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 Ingrid Lewis
Laura Canning

EUROPEAN CINEMA
IN THE TWENTY-FIRST
CENTURY

Discourses,
Directions and
Genres
 European Cinema in the Twenty-First Century

“Two decades into the twenty-first century, it is time to take a look at the recent cinema
of Europe, and bring it into the curriculum. And this is what the book does: it presents
and analyses the cinema of the new Europe, from riveting migrant documentaries set in
the Mediterranean (Francesco Rossi’s Fire at Sea) to contemplative woman’s cinema
from small peripheral countries (Athina Rachel Tsangari’s Attenberg). A true constella-
tion of riveting topics and essays written by authors who represent Europe’s true diver-
sity: East and West, North and South.”
—Dina Iordanova, Professor of Global Cinema and Creative Cultures,
University of St Andrews, Scotland

“This broad-ranging edited volume provides a much needed resource for film students
as it deftly approaches the way conventional Western filmic traditions connect with
emerging Eastern and Central European traditions. The well-structured chapters paint
a rich tapestry of an evolving European cinema and speak to new modes of national
identity. Drawing on a rich tradition of film scholarship, this book provides a timely
geographical and critical historical map for decoding European cinema.”
—Pat Brereton, Professor of Film Studies, Dublin City University, Ireland

“European Cinema in the Twenty-First Century: Discourses, Directions and Genres

uniquely places Eastern European cinema in co-equal dialogue with Western European
cinema, addressing a gap in current studies. The chapters assembled by Lewis and
Canning broach highly contemporary concerns in scholarship of Europe and its cine-
mas, including migration, ecocriticism, disability studies, biopolitics, as well as auteur-
ship and genre. This is a comprehensive and accessible collection.”
—Maria Flood, Lecturer in Film Studies, Keele University, UK

“Contemporary European cinema is extremely diverse and engages with some of the
most relevant issues of modern day life, not least the future of the continent. Responding
to intensified scholarly research activity of the past few years, European Cinema in the
Twenty-First Century sums up state of the art recent discourses while delivering new
insights. Clearly structured and directly addressing lecturers’ needs, this book is a wel-
come and helpful contribution.”
—Claus Tieber, Lecturer in Theatre, Film and Media Studies,
University of Vienna, Austria

“This is a timely volume that makes two interventions: it brings together a range of
international scholars who cover film cultures from Central and Eastern Europe, and it
offers a refreshing take on art and popular cinema that attests to the heterogeneity of
European film in the twenty-first century. Merging the close reading of recent films with
industry analysis, among other methods, the volume engages with topical debates in
European film studies as it addresses questions of gender, migration, and eco-cinema
while also furthering our understanding of transnational authorship, small-nation film-
making, peripheral cultural production, and genre cinema in a pan-European context.
This collection will therefore be a useful resource for scholars and students alike.”
—Jaap Verheul, Lecturer in Film Studies Education, King’s College London, UK
 Ingrid Lewis • Laura Canning
Editors

European Cinema
in the Twenty-First
Century
Discourses, Directions and Genres
Editors
Ingrid Lewis Laura Canning
Department of Creative Arts, Media School of Film & Television
and Music Falmouth University
Dundalk Institute of Technology Penryn, Cornwall, UK
Dundalk, Ireland

ISBN 978-3-030-33435-2    ISBN 978-3-030-33436-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33436-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Geber86, Getty Images

Cover design: eStudioCalamar

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 To Padraig, my wonderful husband, soulmate and friend.
To Cristina, the best sister I could ever wish for.
Ingrid Lewis
In memory of my beautiful boy Eric. I treasure every too-brief moment we had.
For Ruan, light and joy of my life.
Laura Canning
 Acknowledgements

This book was inspired by our students and written for them. Being a teacher
is a wonderful calling and a great responsibility at the same time. We would
thus like to thank all our students for inspiring both our research and work in
the classroom, for helping us to become, day by day, better teachers. Moreover,
we feel privileged to belong to two fantastic departments at Dundalk Institute
of Technology and Falmouth University. Our gratitude goes towards our
employers and colleagues, all marvellous people with whom we are lucky
enough to share the daily joys and challenges of our professional journeys.
Huge thanks to the fantastic staff and students of the Department of Creative
Arts, Media and Music, DkIT, especially Dr. Gerard (Bob) McKiernan and Dr.
Adèle Commins. Major thanks to all students and staff at the unique and inspir-
ing School of Film & Television (SoFT) at Falmouth University and, in par-
ticular, to Dr. Kingsley Marshall and Dr. Neil Fox.
We are very grateful to our editors at Palgrave Macmillan, Lina Aboujieb
and Emily Wood, for their continuous enthusiasm for and support towards this
edited collection. Special thanks to our contributors who patiently and promptly
engaged with our many sets of reviews and comments to their chapters.
Finally, our deepest gratitude goes towards our families.
Ingrid would like to thank her beloved mom, sister and niece: nothing of all
this would be possible without your steadfast love and support. Vă iubesc mult.
To my dad in heaven: miss you so much every day. I hope you are proud of me.
To my amazing husband and extended Irish family, I am extremely grateful for
your wholehearted love and affection. Grá agus gean ó chroí daoibh.
Laura thanks, above all, those who have shown so much love and solidarity
in the waning months of 2019. The sudden death of Eric Starr—my beloved
partner, fiancé, best friend and devoted father of our son Ruan as well as his
daughter Aoife—in the final days of editing this collection, just months before
our wedding, has been a heartbreaking and terrible blow which I could not
have survived without you. My family, friends in Ireland and Cornwall, Eric’s
family, colleagues, publishers and the incredibly supportive and compassionate
Ingrid: thank you all, from my heart.

vii
 Contents

1 Introduction: The Identity of European Cinema  1

Ingrid Lewis and Laura Canning

Part I Discourses  13

2 Documenting Difference: Migration and Identity in European

Documentaries 15
Adam Vaughan

3 Scotland’s Onscreen Identities: Otherness and Hybridity in

Scottish Cinema 33
Emily Torricelli

4 Questioning the ‘Normality Drama’: The Representation of

Disability in Contemporary European Films 51
Eleanor Andrews

5 Ecocritical Perspectives on Nordic Cinema: From Nature

Appreciation to Social Conformism 69
Pietari Kääpä

6 The Trauma of (Post)Memory: Women’s Memories in

Holocaust Cinema 87
Ingrid Lewis

7 An Ordinary Warrior and His Inevitable Defeat:

Representation in Post-Yugoslav Cinema109
Dino Murtic

ix
x Contents

Part II Directions 127

8 The New/Old Patriarchal Auteurism: Manoel de Oliveira,

the Male Gaze and Women’s Representation129
Ingrid Lewis and Irena Sever Globan

9 The Latest European New Wave: Cinematic Realism and

Everyday Aesthetics in Romanian Cinema149
Doru Pop

10 Between Transnational and Local in European Cinema:

Regional Resemblances in Hungarian and Romanian Films167
Andrea Virginás

11 Crossing Borders: Investigating the International Appeal of

European Films187
Huw D. Jones

12 Technology, Decentralisation and the Periphery of European

Filmmaking: Greece and Scandinavia in Focus207
Olga Kolokytha

13 Brooklyn and the Other Side of the Ocean: The International

and Transnational in Irish Cinema227
Maria O’Brien and Laura Canning

Part III Genres 247

14 On the Eve of the Journey: The New European Road Movie249
Laura Rascaroli

15 German Film Comedy in the ‘Berlin Republic’: Wildly

Successful and a Lot Funnier than You Think263
Jill E. Twark

16 On the Ambiguous Charm of Film Noir: Elle and the New
Type of Woman281
Begoña Gutiérrez-Martínez and Josep Pedro
 Contents  xi

17 Dystopia Redux: Science Fiction Cinema and Biopolitics299

Mariano Paz

18 Spanish Horror Film: Genre, Television and a New Model of

Production317
Vicente Rodríguez Ortega and Rubén Romero Santos

Index335
 Notes on Contributors

Eleanor Andrews is retired Senior Lecturer in Italian and Film Studies from
the University of Wolverhampton, UK. She specialised in Italian Cinema, in
particular the works of directors Bernardo Bertolucci, Federico Fellini and
Nanni Moretti, as well as Neo-Realism and the Spaghetti Western. She also
taught French cinema, including poetic realism and the Nouvelle Vague.
Her book on Moretti’s use of narrative space (Place, Setting, Perspective)
was published in 2014. She is co-editor of Spaces of the Cinematic Home:
Behind the Screen Door (2015). Her research interests include the Holocaust
as well as myth and the fairy tale.
Laura Canning is Senior Lecturer in Film and Course Leader on the BA
(Hons) Film at the School of Film & Television, Falmouth University, UK. She
holds a PhD from the School of Communications, Dublin City University
(2013) and primarily writes on Irish cinema, women filmmakers and genre.
Her most recent work includes contributions on ‘Smart’ teen film in Rethinking
Genre in Contemporary Global Cinema, eds. Silvia Dibeltulo and Ciara
Barrett (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018) and on Irish women filmmakers in
Women in Irish Film: Stories and Storytellers, ed. Susan Liddy (Cork University
Press, 2020).
Begoña Gutiérrez-Martínez holds a PhD in Theory, Analysis and
Cinematographic Documentation (Universidad Complutense de Madrid,
UCM, Spain). She collaborates with the research group Analysis of Audiovisual
Texts (ATAD, UCM), and has been a visiting scholar at the University of Texas
at Austin (Radio-Television-Film Department). Her articles about television,
cinema and culture have been published in Investigaciones Feministas, Trama
& Fondo, EU-topías, Jazz Research Journal, and in the volumes Creaciones
Audiovisuales Actuales, ¿Qué es el cine? and Entender el Artivismo. She has
taught Narrative Cinema and Film Analysis (Universidad Rey Juan Carlos), as
well as Political Communication (CES Next, Universitat de Lleida).

xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Huw D. Jones is Lecturer in Film at the University of Southampton, UK. He

previously worked at the University of York as a postdoctoral research associate
on the ‘Mediating Cultural Encounters through European Screens’
(MeCETES) project (www.mecetes.co.uk), an international project on
the transnational production, distribution and audience reception of
European film and television drama. His articles have appeared in The
Routledge Companion to World Cinema, Transnational Cinemas,
Comunicazioni Sociali, Journal of British Cinema and Television, and Cultural
Trends. He also edited the book The Media in Europe’s Small Nations (2014).
Pietari Kääpä is Associate Professor in Media and Communications in the
Centre for Cultural and Media Policy Studies at the University of Warwick. His
work on transnational cinema has appeared in many journals and books,
and they include Transnational Ecocinemas: Film Culture in an Era of
Ecological Transformation (with Tommy Gustafsson, 2013), Ecology and
Contemporary Nordic Cinemas (2014), Nordic Genre Film: Small Nation Film
Culture in the Global Marketplace (with Gustafsson) and Environmental
Management of the Media: Policy, Industry, Practice (2018). He is writing The
Politics of Nordsploitation: History, Industry, Audiences (Bloomsbury, 2020)
with Gustafsson.
Olga Kolokytha is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication,
University of Vienna, researching on cultural policy. Before joining academia,
she worked for more than a decade as a cultural projects manager and consul-
tant around Europe. In December 2016, she received the Best Publication
Award for the years 2013–2015 from the University of Music and the
Performing Arts of Vienna. In 2018, she was among the key experts
invited by the European Commission to consult on the future of the
European Agenda for Culture.
Ingrid Lewis is Lecturer in Film Studies at Dundalk Institute of Technology,
Ireland, where she teaches modules on European Cinema, Holocaust Film and
Popular Culture, Film Theory and World Cinema. She holds a PhD from the
School of Communications, Dublin City University (2015) and has taught
within the discipline of Film Studies at universities in Ireland, Croatia and Italy.
She has been granted fellowships at Royal Holloway, University of London
(UK, 2016) and Northwestern University (United States, 2015). Ingrid Lewis
is author of the book Women in European Holocaust Films: Perpetrators, Victims
and Resisters (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
Dino Murtic teaches research and critical literacy at the University of South
Australia. His book, Post-Yugoslav Cinema: Towards a Cosmopolitan Imagining
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), offered both a homage to the cinematic and
cultural history of former Yugoslavia and a critical contextual overview of the
political, aesthetic and ethical principles embedded in post-­Yugoslav film.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Maria O’Brien submitted her PhD thesis ‘A Political Economy of Tax

Expenditures for the Audiovisual Industries in Ireland: A cultural policy
research perspective on Section 481’ in the School of Communications, Dublin
City University in October 2019. Her research interests include state aid pol-
icy, cultural industries policy for film and videogames and media law
issues. She holds an MA in Screen Studies from Goldsmiths, University of
London, and an MLitt from Trinity College Dublin. She worked as a
lawyer in Dublin and London before entering academia and lectures in
Media Law in the School of Communications, DCU. She is co-founder
and co-organizer of the annual East Asia Film Festival Ireland.
Mariano Paz is Lecturer in Spanish at the School of Modern Languages and
Applied Linguistics, University of Limerick, Ireland, where he is also assistant
director of the Ralahine Centre for Utopian Studies. His doctoral thesis,
completed at the University of Manchester, was focused on the links
between dystopia and science fiction in contemporary film. His articles on
Hispanic cinemas have appeared in many books and journals.
Josep Pedro is Postdoctoral Researcher Juan de la Cierva-Formación at
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M, FJC2018-036151-I). He is a
member of the research group Audiovisual Diversity at UC3M, and he collabo-
rates with the research group Semiotics, Communication and Culture at
Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM).
He holds a PhD in Journalism (UCM), and has been a visiting scholar at the
University of Texas at Austin and at Birmingham City University. He has pub-
lished articles in journals such as Atlantic Studies, Jazz Research Journal, Signa
and EU-topías, and has written chapters in the volumes Talking Back to
Globalization, Jazz and Totalitarianism and The Cambridge Companion to the
Singer-Songwriter.
Doru Pop is Professor of Film and Media Studies at Babeș-Bolyai University
in Cluj, Romania. In the United States, he has taught courses at Bard College
and Columbus State University. He has authored several books on visual cul-
ture, media, and politics and essays on film studies. His most recent pub-
lications are The Age of Promiscuity: Narrative and Mythological Meme
Mutations in Contemporary Cinema and Popular Culture (2018) and
Romanian New Wave Cinema: An Introduction (2014).
Laura Rascaroli is Professor of Film and Screen Media at University College
Cork, Ireland. Her interests span art film, modernism and postmodernism,
geopolitics, nonfiction, first-person cinema and the essay film. She is the author
of several monographs, including How the Essay Film Thinks (2017), The
Personal Camera: Subjective Cinema and the Essay Film (2009) and Crossing
New Europe: Postmodern Travel and the European Road Movie (with Ewa
Mazierska, 2006), and editor of collections including Antonioni: Centenary
Essays (with John David Rhodes, 2011) and the forthcoming Expanding
Cinema: Theorizing Film Through Contemporary Art (with Jill Murphy). She is
general editor of Alphaville: Journal of Film and Screen Media.
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Vicente Rodríguez Ortega is Senior Lecturer at Universidad Carlos III de

Madrid (Spain) and member of the Television-Cinema: Memory, Representation
and Industry (TECMERIN) research group. He is the co-editor of
Contemporary Spanish Cinema and Genre, and his articles have appeared in
journals such as Television & New Media, NESCUS: European Journal of Media
Studies and New Media & Society. He has also written chapters in books such
as A Companion to Spanish Cinema, A Companion to Pedro Almodóvar and
Tracing the Borders of Spanish Horror Cinema and Television. His research
interests include the relationship between media representations and Spain’s
history, cinema and digital technology and film genres.
Rubén Romero Santos is a PhD researcher at Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid (Spain) and member of the TECMERIN research group. He has con-
tributed to World Film Locations: Barcelona (2013), Ficcionando en el siglo
XXI: La ficción televisiva en España (2016) and Tracing the Borders of Spanish
Horror Cinema and Television (2017). He has been working as a film and tele-
vision journalist for almost two decades. He started his career at the counter-
culture publication Ajoblanco from where he jumped to editor-in-chief of the
film magazine Cinemanía. He combines his academic work with collabora-
tions in magazines like Rolling Stone, SModa/El País or Icon/El País and televi-
sion platforms such as Canal +.
Irena Sever Globan is Lecturer at the Catholic University of Croatia, Zagreb,
where she teaches a variety of modules on media studies and film. She holds a
PhD in Communications from the Salesian University in Rome, Italy, (2011)
with a thesis on women, religion and film. Her work on the representa-
tion of women in the media has appeared in many publications, and she
has recently co-authored the monograph Marija Magdalena: Od Isusove
učenice do filmske bludnice (with Jadranka Rebeka Anić, 2018).
Emily Torricelli is an independent scholar and adjunct instructor based in the
United States. She holds a PhD in Theatre, Film and Television from the
University of York (2017). Her areas of research interest include trans/
national cinemas, identity politics and labelling, reception theory and
British screen studies. She also holds a Master of Arts in Film Studies
from the University of Iowa and a Master of Fine Arts in Screenwriting
from Boston University. She has been published in Alphaville: Journal of
Film and Screen Media and Frames Cinema Journal.
Jill E. Twark is Associate Professor of German at East Carolina University in
North Carolina, USA. Her work on twentieth- and early twenty-first-century
German literature and culture has appeared in many books and journals.
After the monograph Humor, Satire, and Identity: Eastern German Literature
in the 1990s and the edited volume Strategies of Humor in Post-Unification
German Literature, Film, and Other Media, she shifted her focus to social jus-
tice dilemmas in Envisioning Social Justice in Contemporary German Culture,
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

co-edited with Axel Hildebrandt. She is editing a book on German responses

to historical economic crises and writing on twentieth- and twenty-first-cen-
tury humour in the United States and Europe.
Adam Vaughan teaches in the School of Media, Arts and Technology at
Solent University and in the School of Arts and Humanities at the University
of Southampton in the United Kingdom. He holds a PhD from the University
of Southampton (2018). His research interests include performance and iden-
tity in documentary film and LGBTQ+ cinema. He is working on the mono-
graph from his PhD thesis titled Performative Identity in Contemporary
Biographical Documentary and has forthcoming chapters in edited collec-
tions on performative activism in the film Pride (2014) and the historical
biopics of Derek Jarman.
Andrea Virginás is Associate Professor of Film and Media Studies at Sapientia
Hungarian University of Transylvania, Cluj, Romania, with research interests
in mainstream cinema cultures and small national cinemas. She is the author of
Post/Modern Crime: From Agatha Christie to Palahniuk, from Film Noir to
Memento (2011) and editor of The Use of Cultural Studies Approaches in the
Study of Eastern European Cinema: Spaces, Bodies, Memories (2016). Her arti-
cles have appeared in Studies in Eastern European Cinema, European Journal
of English Studies, European Journal of Women’s Studies, Journal of European
Studies and in the volumes Popular Cinemas in East Central Europe: Film
Cultures and Histories (2017) and New Romanian Cinema (2019).
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Samuele’s desire to ‘see’ as symbolism for audiences

acknowledging the migrant crisis in Fire at Sea27
Fig. 2.2 Rosi’s mediated documentary gaze of the migrant ‘other’ in
Fire at Sea29
Fig. 3.1 The Chutney Queens’ performance costumes in
Nina’s Heavenly Delights46
Fig. 3.2 Written ingredients dissolve into curry in Nina’s Heavenly Delights47
Fig. 4.1 Driss handing over the mobile phone in Untouchable57
Fig. 4.2 The cramped bathroom in the Banlieue58
Fig. 5.1 Rare Exports undermines the cultural imagery of Santa Claus in its
critique of global consumerism 71
Fig. 5.2 An avalanche terrifies an international group of tourists and
fragments the façade of their superficial neoliberal safety net 81
Fig. 6.1 Rebecca Cohen’s monologue in front of a funerary urn for the
Holocaust victims of Macedonia in Darko Mitrevski’s
The Third Half (2012) 89
Fig. 6.2 The “vicarious witness” experience in female-directed films.
(Source: The author) 96
Fig. 6.3 Tomasz’s ghost from the past, dressed in a striped uniform,
invades Hannah’s present in Anna Justice’s Remembrance (2011) 99
Fig. 6.4 The encounter between Myriam and Oskar, symbolising the
dichotomy between memory and history, in Marceline
Loridan-Ivens’ The Birch-Tree Meadow (2003) 104
Fig. 8.1 The image of Isaac and Angélica which resembles the famous
paintings of Marc Chagall 138
Fig. 8.2 Henri’s discussion with the barman is artistically framed by a
mirror in Belle Toujours143
Fig. 9.1 Mr. Lăzărescu’s bedroom provides a naturalistic mise en scène
where authenticity accentuates the cinematographic realism.
(Courtesy of Mandragora) 160
Fig. 9.2 This ‘everyday life’ narrative is driven by the anti-heroic nature
of Mr. Lăzărescu and his apparent lack of traits allows a criticism
of large representation paradigms. (Courtesy of Mandragora) 162

xix
xx List of Figures

Fig. 10.1 The ‘ethical close-up’ in Son of Saul180

Fig. 10.2 The anti-racist triptych of Aferim!181
Fig. 11.1 British national symbols in Skyfall196
Fig. 11.2 Scottish cultural references in The Angels’ Share197
Fig. 12.1 Marina and Bella, Attenberg (2010). (Courtesy of Haos Films) 218
Fig. 12.2 Marina and her father, Attenberg (2010). (Courtesy of Haos Films) 220
Fig. 13.1 Racially diverse streets in Brooklyn (2015) are a backdrop to
interrogations of Irishness in (white) America 240
Fig. 13.2 Brooklyn (2015) may be set in New York, but Eilis’s sights are
more limited, as “All the skyscrapers are across the river” 241
Fig. 15.1 Winfried, posing as Toni Erdmann, handcuffed to Ines 271
Fig. 15.2 Zeki threatens to wake a Neonazi as his students look on 274
Fig. 16.1 An unknown masked male rapes Elle’s female protagonist,
violently interrupting the calm suburban atmosphere of her
bourgeois neighbourhood 291
Fig. 16.2 In Elle, immersed in a sadomasochistic relationship with her
rapist, Michèle hugs her attacker while enjoying sexual
intercourse on the hot basement’s floor 294
Fig. 17.1 Robert is subjected to a painful punishment for having
masturbated. The Lobster (2015) 311
Fig. 17.2 A Bactrian camel walks by in the woods as a group of Loners
spy on David. The Lobster (2015) 311
Fig. 18.1 The Spanish poster for The Orphanage328
Fig. 18.2 The international poster for The Orphanage329
 List of Tables

Table 6.1 Holocaust films directed or co-directed by women 94

Table 10.1 The model of small national cinemas 171
Table 10.2 Top five Hungarian films in terms of audience numbers in the
early 2010s 172
Table 10.3 Top five Romanian films in terms of audience numbers in the
early 2010s 172
Table 10.4 Hungarian box-office growth: audience numbers of the
most-viewed domestic releases for 2016–2017 173
Table 10.5 Romanian box-office growth: audience numbers of the
most-­viewed domestic releases for 2016 173
Table 10.6 Aferim! premier week in Romanian cinemas (9–15 March 2015) 176
Table 10.7 Son of Saul premier week in Hungarian cinemas
(11–17 June 2015) 176
Table 11.1 Successful NNE films released in Europe in 2012 193
Table 11.2 Key cultural and industrial characteristics of NNE films
by category of film 194

xxi
 PART I

Discourses
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 between May 1, 1898, and June 30, 1899.

[Off. = Officer; Enl. = Enlisted Men.]

COUNTRY KILLED. DIED OF

DISEASE. ACCIDENT.
WOUNDS
Off. Enl. Off. Enl. Off.
Enl. Off. Enl.
REGULARS.
United States 1 5 10 32
874 1 51
Cuba 19 184 5 60 8
381 7
Porto Rico 3
73 3
Hawaiian Islands
10 1
Philippine Islands 4 81 1 33 4
109 10
At sea 1 11 4
77

Total 24 270 7 114 51

1,524 1 72

VOLUNTEERS.
United States 1 87
2,836 3 111
Cuba 3 39 10 16
457 2 12
Porto Rico 3 1
157 5
Hawaiian Islands
33 1
Philippine Islands 14 146 3 67 5
215 6
At sea 5
122 2

Total 17 188 3 78 114

3,820 5 137

Aggregate 38 458 10 192 165

5,344 6 209

COUNTRY. DROWNED. SUICIDE.

MURDER TOTAL.

HOMICIDE
Off. Enl. Off. Enl. Off.
Enl. Off. Enl.
REGULARS.
United States 1 16 19
18 35 993
Cuba 7 5
6 32 650
Porto Rico 1 3
1 3 81
Hawaiian Islands 1
12
Philippine Islands 19 1 3
1 10 256
At sea 1 4 2
6 94
Total 2 48 1 32
26 86 2,086

VOLUNTEERS.
United States 23 1 15
22 91 3,008
Cuba 4
3 21 525
Porto Rico 2 1
1 1 169
Hawaiian Islands
34
Philippine Islands 1 9 3
23 446
At sea 2 1
5 127

Total 1 40 1 20
26 141 4,309

Aggregate 3 88 2 52
52 224 6,395

{630}

Recapitulation of casualties in action in the armies of the

United States between May 1, 1898, and June 30, 1899.

[Off. = Officer; Enl. = Enlisted Men.]

COUNTRY. KILLED. WOUNDED.

TOTAL. AGGREGATE
Off. Enl. Off. Enl. Off.
Enl.
REGULARS.

Cuba 18 183 86 1,126 104

1,309 1,413
Porto Rico 1 2 15 2
16 18
United States 1 5 10 1
15 16
Philippines, to
August 13, 1898 7 1 25 1
32 33
Philippines since
February 4, 1899 2 74 20 410 22
484 506

Total 21 270 109 1,586 130

1,856 1,986

VOLUNTEERS.

Cuba 3 39 15 218 18
257 275
Porto Rico 3 2 21 2
24 26
Philippines,
to Aug. 13, 1898 11 9 74 9
85 94
Philippines, since
February 4, 1899 14 135 62 865 76
1,000 1,076

Total 17 188 88 1,178 105

1,366 1,471

Grand total 38 458 197 2,764 235

3,222 3,457

HOSPITALS.

From the declaration of war with Spain to September 20, 1899,

there have been established:

Beds.
20 field division hospitals, averaging 250 beds
each 5,000
31 general hospitals with a total capacity of
about 13,800
Railroad ambulance train
270
4 hospital ships
1,000

Total
20,070

In addition to these over 5,000 cases were treated in civil

hospitals. It is difficult even to approximate the number of
men treated in these hospitals. During that period somewhat
over 100,000 cases were admitted on sick report, a number
equal to 2,147 per 1,000 of strength during the year, or to
179 per 1,000 per month—the ratio of admissions to hospital
cases being 13 to 8. Using these data as a basis, and assuming
the mean strength of the Army (Regulars and Volunteers) to have
been 154,000, it would appear that from May 1, 1898, to
September 20, 1899, about 275,000 cases have been treated in
 these hospitals.

TRANSPORTATION OF SPANISH PRISONERS OF WAR TO SPAIN.

The following is a statement showing the dates of embarkation,

names of vessels, and number of officers, enlisted men, and
others who took passage:

[Date = Date of Embarkation,

Off. = Officers
Men = Enlisted men,
Women = Women and children over 5 years of
age,
Priests = Priests and Sisters of Charity.]

Date Name of Vessel. Off. Men Women

Priests Total

August 9 Alicante 38 1,069 6

11 1,124
August 14 Isla de Luzon 137 2,056 40
4 2,237
August 16 Covadonga 109 2,148 79
2,336
August 19 Villaverde 52 565 34
651
August 19 Isla de Panay 99 1,599 26
5 1,729
August 22 P. de Satrustegui 128 2,359 68
2,555
August 25 Montevideo 136 2,108 122
2 2,368
August 27 Cherihon 18 905 37
960
August 28 Colón 100 1,316 59
1,475
August 30 do 23 726 5
754
September 1 Leon XIII 113 2,209 108
2,430
September 3 San Ignacio 59 1,408 20
12 1,499
September 6 Leonora 15 1,118
1,333
September 12 Cindad de Cadiz 53 19
14 86
September 17 San Augustin 65 800 45
910
September 17 San Francisco 18 588 11
617

Total 1,163 20,974 679

48 22,864

ARMS AND AMMUNITION CAPTURED AT SANTIAGO.

Mauser carbines, Spanish, 7 mm 16,902

Mauser rifles, Argentine, 7½ mm 872
Remington rifles, 7 mm 6,118
Total rifles 23,892

Mauser carbines, Spanish 833

Mauser carbines, Argentine 7½ mm 84
Remington carbines, 7½ mm 330
 Total carbines 1,247

Revolvers 75

{631}

Mauser-Spanish—cartridges, 7 mm. 1,500,000

Mauser-Argentine—cartridges, 7½ mm. 1,471,200
Remington cartridges, 7½ mm 1,680,000

Total. 4,651,200

Nine hundred and seventy-three thousand

Remington
cartridges, 7½ mm., worthless.

STRENGTH OF THE NAVY, REGULAR AND AUXILIARY.

The number of enlisted men allowed by law prior to the

outbreak of hostilities was 12,500. On August 15, when the
enlisted force reached its maximum, there were 24,123 men in
the service. This great increase was made necessary by the
addition of 128 ships to the Navy. The maximum fighting force
of the Navy, separated into classes, was as follows:

Battle ships (first class). 4

Battle ships (second class). 1
Armored cruisers. 2
Coast defense monitors. 6
Armored ram. 1
Protected cruisers. 12
Unprotected cruisers. 3
Gunboats. 18
 Dynamite cruiser. 1
Torpedo boats. 11
Vessels of old Navy,
Including monitors. 14
Auxiliary Navy:
Auxiliary cruisers. 11
Converted yachts. 28
Revenue cutters. 15
Light-house tenders. 4
Converted tugs. 27
Converted colliers. 19
Miscellaneous. 19

NAVAL, PRISONERS OF WAR CAPTURED OFF SANTIAGO,

JULY 3, 1898.

Officers. 99
Enlisted men. 1,675

CASUALTIES IN ACTION.

ENGAGEMENT. Casualties Killed

Wounded Died later

from wounds
Action at Manila Bay,
May 1 9 9
Action off Cienfuegos,
May 11 12 1 11
1
Action off Cardenas,
May 11. 8 5 3
Action off San Juan,
 Porto Rico, May 12 8 1 7
Engagements at Guantanamo,
Cuba, June 11 to 20 22 *6 16
Engagement off Santiago:
June 22 10 1 9
July 3 11 1 10
Miscellaneous:
Yankee, June 13. 1 1
Eagle, July 12 1 1
Bancroft, August 2 1 1
Amphitrite, August 7 1 1 †l

Total 84 16 68
2

* One accidentally killed.

† Accidentally shot.

Congressional Record,
February 1, 1901, pages 1941-1962.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899.

Investigation of the conduct of the War Department
in the war with Spain.

Severe criticism of the conduct of the War Department during

the war with Spain, including many charges of inefficiency in
its service, produced by improper appointments made for
political reasons, and other charges of misdoing in the
purchase of supplies, under influences either political or
otherwise corrupt, led to the appointment by the President, in
September, 1898, of an investigating commission, composed of
nine soldier and civilian members, as follows:
General Grenville M. Dodge, President.
Colonel James A. Sexton.
Colonel Charles Denby,
Captain Evan P. Howell,
Honorable Urban A. Woodbury,
Brigadier-General John M. Wilson, U. S. A.,
General James A. Beaver,
Major-General Alexander McD. Cook, U. S. A.,
Dr. Phineas S. Conner.

The report of the Commission, made in the following February,

cannot be said to have been a convincing and satisfactory one
to the country at large. It was indignantly described as a
"whitewashing report," even by many journals and writers of
the party in power. Its inquiries did not appear to have been
keenly and impartially searching; its conclusions were not
thought to be drawn with a rigorous and fearless hand.

The charges against the War Department which excited most

feeling and drew most public attention related to the quality
of the fresh beef supplied to the army, which was in two
forms, refrigerated and canned. Major-General Miles,
commanding the Army, had declared that much of the
refrigerated beef furnished to the soldiers should be called
"embalmed beef," maintaining that it had been "apparently
preserved with secret chemicals, which destroy its natural
flavor" and which were believed to be "detrimental to the
health of the troops." He intimated that hundreds of tons of
such beef had been contracted for by the Commissary-General
"under pretense of experiment." In repelling this serious
accusation, Commissary-General Charles P. Eagan read a
statement before the Commission, so violent and unmeasured in
its vituperation of the commanding general that it was
returned to him for correction; many newspapers declined to
publish it, and he was subsequently tried by court-martial in
consequence—as related below. The conclusion of the
Commission on the subject of the charges relating to
refrigerated beef was stated in its report as follows:
 "The Commission is of the opinion that no refrigerated beef
furnished by contractors and issued to the troops during the
war with Spain was subjected to or treated with any chemicals
by the contractors or those in their employ."

Concerning the canned beef, which had caused much disgust in

the army, the Commission reported:

"The result of our own testing and of all the analyses made at
our instance … is that the canned meat which has been brought
to our attention is pure, sound, and nutritive. It has not
been found to contain any acids or any deleterious substance,
but to be unadulterated meat. The testimony before us is that
the canned meat is not, in general, intended to be issued to
troops except as an emergency ration. The preponderance of the
proof is that meat on the hoof and the refrigerated beef are
more acceptable. A number of officers and others have
testified that the meat is unpalatable. Its palatability
greatly depends upon the mode in which it is cooked. In a
tropical climate, carried on the march, exposed to heat, the
meat so changes in appearance as to become repulsive. In the
Navy, where the meat is properly cared for, there has been no
complaint, so far as has appeared in evidence before us. After
careful consideration we find that canned meat, as issued to
the troops, was generally of good quality, was properly
prepared, and contained no deleterious substance.
{632}
At times probably material of poor quality is issued; in one
of the cans sent to us and examined by the chemist a large
amount of gristle was found. That it was not issued 'under
pretense of an experiment' is indicated by the fact that it
has been in use in the Army for more than 20 years."

On the general management of the Quarter-master's Department,

with which much fault had been found, the Commission reported:
"The conclusions drawn … are as follows:
"1. The Quartermaster's Department, a month before war was
declared, was neither physically nor financially prepared for
the tremendous labor of suddenly equipping and transporting an
army over ten times the size of the Regular Army of the United
States.

"2. That the department devoted the ability, zeal, and

industry of its officers to accomplish the herculean task
before it so soon as funds were made available and war was
declared.

"3. That it deserves credit for the great work accomplished,

for the immense quantity of materials obtained and issued
within so short a period, and for its earnest efforts in
reference to railroad transportation and in protecting the
great interests of the General Government committed to its
charge. Its officers, especially those at the head-quarters of
the department and at its depots, worked earnestly and
laboriously day and night, sparing themselves in no possible
way.

"4. There appears to have been a lack of system, whereby, even

as late as October, troops in camps and in the field were
lacking in some articles of clothing, camp and garrison
equipage; and hospitals, at least at two important localities
in the South—Fort Monroe, Virginia, and Huntsville,
Alabama—lacked stoves, while at Huntsville fuel was wanting.

"5. There appears to have been lack of executive or

administrative ability, either on the part of the
Quartermaster's Department or the railroad officials, in
preventing the great congestion of cars at Tampa and
Chickamauga when these camps were first established, which
congestion caused delay, annoyance, and discomfort to the
large bodies of troops concentrating at those places.

"6. There appears to have been a lack of foresight in

preparing and promptly having available at some central
locality on the seacoast the necessary fleet of transports
which it seemed evident would be required for the movement of
troops to a foreign shore, and, finally, when the call came
suddenly and the emergency was supreme, the department appears
not to have fully comprehended the capacity of the fleet under
its command; not to have supplied it with a complete outfit of
lighters for the immediate disembarkation of troops and
supplies; to have accepted without full investigation the
statement that the vessels were capable of transporting 25,000
men, while really they could not and did not transport more
than 17,000 with their artillery, equipments, ammunition, and
supplies, and lacked sufficient storage room for the necessary
amount of wagon transportation—that very important element
in the movement of an army in the face of an enemy.

"7. The Quartermaster's Department should maintain on hand at

all times a complete supply for at least four months for an
army of 100,000 men of all articles of clothing, camp and
garrison equipage, and other quartermaster's supplies which
will not deteriorate by storage or which cannot at once be
obtained in open market.

"Finally. In the opinion of this commission, there should be a

division of the labor now devolving upon the Quartermaster's
Department."

In another part of its report, dealing especially with the

Santiago campaign, the Commission makes a statement which
seems to reflect some additional light on the sixth paragraph
of the finding quoted above, relative to the unpreparedness of
the quartermaster's department for the landing of the Santiago
expedition. It says:

"The Navy Department, on the 31st of May, 1898, sent the

following communication to the honorable the Secretary of War:
'This Department begs leave to inquire what means are to be
employed by the War Department for landing the troops,
artillery, horses, siege guns, mortars, and other heavy
objects when the pending military expedition arrives on the
Cuban coast near Santiago. While the Navy will be prepared to
furnish all the assistance that may be in its power, it is
obvious that the crews of the armored ships and of such others
as will be called upon to remove the Spanish mines and to meet
the Spanish fleet in action can not be spared for other purposes,
and ought not to be fatigued by the work incident to landing
of the troops and stores, etc.' This information, so far as
can be ascertained, was never communicated to either General
Miles or General Shafter; the expedition therefore left Tampa
with no facilities for landing other than were afforded by the
boats of the several transports conveying the expedition, with
the exception of several lighters and steam tugs of light draft,
such as could be hastily secured."

On the conduct of the Medical Department, which was another

matter of investigation, the Commission reported: "To sum up,
in brief, the evidence submitted shows:

" 1. That at the outbreak of the war the Medical Department

was, in men and materials, altogether unprepared to meet the
necessities of the army called out.

"2. That as a result of the action through a generation of

contracted and contracting methods of administration, it was
impossible for the Department to operate largely, freely, and
without undue regard to cost.

"3. That in the absence of a special corps of inspectors, and

the apparent infrequency of inspections by chief surgeons, and
of official reports of the state of things in camps and
hospitals, there was not such investigation of the sanitary
conditions of the army as is the first duty imposed upon the
Department by the regulations.
 "4. That the nursing force during the months of My, June, and
July was neither ample nor efficient, reasons for which may be
found in the lack of a proper volunteer hospital corps, due to
the failure of Congress to authorize its establishment, and to
the nonrecognition in the beginning of the value of women
nurses and the extent to which their services could be
secured.

"5. That the demand made upon the resources of the Department
in the care of sick and wounded was very much greater than had
been anticipated, and consequently, in like proportion, these
demands were imperfectly met.

{633}

"6. That powerless as the Department was to have supplies

transferred from point to point, except through the
intermediation of the Quartermaster's Department, it was
seriously crippled in its efforts to fulfil the regulation
duty of 'furnishing all medical and hospital supplies.'

"7. That the shortcomings in administration and operation may

justly be attributed, in large measure, to the hurry and
confusion incident to the assembling of an army of untrained
officers and men, ten times larger than before, for which no
preparations in advance had been or could be made because of
existing rules and regulations.

"8. That notwithstanding all the manifest errors, of omission

rather than of commission, a vast deal of good work was done
by medical officers, high and low, regular and volunteer, and
there were unusually few deaths among the wounded and the
sick.

"What is needed by the medical department in the future is—

"1. A larger force of commissioned medical officers.

"2. Authority to establish in time of war a proper volunteer
hospital corps.

"3. A reserve corps of selected trained women nurses, ready to

serve when necessity shall arise, but under ordinary
circumstances, owing no duty to the War Department, except to
report residence at determined intervals.

"4. A year's supply for an army of at least four times the

actual strength, of all such medicines, hospital furniture,
and stores as are not materially damaged by keeping, to be
held constantly on hand in the medical supply depots.

"5. The charge of transportation to such extent as will secure

prompt shipment and ready delivery of all medical supplies.

"6. The simplification of administrative 'paper work,' so that

medical officers may be able to more thoroughly discharge
their sanitary and strictly medical duties.

"7. The securing of such legislation as will authorize all

surgeons in medical charge of troops, hospitals, transports,
trains, and independent commands to draw from the Subsistence
Department funds for the purchase of such articles of diet as
may be necessary to the proper treatment of soldiers too sick
to use the army ration. This to take the place of all
commutation of rations of the sick now authorized.

"Convalescent soldiers traveling on furlough should be

furnished transportation, sleeping berths or staterooms, and
$1.50 per diem for subsistence in lieu of rations, the soldier
not to be held accountable or chargeable for this amount."

Report of the Commission, volume 1.

Public opinion of the report, when divested of partisan

prejudice, was probably expressed very fairly in the following
comments of "The Nation," of New York:

"The two leading conclusions of the court of inquiry as to the

quality of the beef supplied to our troops during the war with
Spain, are in accordance with the evidence and will be
accepted as fairly just by the country. The court finds that
so far as the canned roast beef was concerned, the charges
which General Miles made against it as an unsuitable ration
are sustained, but that as regards the use of chemicals in the
treatment of refrigerated beef his charges were not
established. If instead of saying 'not established,' the court
had said 'not fully sustained,' its verdict would have been
above criticism on these two points. There was evidence of the
use of chemicals, but it was not conclusive and was flatly
contradicted. There is no doubt whatever that the use of the
refrigerated beef was a blunder, but there was very little
evidence to sustain a more serious charge than that against
it.

"But while the court has found justly on these points, it is

difficult to read its report without feeling that its members
did so reluctantly, and that, if left to follow their
inclinations, they would have censured General Miles and
allowed everybody else concerned to go free. General Miles is
the one person involved whom they allow no extenuating
circumstances to benefit in their report. At every opportunity
they take the worst possible view of his conduct, while almost
invariably taking the most lenient view possible of nearly
everybody else. … So far as the findings of the court apply to
Eagan's conduct, they are condemnatory in general terms, but
they do not seek to go behind him for the reasons for his
conduct. … No attention whatever is paid to the evidence of
several reputable witnesses that Eagan had told them that he
had to buy of certain contractors; none is paid, either, to
the evidence of Eagan's subordinates that he himself so
altered the refrigerated beef contracts that no one could say
whether they called for preservation for seventy-two hours or
twenty-four. Leniency of this kind is never shown toward
General Miles."

The Nation,
May 11, 1899.

Perhaps a weightier criticism is represented by the following,

which we quote from an article contributed to "The
Independent" by General Wingate, President of the National
Guard Association of the United States: "So far as the
refrigerated beef was concerned, the truth probably is that
there was little, if any, 'embalming' about it. Soldiers
generally agree that the beef itself was almost universally
good. … General Miles, on the other hand, was clearly right in
asking that the troops might be furnished with beef cattle on the
hoof, which could follow the army over any road and which
would keep in good condition on the luxuriant grasses of Cuba
and Porto Rico. This was the system pursued in our Civil War.
No one has yet explained why it was abandoned for the
experiment of furnishing this kind of beef to places in the
tropics where it had to be hauled in wagons for many hours
over muddy roads, and when most of the wagons required to move
it promptly had to be left behind for want of water
transportation.

"The matter of the refrigerated or so-called 'embalmed' beef

is, however, of very slight consequence compared with that of
the canned roast beef. The use of that beef as an army ration
in this country, at least, was new. Officer after officer has
testified before the court of inquiry that they never saw it
so issued before the Cuban campaign. It is true that the navy
uses it, but the facilities on shipboard for caring for and
cooking food are so different and so superior to those of an
army in the field that no comparison can justly be made
between them. Moreover, as was recently stated in the 'Army
and Navy Journal,' the belief is general in the navy that the
 canned beef it had rejected on inspection was afterward sold
to the army and accepted by it without inspection.
{634}
Be this as it may, the evidence is overwhelming that the
canned roast beef which was issued to the army was repulsive
in appearance and disagreeable in smell. … Governor Roosevelt
says in his testimony that 'from generals to privates he never
heard any one who did not condemn it as an army ration.' Its
defects appeared on the voyage to Santiago, if not before. It
was then so bad that the men would not touch it, and as
Governor Roosevelt says in his article in 'Scribner's,' his
Rough Riders, who certainly were not particular, could not eat
it, and as it constituted one-third of the rations, his men
had to go hungry. And yet, in spite of these facts, a million
pounds of that beef was purchased from Armour & Co. alone, and
its issue was continued not only in Cuba but in Porto Rico.
What is worse than all, after its defects were fully known it
was issued as a traveling ration to the fever-racked men on
their homeward voyage to this country; men who needed and were
entitled to receive the most nourishing food and to whom this
indigestible stuff was poison. This should never be forgotten
or forgiven by the plain people of the country. …

"No one in authority has been willing to admit that there was
the slightest thing wrong, or the least need for improvement
in his department. … This is another of the hundreds of
examples which have occurred in our past war, and which will
continue to take place in the future until the whole staff
system of the army has been rectified, of the reign of that
hide bound bureaucratic spirit which induces the head of a
department in Washington to decide in his office what should
be used by the troops in the field without practical
experience on the subject, and to stubbornly close his eyes
and ears to everything which will tend to show that it is
possible that his department has made a mistake. …

"It is noticeable that so far not an official in any of the