DHH3723 POLITICS & IR OF THE

MIDDLE EAST
TOPIC 3: HISTORICAL DYNAMICS AND
IMPACT ON THE POLITICS IN THE ME
DR NOR AISHAH HANIFA
DEPARTMENT OF IR, LAW AND SECURITY
FACULTY OF DEFENCE STUDIES AND
MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITI PERTAHANAN NASIONAL MALAYSIA
 MIDDLE EAST BEFORE THE WORLD WAR I
• Before the WWI – the ME largely controlled by the Ottoman Empire –
domination for a half millennium.
• Ottomans was still ruling Iraq, Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and
parts of Saudi Arabia in 1914, but the empire was in decline.
• Other imperial powers were moving in in the region. France annexed Algeria
from the Ottomans in 1830 and Tunisia in 1878. France extended its influence
over Lebanon and Syria. Italy gained Libya in 1912.
• Britain made great foothold in the ME because geographical location of the ME
and the importance of access to the Suez Canal to mobilize the Indian army.
• Britain gained control of Arab territories around the Persian Gulf, parts of
modern day Yemen and Egypt annexed from the Ottomans in 1882. In 1914,
Cairo become the centre of British power in the ME.
• WW I – put the death knell to the Ottoman Empire.
 THE OTTOMANS IN THE WWI
• The Ottomans enters the war in the side of the Central Powers (with Germany
& Austria-Hungary & Bulgaria). The Ottoman army carried out a surprise attack
on Russia’s Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. Russia responded by
declaration of war in 5th November 1914.
• Why Ottomans entered the WWI – 3 broad war aims; 1) to ensure long term
security and survival, 2) to establish fully independent and sovereign power, 3)
to extent its territories and influence into Balkans, the Caucasus, Iran and
North Africa.
• The Ottoman army fought 4 major battles – manage to win in one campaign.
Ottoman army was defeated in 1918 by invading British and Russian forces
and Arab revolt had combined to destroy the Ottoman economy and
devastated the land, killing of millions.
• The Ottoman army led by different leaders; Enver Pasha, Fakhri Pasha, and
Mustafa Kamal Ataturk.
 CONTINUE…
• Most significant battles – the Ottoman forces involved in the WWI; the
Caucasus Campaign, the Gallipoli Campaign, Sinai and Palestinian
Campaign.
• The Gallipoli campaign – victorious campaign for the Ottomans in the
WW1.
• The Sinai Campaign – Senussi campaign, Battle of Romani, Battle of
Rafa, 3 battles of Gaza, Battle of Beersheba, Battle of Jerusalem, Battle of
Megiddo.
• Sinai and Palestinian campaign ended in October 1918 when the
Ottomans surrendered.
• Ottoman Empire suffered 975,000 casualties and 325,000 deaths in the
WW I.
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE SIGNS TREATY WITH THE
ALLIES
• In October 1918 – Ottoman government and several Turkish
leaders contacted the Allies to rule out peace. British PM, David
Lloyd George and his cabinet authorized Admiral Arthur
Calthorpe, Britain’s naval commander in the Aegean Sea, to
negotiate an immediate armistice with Turkey without consulting
France.
• The British team met with the Ottoman team under Rauf Bey on
30 October 1918 in Agamemnon – The Treaty of Mudros was
signed.
• Treaty of Mudros – end of the hostilities, Turkey had to open the
Bosporus and the Dardanelle Straits to the Allied warships and
open it forts for military occupation.
 THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE
• In the 15th century – Armenia absorbed into the Ottoman Empire. Armenians are
Christians. Armenians treated with injustice by the Ottoman rulers. Armenians better
educated and wealthier than Turkish. Ottomans suspicious of Armenians loyalty.
• In the 19th century – under Sultan Abdul Hamid II – the first Armenian massacre
took place in 1894 – killing thousands of Armenians.
• In 1914 – Turks entered the WWI – military leaders accused Armenians as traitors.
Armenians organized volunteer battalions to support Russian army against Turks.
• Armenian genocide began – April 1915 – killing of several hundreds of Armenian
intellectuals, death marches in the Mesopotamia desert. Young Turks organized
butcher battalions (killing squads) – drawn people in river, burned them alive,
crucified them, children kidnapped, women raped and kept as slaves, Armenians
property seized. 2 millions of Armenians, reduced number to 388,000 in 1922 when
the genocide ended. Cause of enmity between Turkey and Armenia until today.
 HUSSEIN-MCMAHON CORRESPONDENCE
1915-1916
• British High Commissioner Henry McMahon wrote 10
letters to Sheriff Hussein bin Ali of Mecca – to get
Arabs’ support for British in the WW I.
• British promises to support Arabs struggle for
independence in most of the lands ruled by the Ottomans
including Palestine.
• British made vague agreement to recognize independent
Arab state covering the Arab Peninsula, the province of
Greater Syria, and the provinces of Iraq if Hussein
supported Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
 THE ME AFTER THE WW I
• The partitioning of the ME – led to domination of the ME by
western powers such as Britain and France, and saw creation of
the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey.
• On May 1916 – Britain and France secretly reach as accords
known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement – most Arab lands under
the rule of the Ottoman Empire to be divided into British and
French spheres of influence with conclusion of the WW I.
• Prior to the end of war – Mark Sykes and Francois Picot – carved
out the ME into zones of control. Little strip called as the Allied
Condominium – later become Israel and Palestine.
 THE BALFOUR DECLARATION
•Baron Rothschild, prominent Zionist
leaders lobbied Lord Balfour to establish a
Jewish state in Palestine. On 2 November
nd

1917, Lord Balfour sent the following

letter…LETTER OF SYMPATHY?!
 TREATIES AFTER THE WWI
• On 10 August 1920 – Treaty of Sevres signed with the Ottoman
Empire – covered partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and
determine the nature of post war political entities. Raising Kurdish
and Armenians hopes that some form of conditional independence
granted to them. France, Italy, Greece – given zones of influence in
southern, western and central Anatolia. Istanbul remain under
British, French and Italian occupation started in 1918.
• Superseded by Treaty of Lausanne with the Republic of Turkey on
24 June 1923 – recognized sovereignty of Turkey. Allied forces
ended occupation over Istanbul. In March 1924 – Kamal Ataturk
abolished the last caliphate, the last remain of the Ottomans.
Turkey – move toward modernization.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS CARVED UP THE ME
• The former Ottoman Empire was carved up
without no regard for the culture, ethnicity,
religious belief, or interest of the people living
in the region.
• It was done intentionally to create conflict,
instability and, giving the British and French
control over the area. The western strategy
after the WWI.
 THE SECTARIAN OCCUPATION IN THE ME
• The Middle East today is occupied by sectarian occupation – which was
inherited from the Ottoman Empire.
• Shiites – occupy the coast of Lebanon, Syria and parts of Turkey. ISIS
calling this as the Levant. This area called as the Levant after the British
mandate. Shiites also occupied the southern Iraq.
• Sunnis – occupy most of Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and southern parts
of Turkey where they mixed with Kurds. They also occupy in the northern
part of Iraq.
• Shiite & Sunni mix – in the western parts of Syria and Turkey and part of
Iran.
• Kurds – occupy the southern parts of Turkey and the northern parts of
Iraq. They are in one of the oil rich region in the world.
 THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE WW II
• In 1941 – Syria-Lebanon Campaign – British forces invaded Syria and
Lebanon.
• Turkey remained neutral until the final stages of WWII and tried to
maintain equal balance between both axis and allies. Saudi Arabia was
neutral too. Egypt remained neutral, entered the war in 1945 against axis.
• France – divided the mandate area into Lebanon and 4 sub states.
• Britain – exhausted in the war. Lost its power as the naval power.
• France & Britain – no longer stronger powers. Emerging Arab states gain
independence.
• US and SU – became superpowers in the ME. ME became major theatre
of the Cold War conflict.
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION AFTER WW II
• Britain & France slowly lost their power grip over the ME.
Military bases remained. France regain control over north
Africa, Syria and Lebanon – with promise of
independence.
• India got independence. British still holds the ME –
controlled parts of Yemen, the Suez Canal, and the
Persian Gulf in 1950s.
• British policy was to support independence and unity
among Arab states – keeping its interests intact by
friendly agreements.
 INDEPENDENCE AFTER WW II
• Most of the countries in the ME achieved independence in 1940s
and 1950s. The early leaders are mostly royals and educated
elites. But were unable to appeal to ordinary people.
• Bernard Lewis wrote; “Western style parties and parliament
almost ended by corrupted tyrannies, maintained by repression,
indoctrination. The only European model that worked, in the
sense of accomplishing its purposes was the one party
dictatorship”.
• The division of the Arab world into separate states – was
imposed on them and undermined their political unity and
ultimately the power of a unified Arab people.
 ARAB NATIONALISM
• In 1950s and 1960s – Arab nationalism – grew under Egyptian president
Gamal Abdel Naseer – given Arabs a great sense of pride esp against Israel.
• Goals of nationalism – improving economies, raising the standard of living
through development of natural resources, land reforms, extending social
services, universal education, and emancipation of women. Islam was viewed
as backward and an obstacle to progress.
• Arab nationalism shaped by Marxism, Communism and Social thinking.
Naseer inspired coup all around Arab world in 1950s and 1960s. Other voices
of Arab nationalism were Anton Saadah (Syria) and Saddam Hussein
(Iraq).
• Defeat of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan in the Six Day War 1967 – the end of the
Arab nationalism in the ME.
• Tension between Arabs and non-Arabs continuously rise.
 THE COLD WAR IN THE ME (1947-1991)
• Arab nations got new option. To avoid the British, French and Americans
meddling – new Arab States turned toward Soviet Union for support.
• Naseer cemented close relationship with SU and gained weapon supply to fight
the Arab-Israeli war. US tried to help Israel to fight the Arab forces. However the
aid was a limited one because US need to assure confidence of the Arab states.
• The Six Day War in 1967 – strategic victory to Israel against the Arab forces.
Victory of democracy against Soviet Communist expansion. Israel was seen as a
strategic player by the US.
• Annexation of Jerusalem (Jordan), Golan Heights (Syria), the Sinai Peninsula
(Egypt) by Israeli Defence Forces in 1967 – implications to the ME.
• Oil embargo in October 1973 after the Yom Kippur War started. King Faisal of
Saudi Arabia – played important role in the oil embargo, would force the west to
be more anti-Israel position.
 ISLAMIC REVOLUTION IN IRAN 1979
• Iran was under Prime Minister Muhammad Mossadegh until 1953. He
was overthrown via a western conspiracy to control Iran’s petroleum
resources and to prevent competition of SU for Iranian oil.
• The West restored the Pahlavi Dynasty’s ruling in Iran – King Shah
Pahlavi became the king of Iran in 1953. King Shah established strong
relationship of Iran with the west. US looked at Iran as a strategic player in
the ME.
• 1979 – Islamic Revolution took place in Iran – return of Iranian cleric
Ayatollah Khomeini. Fall of King Shah. Iran became the Islamic Republic
of Iran with anti-western rhetoric. The enmity started between the US and
Iran.
• Iran is feared by the Arab states and Israel – nuclear development
programs.
 IRAN-IRAQ WAR 1980-1988
• The Iran-Iraq war – protracted armed conflict began on 22
September 1980 with a full scale invasion of Iran by Iraq.
The war lasted for 8 years and ended in stalemate in
1988 when Iran accepted the UNSC Resolution 598.
• Saddam led Iraq into war with Iran to assert Iraq’s
hegemony over its neighbours.
• US supported the Saddam regime in the war against Iran
– several billion dollars worth of economic aid, the sale of
dual use technology, military intelligence, and special
operation training.
 THE GULF WARS
• First Gulf War – 1991 – erupted when Saddam Hussein invaded
Kuwait. UN imposed embargo against Iraq, and US led coalition
air and ground war on January 1991. Ended with Iraqi defeat and
retreat from Kuwait on February 1991.
• Iraq invaded Kuwait – in a bid to gain more control over oil supply
of Kuwait and the strategic coastal line.
• Second Gulf War – 2003 – erupted when the US coalition forces
launched unilateral attack over Iraq. US based on its rationale
that Iraq developing WMD program and posed a threat to US and
its allies. Some false propaganda was spread that Saddam
supporting al-Qaeda. The war ended in 2011 but implications of
the war continue.
 THE ARAB SPRING 2011
• Series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellion that spread
across the Arab world in early 2010s. It began as a response to corruption and
economic problems. Began with the Tunisian spark when Muhammad Bouazizi
set himself on fire.
• Protests spark in Tunisia against rising cost of living and authoritarian President
Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. (Jasmine Revolution) He abdicated his position and ran to
Saudi Arabia.
• Arab Spring spread to Egypt- Tahrir Square in Cairo to protest the ruling President
Hosni Mubarak. Also spread to Morocco, Syria, Libya, and Bahrain. In Syria,
Yemen and Libya - the Arab Spring ignited the civil war. Gaddafi was ousted in
Libya.
• Bashar al-Assad able to secure his power in Syria. In Yemen – civil war/tribal
warfare. In Bahrain – King Hamad suppressed the pro-democracy protests.
 OTHER REGIONAL CONFLICTS
• Syrian Civil War
• Yemeni Civil War
• Israel-Palestine Conflict
• Israel-Hamas War
• Iran-Hezbollah axis in Lebanon
• Iran-Hamas axis in Gaza
• Iran-Houthi axis in Yemen
• Instability in Iraq and Libya
• Rise of al-Qaeda
• Rise of ISIS
• Rise of Kurdish liberation movement