It was hoped that the peace agreements to be signed at the end of the war would be in
accordance with Wilson's principles. Wilson's principles also granted Turks the right to live freely on their own land in
accordance with their own national administration.
After the Armistice
• Foresighted patriotic intellectuals thought that the future of the state was left to the
mercy of the Allies and that independence was in danger. Mustafa Kemal Pasha,
who was appointed as the Commander of the Yıldırım Army Group, tried to warn
the government by sending telegrams one after the other. Because he thought that
the unclear terms of the ceasefire would be applied against Turkish nation in
return for the government's policy of relying on the good will of the victors.
He stated that if the army is discharged and the British obey everything, they say
without taking measures to resolve the disagreements in the terms of the ceasefire,
the Allies cannot be prevented. Mustafa Kemal Pasha was of the opinion that the
Ottoman Empire agreed to surrender unconditionally with a ceasefire. This attitude
of Mustafa Kemal became the herald of the National Forces and the spirit of
national struggle. On the other hand, the government in Istanbul abolished the
Yıldırım Army Group and the 7th Army headquarters upon the bitter criticism and
warnings of Mustafa Kemal Pasha and placed them under the command of the
Ministry of War.
 Occupation Of Anatolia
• Immediately after the armistice was signed, the Allied Powers put into practice the agreements they had made before. The British demanded
the surrender of Mosul and then Iskenderun within 36 hours of the signing of the armistice. The economic value of oil made the Mosul region
very attractive for occupation. British Forces started to advance on November 3 and entered Mosul on November 8, 1918. Later, they occupied
Iskenderun, Urfa, Maraş and Antep. The French forces occupied Dörtyol, Mersin and Adana .

• The British wanted Kars, Ardahan and Batumi to be

evacuated in the east. However, there were 30,000
minorities in the region compared to 300,000 Turks.
On December 24, the British Division was landed in
Batumi, and Kars was occupied. In the Straits, the
British government arrived on November 6 and started
the surrender process.
• On November 3, 1918, the allied navy anchored in
front of Dolmabahçe (İstanbul) with 122 British, 12
French, 17 Italian and 4 Greek warships. On
November 15, the number of ships reached 167. A
force of 3,500 men from various combatant classes,
mostly British troops, was settled in various parts of
the city.
 Occupation Of Anatolia
• The Ottoman navy was under control in Izmit. Britain controlled Eastern Mediterranean coasts; and French forces landed at the Western Black Sea coast and the
ports of Mersin and Iskenderun; The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts were taken under control by the Italians.
• The British sent soldiers to Izmit, Eskişehir, Afyon, Samsun and Merzifon.
• Italians occupied Antalya, Konya, Burdur, Muğla, Bodrum, Fethiye and Marmaris. There were officers of the Allied Powers responsible for monitoring the ceasefire
in every corner of the country. There were also British engineers conducting mineral exploration.

• The Allied Powers did not remain in these unfair practices and sent
the Greeks, who wanted to re-establish the Byzantine Empire in line
with the megali idea, to Izmir on May 15, 1919, to capture Western
Anatolia and Istanbul.
• Turkish people reacted harshly to the Greek occupation. Osman
Nevres Bey (Hasan Tahsin), editor-in-chief of Hukuk-ı Beşer
newspaper, shot the Greek flagman with his gun. Similar
interventions continued in many places.
• In the face of resistance, Greek Forces started massacres of soldiers,
civilians, women and children in Izmir. The number of Turks
martyred in the first days of the occupation exceeded 2000.
• After Izmir, the Greek army advanced into Anatolia and continued to
shed blood and committed complete brutality. Meanwhile, the Allied
Powers were deceiving the Christian and Muslim minorities with
various promises and encouraging them to take actions aimed at
disrupting the unity and integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
 Reactions After the Occupations

• The Ottoman Empire was in a very bad financial and economic situation.
Despite extraordinarily negative conditions, the Turkish nation did not lose
its determination to fight. They began to establish societies and organize
rapidly in order to fend for themselves in the face of the unfair practices
of the enemy and the silence and helplessness of those in power.
• This awakening, which Atatürk described as national awakening, was
undoubtedly an expression of the Turkish nation's determination to live
independently.
• On the other hand, the occupation and provocations paved the way for non-
Muslim minorities to intensify the separatist activities of the societies they
had previously established secretly and to establish new societies for the
same purpose.
• Among the societies that were against the War of Independence, there were
also societies and parties founded by some Turks and Muslims. They were
established in Istanbul, which was under enemy occupation, and partly
operated in Anatolia. Almost all of them had the support of the British,
openly or secretly.
• Relying on the support of a foreign and powerful state and adhering to the
sultanate and caliphate were among their common characteristics.
 Reactions After the Occupations

• The Ottoman Greeks and Armenians welcomed the occupations and demonstrated their demands of separations from the
Ottoman Empire.
• However, patriots who are against the occupation began to lay the foundations of the resistance against the occupations as
soon as the armistice was signed.
• Resistance movements arose at local bases against the territorial demands of the Greek and Armenians as well as the
occupations of Allied Powers. The Societies for the Defense of Rights flourished in several parts of Anatolia in order to
defend the rights of the Turkish population.
• Both these societies and the Greeks and Armenians referred to the principle of self-determination in their territorial claims.
Similar to the Greek and Armenians claims, the local resistance organizations attempted to justify their causes by referring
frequently to the principle of self-determinations which had been promoted by the President of the United States Woodrow
Wilson in January 1918. In accordance with this principle, each ethnic group claimed its demographic superiority for the
contested regions.
• The local resistance organizations claimed the region they defended to be overwhelmingly Muslim/Turkish populated and a part
of motherland. In most cases, they used populations statistics, historical documents, and some other publications to justify their
claims.