Floriculture: Designing &

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FLORICULTURE
Designing & Merchandising
FOURTH EDITION

Charles Griner

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

 Floriculture: Designing & Merchandising,
Fourth Edition
Charles Griner
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Cover Image: shutterstock.com/image-photo
/closeup-dahlia-blossom-4402318
Interior design images:shutterstock.com/image
-photo/pink-lilium-bouquet-75363994
shutterstock.com/image-photo/artificial-flowers
-bouquet-wedding-image-95851819
shutterstock.com/image-photo/blue-flowers-on
-white-background-30834439
shutterstock.com/image-photo/bouquet
-flowers-167128271
shutterstock.com/image-photo/bouquet-flowers
-copy-space-blank-greetings-394999423
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-flowers-banner-web-design-451255561
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-pink-orange-lilies-isolated-108553361
shutterstock.com/image-photo/lilac-flowers
-bunch-over-white-wooden-278801207
shutterstock.com/image-photo/pink-flowers
-vase-96876382
shutterstock.com/image-photo/sunflowers-on
-gray-stone-background-copy-397642510
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-set-321078362
Printed in the United States of America
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
© 2019, 2011 Cengage
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932072
ISBN: 978-1-337-39070-5
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Notice to the Reader
Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described
herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of
the product information contained herein. Publisher does not assume,
and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information
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CONTENTS

Preface ix Résumé 10
Acknowledgments xv Letter of Recommendation 16
Follow-Up Call or Email 16
The Interview 17
SECTION 1 After the Interview 17
An Introduction Summary 18
to the Floriculture Review Questions 18
Student Activities 18
Industry 3
UNIT 2 l The History of Floral Design 19
UNIT 1 l Exploring Careers in the Retail Introduction 20
Flower Business 4 Classical Period 20
Introduction 5 Egyptian Period (2800–28 bc) 20
Types of Flower Shops 5 Greek Period (600–46 bc) 20
Full-Service Shop 5 Roman Period (28 bc–ad 325) 21
Specialty Shop 5 Byzantine Period (ad 320–600) 21
Carriage Trade Shop 5 European Periods of Floral Design 22
Stem Shop 5 Middle Ages (ad 476–1400) 22
Studio Operation 5 Renaissance (ad 1400–1600) 22
Franchise Shop 5 Baroque Period (ad 1600–1775) 23
Mass-Market Shop 6 Dutch-Flemish Period (ad 1600–1750) 23
Wholesale Florist 6 French Period (ad 1600–1814) 23
Job Opportunities in the Retail Flower Shop 6 English-Georgian Period (ad 1714–1760) 24
Managerial and Supervisory: Victorian Period (ad 1820–1901) 24
Owner or Manager 6 American Periods of Floral Design 24
Technical: Designer 7 Early American Period (ad 1620–1720) 24
Technical: Designer’s Assistant 7 Colonial Williamsburg Period
Service Worker: Salesperson 8 (ad 1714–1780) 25
Service Worker: Office Worker 8 American Federal Period (ad 1780–1820) 25
Service Worker: Delivery Person 8 Twentieth-Century American Flower
Training for a Job in the Retail Flower Shop 9 Arrangements 25
Locating Job Opportunities 9 Oriental Flower Arranging 25
Employability Portfolio 10 Summary 26
Letter of Introduction 10 Review Questions 26
Table of Contents 10 Student Activities 27
Letter of Application 10
Job Application Form 10

iii
 Loss of Food 49
SECTION 2 Disease 49
Getting Started: Ethylene Gas 49
The Basics of Water Quality 51
Design 29 Conditioning Flowers 51
Antitranspirants 55
Summary 55
UNIT 3 l Principles of Design 30 Review Questions 56
Introduction 31 Student Activities 56
Design Principles 31
Balance 31 UNIT 6 l Mechanics and Supplies
Proportion and Scale 32 Used in Floral Design 57
Focal Point 33 Introduction 58
Emphasis 34 Containers 58
Rhythm 34 Texture 58
Harmony 35 Shape 58
Unity 35 Size 58
Design Elements 35 Color 59
Line 35 Floral Foam 59
Form 37 Adhesive Materials 60
Texture 37 Cutting Tools 61
Color 37 Picks 62
General Guidelines 42 Summary 66
Summary 42 Review Questions 66
Review Questions 42 Student Activities 66
Student activities 43
UNIT 7 l Selecting Wire and Wiring
UNIT 4 l Selection of Cut Flowers
Flowers 67
and Greens 44
Introduction 68
Introduction 45 Selecting Wires 68
Flower and Foliage Classification 45 Sizes and Uses of Wire 68
Line Flowers 45 Methods of Wiring Flowers 69
Mass Flowers 46 Floral Taping 73
Filler Flowers 46 Summary 74
Form Flowers 46 Review Questions 74
Summary 46 Student Activities 75
Review Questions 47
Student Activities 47 UNIT 8 l Selecting Ribbons and
UNIT 5 l Conditioning and Storing Cut Tying Bows 76
Introduction 77
Flowers and Greens 48
Selecting Ribbons 77
Introduction 49 Ribbon Sizes 78
Common Reasons for Early Flower Tying a Bow 79
Deterioration 49 Summary 84
Low Water Absorption 49
Loss of Water 49

iv CONTENTS
Review Questions 85 The Isosceles Triangle 137
Student Activities 85 Centerpiece Designs 139
The Asymmetrical Triangle 141
The Scalene Triangle 143
SECTION 3 The Right Triangle 144
Basic Summary 146
Arrangements 87 Review Questions 146
Student Activities 147

UNIT 13 l Line Arrangements 148

UNIT 9 l Boutonnieres and Corsages 88 Introduction 149
Introduction 89 Inverted-T Arrangement 149
Boutonnieres 89 L-Pattern Arrangement 151
Corsages 91 The Vertical Arrangement 153
Corsage Design 92 Crescent Arrangements 155
Net Tufts 100 The Hogarth Curve Arrangement 157
Football Mum Corsages 103 Contemporary Freestyle Arrangements 160
Designing Corsages Using Floral Adhesive Summary 165
and Hot Glue 105 Review Questions 165
Summary 107 Student Activities 165
Review Questions 107
Student Activities 108
SECTION 4
UNIT 10 l Bud Vases 109 Specialty
Introduction 110 Arrangements 167
Selecting Flowers For Bud Vases 110
Foliage for Bud Vases 110
Accessories 111
Designing Bud Vases 111 UNIT 14 l Constructing Wreaths 168
Summary 116 Introduction 169
Review Questions 116 Evergreen Wreath 172
Student Activities 116 Permanent Evergreen Wreaths 178
Eucalyptus Wreath 179
UNIT 11 l Circular Arrangements 117 Summary 180
Introduction 118 Review Questions 180
The Circular Mound Design 118 Student Activities 180
The Conical Design 122
The Oval Arrangement 126 UNIT 15 l Holiday Arrangements 181
The Fan Arrangement 130 Introduction 182
Summary 133 Valentine’s Day 182
Review Questions 133 Easter 186
Student Activities 133 Mother’s Day 189
High School Proms 189
UNIT 12 l Triangular Arrangements 134 Thanksgiving 191
Introduction 135 Christmas 193
The Equilateral Triangle 135 Topiaries 196

CONTENTS v
Minor Holidays 197 UNIT 18 l Drying Flowers 238
Holiday Balloons 198 Introduction 239
Equipment 198 Hanging Method 239
Inflating Balloons 199 Desiccant-Drying 239
Summary 200 Fine Sand and Borax 240
Review Questions 201 Cornmeal and Borax 240
Student Activities 201 Kitty Litter 240
Silica Gel 240
UNIT 16 l Wedding Flowers 202 Microwave Drying 240
Introduction 203 Glycerin 242
Bridal Consultations 203 Bleaching and Dyeing 243
The Wedding Order Form 203 Summary 243
Bridal and Attendant Bouquets 206 Review Questions 243
Arm Bouquets 206 Student Activities 244
Hand-Tied Bouquets 209
Colonial Nosegay in a Bouquet Holder 212 UNIT 19 l Arranging Permanent
Cascading Bouquets 215 Flowers 245
Corsages and Boutonnieres 219
Introduction 246
Ceremonial Decorations 219
Silk Flowers 246
The Entry and Vestibule 219
Paper Flowers 247
Aisles and Pews 219
Dried and Preserved Flowers 247
The Altar 220
Freeze-Dried Flowers 247
Reception Decorations 222
Identifying Dried and Preserved Flowers 247
Serving Tables 222
Mechanics For Permanent Flowers 247
The Cake Table 223
Contemporary Arrangements 250
Groom’s Cake Table 223
Summary 252
Punch and Champagne Tables 224
Review Questions 252
Additional Reception Hall
Student Activities 253
Decorations 224
Rehearsal Dinner 225
Delivery of the Wedding Flowers 225
SECTION 5
Summary 226
Review Questions 226 Indoor Plants 255
Student Activities 226

UNIT 17 l Sympathy Flowers 227

Introduction 228
UNIT 20 l Selecting Indoor Plants 256
Basic Sympathy Designs 228
Introduction 257
Casket Sprays 228
Plant Names 257
Sprays 228
Light Requirements 257
Wreaths 232
Watering 258
Baskets 235
Fertilization 259
Other Floral Designs 235
Permanent or Temporary Plants 259
Summary 236
Identifying Potted Plants 260
Review Questions 237
Summary 260
Student Activities 237

vi CONTENTS
Review Questions 260 Sending Flowers by Wire 285
Student Activities 261 Benefits of a Wire Service 285
Using a Wire Service 286
UNIT 21 l Decorating Potted Plants 262 Selling Over the Internet 286
Introduction 263 Summary 287
Poly Foil 263 Review Questions 287
Preformed Pot Covers 266 Student Activities 287
Jardinieres 268
Decorating Dish Gardens 269 UNIT 24 l Displays 289
Care of Potted Plants in the Shop 270 Introduction 290
Light 270 Primary Purposes of Displays 290
Watering 270 Attract Attention 290
Temperatures 271 Arouse Interest 290
Summary 271 Create Desire 290
Review Questions 271 Initiate Buying 291
Student Activities 271 Secondary Purposes 291
Artistic Display 291
Categories of Display 292
SECTION 6 Theme Displays 292
Business Operations Product-Oriented Displays 292
Designing Display Arrangements 293
and Professional Repetition Arrangement 293
Development 273 Step Arrangement 293
Zigzag Arrangement 294
UNIT 22 l Pricing Strategies 274 Pyramid Arrangement 294
Introduction 275 Radiation Arrangement 295
Determining the Unit Summary 295
Cost of Goods 275 Review Questions 295
Standard Ratio Markup Pricing 276 Student Activities 296
Retail Cost of Goods Plus Labor 277
Divisional Percentage Pricing Method 277 UNIT 25 l Delivery 297
Leader Pricing 278 Introduction 298
Summary 278 The Delivery Person 298
Review Questions 278 Training 298
Student Activities 279 The Delivery Vehicle 299
Delivery Categories and Charges 299
UNIT 23 l Selling in the Flower Shop 280 Processing an Order for Delivery 300
Introduction 281 Loading the Delivery Vehicle 300
Characteristics of a Professional Salesperson 281 Making the Delivery 301
A Friendly, Helpful Attitude 281 Delivery Pools 301
Thorough Product Knowledge 281 Summary 301
Effective Selling Skills 282 Review Questions 302
Selling by Telephone 284 Student Activities 302
The Telephone Sales Presentation 284

CONTENTS vii
UNIT 26 l Professional Organizations 303 APPENDIX A l Cut Flowers 309
Introduction 304
Trade Organizations 304
APPENDIX B l Cut Foliages 321
SAF (Society of American Florists) 304 APPENDIX C l Dried Materials 328
AAF (American Academy of
Floriculture) 305 APPENDIX D l Foliage Houseplants 333
AIFD (American Institute
of Floral Designers) 305 APPENDIX E l Permanent Flowering
AFMC (American Floral Marketing Potted Plants 343
Council) 305
PFCI (Professional Floral
APPENDIX F l Temporary Flowering
Communicators–International) 305 Potted Plants 347
Allied Florists’ Associations 305
APPENDIX G l Flower Arrangement
State Florist Associations 305
Wholesalers’ Open Houses
Rating Scale 351
and Design Schools 305 APPENDIX H l Supervised Agricultural
Trade Publications 306
Experience 353
Student Organizations 306
Certification Programs 306 APPENDIX I l Floral Design-Related
Summary 308 Websites 365
Review Questions 308
Student Activities 308
Glossary/Glosario 366
Index 380

viii CONTENTS
PREFACE
F
loriculture Designing & Merchandising was written
to introduce students to the career possibilities
in the floral industry and to provide basic
instruction in the techniques of floral design and
merchandising. This new fourth edition expertly
blends basic techniques with current trends to offer a
fresh perspective as students build their skills.
Everyone can be taught to make beautiful
floral arrangements, and this book was written
to accomplish that goal. By following the step-
by-step procedures outlined in this book, you
will be able to make lovely arrangements, which
hopefully will spark your creativity in designing
floral arrangements and your interest in pursuing a
career in the floral industry. Learning is a lifetime
process. Should you choose a career in this area,
there will always be workshops and design schools
to challenge you to expand your knowledge and
creative talents.
The designs pictured throughout the book
are simple and easy to follow. As you build the
arrangements, please keep in mind that there are many
different ways to make the same floral arrangement.
Different designers have their own unique styles.
Learn as many of these as you can.
The flowers used in the illustrations are the most
inexpensive flowers that are readily available anywhere
in the country. Feel free to substitute flowers and add
your own creativity to each of the designs.
The information in this book can be reinforced
and expanded on by your instructor and guest
speakers. Put forth a dedicated effort, and challenge
yourself to expand your knowledge and express
your creativity. Remember that flower arranging
is a skill that you can learn, but it will take hard
work and lots of practice to become accomplished
at that skill.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
■ New section on handheld bouquets for proms—
featuring vibrant photos of handheld bouquets,
this section illustrates the handheld bouquet as an
accessory for this event and offers ideas on how
to arrange.
■ Expanded chapter on wedding flowers—new
designs utilizing a variety of flowers and foliage
for bouquets, table adornments, and reception
decorations offer you a fresh look at different de-
sign ideas for weddings.
■ A summary concludes each chapter—each chapter
includes closing thoughts to help summarize key
concepts presented in the chapter and provide
overall context for how those concepts are
applied in the floral industry.
■ New designs based on basic techniques—step-by-
step “Procedures” were meticulously reviewed
and revised as needed to reflect the variety of
flowers and foliage utilized in the industry so that
you can practice and become comfortable with
these materials.
■ Exploring your creativity—this all-new feature
highlights alternate arrangements utilizing
different flowers or foliage for some of the step-
by-step “Procedures” introduced in the book.
This feature is designed to spark your creativity
and encourage you to experiment with different
design ideas.
■ All new design and full-color photos—this edition
is rich in hundreds of vibrant new photos illus-
trating mechanics, techniques, skills, and stunning
flowers, plants, and foliage, all captured in a fresh,
modern design.
ix
 UNIT 16

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION

Wedding Flowers

Objective and Competencies

to Develop
Each chapter opens with a goal
and a list of competencies to
develop based on the chapter
content. These help you focus on
the concepts and skills required to
U NI T 1 successfully complete the lesson.

OBJECTIVE TERMS TO KNOW

Careers in the
To design decorations for a wedding and reception. arm bouquet
cascading bouquet colonial nosegay
handheld bouquet or dripless candles
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP
clutch bouquet
After completing this unit, you should be able to:

ower Business Complete a wedding order form.

●●

●● Design a bridal bouquet.

●● Design a bouquet for the bride’s attendants.
●● Identify the areas decorated for a wedding.
●● Identify decorations used for the reception
and rehearsal dinner.

Terms to Know
A list of terms in each chapter highlights the terms
presented in the chapter and those that you should be
202 able to define, in context, upon completion of the lesson.

TERMS TO KNOW
carriage trade shop résumé
designer salesperson
designer’s assistant specialty shop
employability portfolio stem shop
franchise studio operation
iness. full-service shop wholesale florist
ower mass-market shop work sample

e retail

x
Tools and Materials
Chapters (as applicable) include a list of basic tools and
materials identified or utilized in the chapter. OBJECTIVE TERMS TO KNOW
To receive a shipment of flowers and treat them in a manner antitranspirants photosynthesis
that extends the keeping quality of the flowers. bactericide respiration
botrytis stomata
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP conditioning flowers succulent
ethylene gas total dissolved solids
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
floral preservative transpiration
●● Identify the causes of premature flower deterioration.
hydration xylem
●● Identify the steps in handling a shipment of flowers.
pH
●● Demonstrate proper stem treatment.
●● Describe the benefits of floral preservatives.
TOOLS AND MATERIALS
●● Identify storing requirements of flowers and greens.
●● Assorted flowers as they are received from
●● Identify how flowers should be handled in the home.
wholesaler
●● Flower containers
●● Floral preservative
●● Floral knife

48

Introduction
An introduction to each chapter
INTRODUCTION sets up and explains the importance
of the knowledge and skills
W EDDINGS ARE ONE of the most interesting and challenging segments of the florist business. In the past, tradition
has dictated the planning of flowers and the ceremony. Tradition is still important, but modern brides are planning
weddings that reflect their individuality and taste. Generally, couples are older and more educated when they decide to get
presented in the chapter.
married, and have more definite ideas about what they want in their wedding. The retail florist must recognize the needs
of the couple to plan flowers that reflect their individuality. ✽

BRIDAL CONSULTATIONS Before discussing details for the wedding flowers,

the florist must have an idea of what the bride can
The florist may have a number of consultations afford. Encourage the bride to set a budget prior
with the bride. The first interview is usually the to the consultation, or ask probing questions that
most important. This consultation should be will help you determine the needs of the bride. The
conducted at least six months prior to the wedding, following are suggested as probing questions. When
with a follow-up meeting closer to the wedding asked tactfully, these questions assist the florist in
date. These consultations are normally handled by suggesting flowers for the wedding.
the head designer or the owner-manager of the
shop. ■● What type of bridal gown will be worn?
Creating the proper setting for the consultation ■● What type of wedding is being planned?
is important. An area should be set aside where ■● How large will the wedding be?
the bride and the florist may meet undisturbed ■● Will the wedding be formal or informal?
EASTER hydrangeas, but the Easter lily is the most popular
(FIGURE 16-1). The area should be located away from ■● Where will the service take place and at what
potted plant during this season.
the flow of traffic and the ring of telephones, and time of the day?is a religious holiday that occurs between
Easter Accessories for Easter include Easter baskets,
should contain a table with seating for three or ■● Will theearly
ceremony
Marchfollow
and latereligious
April. Itcustoms?
is also the beginning the Easter bunny, colored eggs, chicks, and ducks.
more people. Often the bride is accompanied by her ■● of the
Where and how spring
largeseason. Forreception
will the this reason,be?spring flowers, Frequently used colors include bright shades of
mother and/or the groom. Items such as selection ■● Who will be paying for the flowers? popular cut flowers
such as tulips and daffodils, are purple, green, yellow, and pink.
guides, wedding forms, examples of ribbons, and and potted plants. Customers also enjoy potted
Answers to these questions help establish the size
photograph albums of wedding work designed by and budget for the wedding. This is a sensitive area
the shop should be present. and one that the florist must approach tactfully. After
Procedures
The florist must learn as much about the wedding obtaining answers to these questions,
PROCEDURE the florist
Constructing will Arrangement
an Easter
plans as possible. This information will be helpful in be better equipped to make suggestions relative to
In chapters
planning theexplaining
wedding flowershow to
and decorations. flower choices and other possible decorations. Materials
Tools and
build specific floral arrangements In this unit, we are not able You to will need the following tools and materials to complete this procedure:
become
knowledgeable about every aspect of a Aparticular
low container that
●●
Stems of small purple
●●
Covered wire or ●●

step-by-step “Procedures” combine wedding, so we concentrate on those coordinates

areas that with the chrysanthemums string
color of the flowers
would be most helpful to the beginning designer. Pittosporum ●●
Floral knife ●●

straightforward instruction ●●
⅓ block of floral foam ●●
Small Easter and/
Floral tape or spring accessories,
with demonstrative photos and THE WEDDING ORDER FORM
●●

●●
3 stems of lilies such as butterfly
illustrations to walk you through the A wedding order form is most helpful in planning
the floral decorations for a wedding (FIGURE 16-2).
creation of your own arrangement. It lists the majority of items needed for a wedding.
A list, with an accompanying photo, 1 Prepare
These forms, which
wholesale floral the
thebe
can container.
container.
suppliers,
Placefrom
purchased floralmost
assist in organizing the
foam into the container with 1 or 2 inches showing above the rim of

of tools and materials required for wedding order. The form has space for notes on Group three stems of lilies together to form a tight cluster.

the procedure is also

FIGURE 16-1 l A bridal included
consultation area. for
2
the style and types of flowers used for each part of the Wire them together just below the cluster of flowers. Press
wedding.When completed, it can serve as a contract the stems deeply into the center of the floral foam, as shown.
ease of reference. UNIT 16 WEDDING FLOWERS 203

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION xi

186 SECTION 4 SPECIALTY ARRANGEMENTS

Stunning Imagery
Hundreds of vibrant photos and illustrations accompany the text
and facilitate learning by providing an authentic and visually
appealing introduction to the tools, materials, and techniques of
floral design.

A B

SUMMARY

Most retail flower shops are small businesses, so jobs
within the shop are not usually limited to one area.An
employee may be asked to perform a variety of tasks.
A career in the retail flower business is an excel-
lent choice for those individuals who enjoy work-
ing around flowers and plants. Work in a retail florist
is highly seasonal, with flowers in especially great
demand on holidays. Employees are expected to
work long hours during these times. Because most
weddings take place on weekends, employees may be
asked to work longer hours during these events also.
Even though flower shop employees are often re-
quired to work long hours, most florists love their work
and receive great personal satisfaction from their job.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is it important that the delivery person
for a flower shop be well groomed and well
mannered?
2. What is the difference between a full-service
florist and a mass-market florist?
3. How can the national or state FFA association
help you train for a job in the retail flower shop?
4. Why is a friendly service attitude an important
attribute of a salesperson?
C D
5. How can designers gain more experience in
floral design and learn the latest techniques? FIGURE 15-2 A through D l A variety of prom nosegays.
Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett; Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett; Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett; Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett
6. List five items that should be included on
the résumé.
7. List five dos and five don’ts of interviewing. 190 SECTION 4 SPECIALTY ARRANGEMENTS

STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1. Visit a flower shop and question the employees
about their jobs.
2. Ask your teacher to invite the owner-manager
or designer from a local flower shop to talk to
the class about careers in the retail florist industry.
5. Prepare an employability portfolio for a
specific job.
6. Make a list of possible questions that might be
asked on an interview.
7. Role-play a job interview situation, with one

Summary, Review Questions and Student Activities

3. Select one job opportunity and make a list
of the duties performed on that job and the
requirements for employment in that area.
4. Write about a situation where you used
flowers or saw flowers being used. How did
they make you feel?
student playing the role of the interviewer and
one the role of the job applicant.
8. Ask your teacher to assist you in planning a
supervised agriculture experience program.
See Appendix I for ideas. A Summary, along with end-of-chapter questions and activities

18 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY provide a method of evaluating your knowledge of the information
presented in the chapter.

Visual appendices are included to help you identify cut flowers,

cut foliages, potted plants, and dried materials of the floral
industry. Additional Appendices also contain other pertinent
information as you further explore the floral industry.

© Bayanova Svetlana/Shutterstock.com.
© LaNKS/Shutterstock.com.

Aster Bells of Ireland

Callistephus chinensis Molucella laevis
Family: Compositae Family: Labiatae
Use: Mass Use: Line
Color: Blue, lavender, pink, white Color: Green
Available: Summer, autumn Available: Winter, spring, summer
Packaged: Bunch (10 stems) Packaged: Bunch (10 stems)
Vase Life: 5 to 10 days Vase Life: 7 to 10 days
© Melica/Shutterstock.com.

Baby’s Breath Blue Hydrangea

Gypsophila species Hydrangea macroehylla
Family: Caryophyllaceae Family: Hydrangeaceae
Use: Filler Use: form, mass
Color: White Color: Blue, pink
Available: Year-round Available: Year-round
Packaged: Bunch (number of stems varies) Packaged: Individual
Vase Life: 7 to 10 days Vase Life: 4 to 10 days

310 APPENDIX A CUT FLOWERS

xii FEATURES OF THIS EDITION

EXTENSIVE TEACHING/LEARNING
PACKAGE
This package was developed to achieve two goals:
1. To provide students with an engaging
experience as they embark on the learning
pathway through their floriculture course
2. To assist instructors in planning and
implementing their instructional program
for the most efficient use of time and other
resources
COMPANION SITE
NEW! The Companion site to accompany
Floriculture: Designing & Merchandising, 4th
Edition, features tools to support learning and
facilitate teaching:
■ Answers to Review Questions, appearing at the end
of each chapter, allow teachers to track and validate
student learning.
■ Lesson Plans provide an outline of the key topics
in each chapter and correlate to the accompany-
ing PowerPoint® presentations.
■ PowerPoint presentations align with the Lesson
Plans and include photos and illustrations to
visually reinforce the key points in each chapter.
■ Testing powered by Cognero, a flexible online
system, provides chapter-by-chapter quizzes and
enables teachers to:
■ Author, edit, and manage test bank content
from multiple sources
■ Create multiple test versions in an instant
■ Deliver tests from teacher- or school-specific
learning management systems (LMSs) or class-
rooms
■ Image Gallery offers full-color photos and illustra-
tions from the text to enable teachers to further
enhance classroom presentations.
For these instructor-specific resources, please visit
CengageBrain.com at http://login.cengage.com,
and follow the prompts for obtaining access to this
secure site.
MINDTAP FOR FLORICULTURE:
DESIGNING & MERCHANDISING, 4E
NEW! The MindTap for Floriculture: Designing &
Merchandising, 4th Edition features an integrated
course offering a complete digital experience for
the student and teacher. This MindTap is highly
customizable and combines assignments, step-by-step
videos, interactivities, and auto-graded quizzing along
with the enhanced ebook to enable students to directly
analyze and apply what they are learning, and allow
teachers to measure skills and outcomes with ease.
■ A guide: Relevant interactivities combined with
prescribed readings, featured multimedia, and
quizzing to evaluate progress, will guide students
from basic knowledge and comprehension to
analysis and application.
■ Personalized teaching: Teachers are able to control
course content—hiding or rearranging existing
content, or adding and creating their own content
to meet the needs of their specific program.
■ Promote better outcomes: Through relevant and
engaging content, assignments and activities,
students are able to build the confidence they
need to ultimately lead them to success. Likewise,
teachers are able to view analytics and reports
that provide a snapshot of class progress, time in
course, engagement, and completion rates.
FEATURES OF THIS EDITION xiii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
D
r. Charles P. Griner received an associate’s
degree in science from Abraham Baldwin
Agricultural College. At the University of
Georgia, he earned a bachelor of science degree in
agriculture, a master’s degree in education, and an
education specialist degree. Dr. Griner received a
doctorate of education from Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University.
Dr. Griner began his teaching career at Webster
County High School, where he remained for two
years. He then moved to Douglas County High
School and taught for four years before joining the
faculty at the University of Georgia. He remained
at UGA until moving to Virginia Tech to pursue his
doctorate. Upon the completion of his doctorate,
he returned to the University of Georgia for one
year and then made his final move back to Colquitt
County. Dr. Griner taught agricultural education at
Colquitt County High School for over twenty years.
Over the course of his career, Dr. Griner
guided numerous students toward success in the
agricultural industry, including 180 Georgia FFA
State degree recipients, thirty-four American FFA
Degree recipients, nine State FFA officers, six State
Proficiency winners, fifteen District Public Speaking
winners, four National Chapter Bronze Awards,
thirteen National Chapter Silver Awards, and nine
xiv
National Chapter Gold Awards. As the horticulture
instructor at Colquitt County High School, Dr.
Griner coached two state winning teams, one
National Gold Emblem team, three State Floral
Design Contest winners, and twelve District Land
Judging winners.
Because of his strong beliefs in sharing the
benefits of his experience and knowledge to further
agricultural education, Dr. Griner has supervised
and mentored several student teachers, served on
three state curriculum committees, and served two
terms as district director of the Georgia Vocational
Agriculture Teachers Association. Additionally, Dr.
Griner has taught many statewide staff development
workshops in landscaping, greenhouse management,
and floral design.
Due to his outstanding service Dr. Griner was
awarded the honorary Georgia State FFA degree,
the honorary American FFA degree, the National
Vocational Agriculture Teachers Association Teacher
of Teachers Award, and the Abraham Baldwin
Agricultural College Alumni’s Outstanding Educator
Award. Dr. Griner was chosen as the Colquitt
County High School Teacher of the Year and the
National Association of Agricultural Educators
awarded him the Southern Region Lifetime Service
Award in 2003.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

S
everal individuals have assisted in completing Moultrie, Georgia, for their assistance in this fourth
this edition of Floriculture: Designing and revision.
Merchandising. Foremost of these is my wife, I am thankful to Adrienne Smith, Horticulture
Brenda, who has spent many hours doing a variety Instructor at Colquitt County High School, Moultrie,
of tasks. This revision would not be possible without Georgia, and several FFA members for staging a FFA
her assistance and encouragement. floral design competition for a photo shoot for this
Special appreciation and thanks is given to revision.
Ronnie Barrett, Flowers by Barrett, Moultrie, Thanks to Jill Stringfellow, Jill Stringfellow
Georgia, and his staff, Theresa Clayton, Robin Ward, Photography, Moultrie, Georgia, for her
and Charlotte Young, who were always extremely photoshopping skills.
helpful. Ronnie spent hours of his time with me, I would like to thank the team at Cengage,
discussing the current trends in the floral industry. especially Jennifer Starr for her help on a variety
He shared his wisdom of the floral world and many of tasks and her encouragement, which ensured the
of his personal photographs of arrangements and completion of this edition. Also, thank you to Betsy
displays of different holidays and seasonal events. Hough and Manoj Kumar for their guidance during
Special thanks go to Jimmy Singletary, Singletary’s the production process.
Flowers & Gifts,Thomasville, Georgia, for his advice A special thank you to the following reviewers
and critique of photographs of floral designs. who spent hours of their time and shared their
I am grateful to Marie and Brett Johnson, Marie’s thoughts and comments regarding the new edition:
Flower and Gift Shoppe, Moultrie, Georgia. They
Kendall Green
were always helpful in answering questions regarding
Agriculture Teacher
arrangements or trends.
Patterson High School
Thank you to Jim Womack, owner of Tri-State
Patterson, CA
Wholesale Florist, Albany, Georgia, and to Scott
Hogan and the remainder of the staff for their always Nan Hamilton
friendly assistance in whatever the task at hand, Agriscience Teacher
whether it was using their inventory for a photo Northern Burlington Country
shoot or ensuring the order was filled for corsages, Regional High School
arrangements, or other items for this revision. Columbus, NJ
Also, thank you to Megan Hinson, Tammy
Cassie J. Miles
Johnson, and the remainder of the staff of Hornbuckle
Agriculture Department Head
Wholesale Florist, Omega, Georgia, for their always
Plant City High School
friendly and helpful assistance no matter the task in
Plant City, FL
completing this fourth revision.
Thank you to Susan Mullis, The Flower Gallery,
Valdosta, Georgia, and Bobbie Harris,Artistic Flowers,

xv
2
 SECTION 1
An Introduction
to the Floriculture
Industry
1 l Exploring Careers in the Retail Flower Business
2 l The History of Floral Design

3
 Lindsay Kilgore

OBJECTIVE
Seeking an entry-level position in Floral Industry

EDUCATION
Strong Creative Design
Communication Oriented Colquitt County High School, Anytown, US
• Floral Design Program
• Expected Date of Graduation, May 30, 2018
• Relevant Courses: Floral Design, Greenhouse Production

SKILLS
Floral Design
• Know procedures for conditioning cut flowers and greens.
• Construct boutonnieres and corsages.
• Construct basic floral arrangements.
Floriculture
• Can identify 35 different plants sold in floral shops.
• Can advise customers on plant care.

EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITES

Contact Me
• Vice-President, Colquitt County FFA Association
• First place, state FFA floral design contest
2222 South Main Street • Future Career and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA)
Anytown, US 00000

(229) 999-0000

REFERENCES
ljk43@gmail.com Available upon request

FIGURE 1-13 l Sample résumé.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 15

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PLATE XV

1. Framework of hut in course of construction, Cooper’s Creek, S.W.

Queensland.

2. Hut decked with porcupine grass, Arltunga district.

 The men spend hours at a time in camp making or sharpening
spears. When, moreover, the weapons are not in use, the hunters
are most punctilious in preserving them from harm. The rule of the
camp is never to lay a spear upon the ground for any length of time
for two reasons; firstly, to prevent it from warping, and secondly, to
eliminate the risk of breakage by somebody carelessly walking on to
it. For these reasons the men, when camped, always take the
precaution to stand their spears in a more or less upright position
against the entrance of their huts, or against any bush or tree which
happens to be growing close at hand.
Whenever possible, the opportunity of a sojourn in camp is seized
for conducting a festive dance and song. For this purpose head-
gears and other decorations have to be manufactured, plumes and
permanent ornaments renovated, and pigments prepared to adorn
the persons taking part in the performance. Upon such occasions a
native is never seen idle.
Quite apart from preparing himself in anticipation of an
extraordinary event, however, a native might take advantage of a
delay in camp to manufacture an article with which he can barter
with an adjoining tribe. The most common article thus prepared is
ochre. Many tribes do not possess a deposit of this natural pigment
and they are most anxious to do business with their neighbours. In
exchange for the ochre, they offer such things as weapons, pitjuri-
leaf, fish, or yams. The ochre is carried to its destination either in
lumps or prepared as a fine powder. In the former case it is packed
in small fibre or fur-string bags; in the latter the powder is wrapped in
thin sheets of bark and tied together with string into neat parcels.
The preparation of the ochre-powder entails much grinding between
the stone surfaces of a hand-mill. The ochre is used for decorating
the body, as well as implements and weapons.
If now we enquire into the method of dress adopted by the
aborigines of Australia, we find that most of the tribes originally
walked about in the nude, and, apart from a few small personal
decorations, possessed nothing in the shape of a covering which
might be described as a dress. The advent of civilization has largely
interfered with this ancient practice.
 The now practically extinct south-eastern tribes, including those
along the River Murray, used more of a body-covering than any
others. Opossum, wallaby, and any suitable marsupial skins were
collected and carefully sewn together, and with these rugs the
natives could, if need be, cover the greater part of their bodies.
By far the most common mode is to tie a string around the waist,
from which is suspended a tassel to cover the pubes. These tassels
vary considerably in size according to the tribe which wears them.
The smallest are found among the Wongapitcha in the Mann and
Tomkinson Ranges; the appendage is there only worn by the men
and is barely large enough to cover the part. It is made of human
hair strands fastened at the knot of the tassel directly to the pubes;
the covering is known as the “moiranje.” As a general rule, it might
be said that the northern tribes have larger coverings than the
central, although the Yantowannta and other Barcoo River tribes
wear them as large as any. Even the Arunndta and Aluridja at
special functions suspend large pubic tassels of fur-string from the
waist-band.
The northern type of tassel consists of a great number of strings,
usually of opossum fur, bound to a central piece, which is attached to
the waist-band, either by two separate terminal strings, or by means
of one single tie from the top of the tassel. The completed covering
hangs from the waist like an apron. This type of pubic tassel is
known to all north-central and northern tribes, and might be worn by
either adult male or married female.
In place of the tassel a small sheet of the paper-bark is popular
amongst the north coastal tribes. A narrow strip, from eight to twelve
inches long, is folded transversely at its middle and hung over the
waist-band, from which it pends like an apron as described of the
tassel. Captain Matthew Flinders is perhaps the first European to
have observed this custom, as far back as 1803, at Caledon Bay,
where he observed a girl wearing “a small piece of bark, in guise of a
fig leaf, which was the sole approximation to clothing seen.”
The women of Bathurst Island carry folded sheets of the paper-
bark or large food-carriers about with them, which, upon the
approach of strangers, they hold in front of their person.
Along the whole length of coast line of north Australia, the large
shell of the pearl-oyster is made use of as a pubic covering. Even
among such tribes as live remote from the sea, one may
occasionally find the shell so used, in which case, of course, it has
been acquired from a coastal tribe by barter. In order to hang the
shell, two holes are drilled through it near the hinge line, at the top,
and a string passed through them, with which it is tied to a belt. The
rough exterior surface of the shell is ground smooth; and it is this
side which lies against the body. The nacreous inner surface is
frequently decorated with either painted designs or carvings
subsequently tinted with ochre. The Sunday Island natives are
especially adept at this type of decorative art, which will be referred
to later.
Although the aboriginal does not wear much clothing, he is very
particular about regularly anointing his supple skin. This precaution
no doubt gives him greater protection against the changes of
weather than all the modern ideas of clothing could do. What he
principally applies is fat of emu and goanna, and on the north coast
that of some of the larger fish as well. The emu in particular, and
especially during a good season, accumulates masses of fat under
its skin, which are readily removed, when slain by the hunter. This
grease the native rubs over the whole surface of his body to shield
the skin from the painful sting of the broiling sun and of the arid wind.
In addition he covers certain parts of his body and face with red
ochre and charcoal, both for cosmetic and protective purposes. The
application of coloured pigments for purely decorative and
ceremonial purposes will be discussed later.
Hair-belts are worn by young and old, male and female. Children
have only one or two twisted fur-strings tied around the waist.
Among the coastal tribes of the Northern Territory, men wear belts
made of twisted human hair. A skein of about thirty strings is tied at
two points diametrically opposite, and, making these the ends, the
sixty strings are loosely twisted into a hank about two feet in length.
The belt thus completed is tied around the waist with a piece of
human hair-string. The article is of practical use since it permits of
carrying various implements and weapons, which a man sticks
between the belt and his body. A Wogait warrior was seen with a
tomahawk thus placed at the back of his body; to stay the swinging
of the handle he held it securely in the cleft between his buttocks.
The same type of belt is used by the tribes of the Northern
Kimberleys, and there they are always chosen when a man is
wearing the pearl-shell appendage.
The Worora construct more elaborate articles by winding much
human hair-string circumferentially (i.e. spirally) round a thick inner
skein like the one described above. The finished belt looks like a
cylindrical ring about an inch in thickness.
Other kinds of belts are made, but they are more for gala
occasions, as when ceremonies are performed and tribal dances
arranged.
When his affairs are working harmoniously, game secured, and
water available, the aboriginal makes his life as easy as possible;
and he might to the outsider even appear lazy. Blessed with a fair
share of pristine philosophy by heredity, his motto might be
interpreted in words to the effect that while there is plenty for to-day
never care about to-morrow. On this account an aboriginal is inclined
to make one feast of his supplies, in preference to a modest meal
now and another by and by. The result is that, when a beast has
been roasted, the whole of it is eaten, even though the participant
family or group be small in comparison with the bulk of the spread. In
consequence of this custom, the surfeiters find it necessary in times
of plenty to frequently lie in camp, in undisguised idleness, until such
time has lapsed as Nature must demand of their systems to
overcome the discomforts which the reckless gorging had brought
about. During this period of digestive recovery, an aboriginal
endeavours to spend most of his time in sleeping off the
objectionable after-effects of his temporary indiscretion. As an
apology, however, one must admit that only too often the same
individual is compelled to go for many days without even a mouthful
to eat, and possibly, at the same time existing on a minimum of
water, under the most trying conditions imaginable—conditions
whose origin must be traced to the cycles of drought the great
southern continent is heir to, and which have become more drastic in
their effects, since the coming of the white man, through the
extermination of many indigenous animals and plants the original
owners of the land used to depend upon for their existence.
It is during the leisure hours of any stay in camp that attention is
paid to such operations as hair-cutting and beard-removing
previously referred to. When the natives have been on the march for
a time, and especially after they have been out hunting or collecting,
numbers of thorns, prickles, and splinters are picked up by the soles
of their feet, in spite of the thick horny nature of the skin. Many of
these break off short and in due course set up irritation,
necessitating their removal. Firstly the sufferer tries to remove the
foreign body from the skin with his finger-nails; failing to succeed by
this method, he cuts a small piece of wood the shape of an awl, and
with its sharp point removes the obstacle. The prickle is often
completely buried and quite invisible to the eye, yet it has to be
removed. In order to locate it under those conditions, the aboriginal
resorts to the method, not infrequently applied by the modern
surgeon, of gently pressing the skin at different places with the tip of
the instrument until the seat of pain has been located. At that spot he
cuts away the skin to a depth sufficient to expose the hidden body,
which he can then in most cases express with his fingers. During
these operations the natives repeatedly give vent to a sharp, yet
subdued “irr,” combining the expression of pain with that of disgust
or temper.
The method adopted by the natives of walking one behind the
other, where possible, is partly to minimize the risk of picking up
prickles with their feet, and partly to obliterate the individual tracks of
the party.
The dog is the aboriginal’s constant companion. In the original
tribal areas the dingo, Australia’s wild dog, is captured and tamed
young; in the more civilized districts the European dog has been
acquired and bred by the natives in alarmingly large numbers. The
animals are kept by both man and woman—in a single wurley one
might count as many as fifteen dogs living with the human
occupants. The yelping hordes are useless, except perhaps that they
raise the alarm when strangers approach the camp. Some of them
are indeed dangerously vicious. The natives have the dogs about
them merely for the love they bear towards them; it is on account of
the unreasonable amount of petting and pampering, received at the
hands of their masters, that the dogs become so thoroughly useless.
A native just holds the unruly mob about him for company sake; he
prefers to rely upon his own skill and instinct when hunting, and
rarely allows his dogs to go with him; in fact, there seems little
inclination on the part of the dogs to accompany the chase with their
master. They are so well looked after, and regularly steal so much
from the general supplies of the camp, that they grow fat and lazy.
When a dog seems to be off colour, or has been accidentally hurt, it
is nursed like a sick child; it is placed by the fireside, upon the best
rug available, and covered with other rags, the natives themselves
going without any covering. One might occasionally find a gin going
so far as to even suckle a pup at her breast.
Interesting discussions have taken place as to whether the dingo
is indigenous to Australia or whether it has come hither from some
other land, possibly with man. The wild dog found in the mountains
of Java certainly resembles the dingo very closely. Whether or no,
the dingo has existed in Australia quite as long as the primitive
tribes. Osseous remains of the wild dog have been found
contemporaneous with the extinct Diprotodon and other pre-historic
monsters. Indeed in the “mammalian drifts” filling the ancient valleys
of the ranges in the Noarlunga district, south of Adelaide, bones of
such animals have been found showing distinctly the teeth-marks of
the dingo upon them. In Victoria, and New South Wales also, dog
remains have been found in old cave deposits in company with
fossil-mammals and struthious birds, often buried beneath the
basaltic flows and ashes of Mount Gambier and other volcanoes,
which have long since become dormant. It seems most probable,
therefore, that the dingo existed in Australia in the Pliocene period,
or at any rate in that immediately following it. It is a strange
circumstance that the dingo has never been traced to Tasmania,
although, immediately opposite that island on the mainland, the dog
was most plentiful in by-gone times. The surmise is that the animal
had in its migration not reached so far south before Tasmania was
severed from the Australian continent by the breaking through of
Bass Strait. It is reasonable to assume then that the dingo came to
the south of Australia subsequent to the aboriginals who inhabited
Tasmania.
 CHAPTER XIV
HUNTING

True sportsman’s instinct—Comprehensive list of game—Land-snails—Fresh-

water mussels—Marine molluscs—Caterpillars—Grubs—Tree-climbing—
Trees felled by burning—Witchedy hook—Eggs of birds and reptiles—Snakes
and lizards—Fishing methods described—A turtle hunt—Crocodile—Dugong
—Hawk traps—Wild geese and other birds—The emu—Big game hunted by
men—Opossums—Burrowing marsupials—Wallaby—Kangarooing
expeditions—The buffalo—Wild bee honey—The honey ant.

Nothing surpasses the pleasure of real pristine chase. The

aboriginal’s ideal of life is attained when he finds himself in hot
pursuit of the game, which shares with him the wilds of his ancient
haunts. He lives at an accelerated pace; his pulse quickens, and in
his excitement he completely dissociates his mind from everything
but the spoor of his prospective prey. His vision is focussed rigidly
upon the fleeing animal—he is blind so far as any other objects are
concerned—and, behind it, he beholds just the one picture of his
ambition realized, viz. the “kill.”
The love of the sport, the keenness of the senses, and the
astounding powers of endurance are natural attributes, which the
aboriginal alone knows how to use to their fullest. These are the
hereditary gifts of man which characterize the primitive hunter; and
these are the instincts which modern representatives of the human
species have deplorably neglected.
The object of the chase is, of course, in its original phase, to find
the means wherewith to sustain the hunter’s existence. Although he
loves the sport so well, a native will never kill wantonly; whatever is
slain is eaten; to kill just for the pleasure of the thing is beyond his
comprehension and clashes seriously with his profound notions of
justice and fair-play being meted out to all his fellow-creatures.
 Apart from some of the flabby marine creations, there are few
things in the animal world which the aboriginal does not eat, either
raw or cooked in ashes. Generally speaking, the male only hunts the
larger mammals and such things as require expert knowledge to
locate, or the taking of which is associated with adventure and skill.
We shall consider a few items separately.
The larger land-snails are collected by the women in their food-
carriers. After a good downpour of rain such come out from their
hiding places in great numbers and can be collected in large
numbers, but even in midsummer, in the ranges of central Australia,
a meal of snails can at any time be secured by searching under
tussocks and beneath stones. The principal species eaten by the
Aluridja, Wongapitcha, and to a less extent by the Arunndta tribes, is
the Helix perinflata. When sufficient have been collected, they are
merely thrown upon hot ashes to roast and then picked out of the
shell with a small pointed stick.
Fresh water mussels are gathered from the mud, roasted and
consumed. These molluscs, known as the Unio, are very plentiful in
some of the permanent water-holes, such as exist along the Cooper
and Strzelecki Creeks in the Yantowannta, Wongkanguru, and Dieri
country. Along the banks of the River Murray great heaps of the
shells of such mussels are encountered by travellers even
nowadays, indicating to what an enormous extent the molluscs were
eaten by the extinct river tribes.
Countless marine species, both heliform gastropods like the
periwinkle and cockle-like bivalves, contribute towards the daily
meals of the coastal tribes. All along the south-eastern shores of
South Australia, that is, upon the cliffs occurring between Kingston
and the Glenelg River and in Victoria, many kitchen middens are still
to be found containing heaps upon heaps of the large Turbo
undulata—the remains of what the local tribes have feasted upon.
Associated with these heaps are the stones of their ovens and other
camp refuse.
The cliffs and reefs, which fringe the north coast of Australia, are
profitable hunting grounds where all kinds of shell-fish, especially
oysters, abound. The last-named are gathered and thrown upon hot
ashes; when the valves open, the “fish” are detached without any
difficulty and swallowed.
The Wongapitcha and other desert tribes do not hesitate to
consume quantities of green caterpillars, but such usually only at the
beginning of a good season, when fresh herbs are available, and the
morsel is in consequence claimed to have acquired a sweetish
flavour. The only treatment the caterpillars receive is to be thrown
upon hot ashes until they expand and straighten with the heat. The
small hairs covering them are thus singed off, but the caterpillars are
far from being cooked when eaten.
The most popular and at the same time most widely distributed
article of diet in the insect line is the larva of the big Cossus moth,
commonly known as the witchedy grub (Plate XVIII). The two
varieties which make themselves most conspicuous are, firstly, one
living in the roots of such shrubs as the Cassia and certain species
of Acacia, and, secondly, one which bores into the butt of the
eucalyptus. The first cannot usually be located by the eye, but its
presence is determined by ramming the yam-stick into the ground
under the root of the shrub and testing its resistance to leverage—if
the grub is present, the root will readily snap, whereupon the native
soon unearths it by digging with the stick and his hands. This variety
is smaller than the tree-grub and is mostly of a yellow colour.
The abode of the tree-grub is detected by the native’s keen eye in
the small holes the young larva bores into the bark and lives in until it
attains the mature moth stage. The larva lives in the butt or in any of
the larger limbs of the tree; consequently it may at times be
concealed in the bark high above the ground. In the latter case the
native will have to climb the butt and effect an ascent, no matter
what the shape of the tree happens to be. Various methods are
made use of, one of which we have already considered on page 13.
One of the commonest methods is to cut shallow notches in the
bark of the butt, one above the other, and so placed that the toes of
either foot of the climber can be placed into them, alternately right
and left. The climber, as he ascends, cuts fresh notches into the bark
with his tomahawk; and if the butt is so big that he cannot hold on to
it, he is obliged to cling to a notch with the fingers of one hand whilst
the other hand is used to cut the new notch above it. In this manner
he works his way upwards to the nearest lateral branch, whence the
ascent is in most cases easier. It is wonderful with what assurance
and ease the native accomplishes this dangerous task; and one
marvels how it is possible for him to retain his balance against the
vertical trunk of the tree. The notches, too, which he cuts into the
bark, are so shallow that only the very toe-tips can be inserted. One
uncertain movement, or one slip of either toe or finger, and he would
fall to the ground; and considering the height to which he
occasionally climbs, this might mean certain death. All grub-holes
are examined on the way up and the occupants extracted. Vide Plate
XIX, 1.
When the diameter of the butt is not too large to prevent the native
from holding his hands around the distant side, the notches are
dispensed with, and the climber simply “walks” up the tree, keeping
his arms extended and allowing his hands to slide along the surface
as he ascends. The method is in vogue principally in the tropical
portions of Australia, where small-trunked trees and palms are
plentiful in the jungles surrounding permanent water-holes and
rivers.
In the same region, strong vines and creepers, which are
interlaced with the branches of a tree to be explored, are climbed,
hand over hand, by the hunter, who gets his hold by gripping the
stem between the big and second toes.
In north-eastern Queensland, tree-climbing is accomplished by the
aid of a long and strong piece of the lawyer-cane, which is passed
around that side of the tree-trunk lying away from the climber. The
native seizes both ends of this loop, one in either hand, and keeping
it taut by throwing his body backwards into a sloping position, he
places his feet against the tree. Momentarily relaxing the strain upon
the cane, by a jerk from his arms, he thrusts the loop a short
distance up the trunk, at the same time lifting one foot above the
other as though he were walking up a ladder. The same operation is
repeated, when the other foot is lifted; and thus he makes quick
progress towards the first lateral branches of the tree. Should at any
time the climber want to use one of his hands, he passes one end of
the cane under the knee of the same side as the hand to be liberated
and holds the end between the big toe and that next to it.
Often the natives do not climb the tree, but prefer to light a fire at
the base of it and wait until the flame has eaten its way through
sufficiently far to fell it. After a giant of the woods has crashed to the
ground, it is comparatively easy for the hunters to obtain any spoil
concealed in its bark, hollows, or branches.
Although we have considered the methods of tree-climbing in
connection with the witchedy grub, it must be understood that the
same methods are employed in hunting small animals, in bird-
nesting, in honey-collecting, and so forth.
The witchedy grub is extracted from its hiding place by means of a
light hooked stick. This implement is from four to six inches long and
is usually cut from a small pronged twig, one arm of which is left the
required length, the other cut short and sharpened to form the hook.
The stick is inserted into the hole occupied by the witchedy grub,
hook foremost, and pushed in until the grub is penetrated; then it is
withdrawn, the hook bringing the grub with it. As the hole is usually
small at its entrance, the bark is first cut away to a small depth with a
tomahawk in order to avoid the constriction when the grub is being
withdrawn. The witchedy-hook is known throughout central and
southern Australia; the Arunndta word for it is “ullyinga.”
The witchedy grub is prepared like most things already described,
namely, by throwing it upon hot ashes for a few moments until it
straightens and expands, but does not burst. Although we
Europeans have become adverse to eating anything in the grub line,
there are many bush people who regularly partake of the witchedy;
indeed, by many the grub is regarded as a very tasty dish. The
flavour of the cooked witchedy is like that of scrambled egg, slightly
sweetened.
The eggs and fledglings of all birds yield abundant food supplies
during favourable seasons. In central Australia such seasons are
dependent entirely upon the rains. Birds breed usually after the
setting in of rain, which might be once or twice a year, but in the
driest regions, like the Victoria Desert, perhaps only once every few
years. There is no doubt that emu, black swan, and native goose are
amongst the biggest suppliers of eggs. Of the two last-named birds,
in particular, enormous harvests of eggs are occasionally wrested
during exceptional seasons. At these times the tribes who have been
so bounteously favoured carry on a regular trade with neighbouring
tribes, who have perhaps not had the same opportunity or good
fortune.
The eggs of the larger birds mentioned are laid upon, or into, hot
sand and frequently turned to ensure them cooking on all sides. The
desert tribes of the Kimberley district have a knack of snatching the
egg, as it lies upon the hot ashes, spinning it in the air, catching it
again, and replacing it on to the ashes. The process might be
repeated two or three times. The idea is to stir up the contents of the
egg, in order that they may cook uniformly, much after the style of an
omelette or scrambled egg.
The eggs of lizards, crocodiles, turtles, and other reptiles are also
feasted upon. Of turtles in particular great numbers of eggs are
collected along the north coast of Australia. The female turtle comes
out of the ocean and lays many eggs in the sand, a short distance
above high water mark; between fifty and sixty eggs are commonly
found in a single nest. The turtle lays the eggs into a hole it
previously scoops out, and covers them with sand it piles up with its
paddles. The aboriginal locates the nest by tracking the
characteristic spoor across the sand. When the nest has been
discovered, the hunter probes the pile with a pointed stick or spear to
ascertain whether the eggs are still available. This he can presage
by looking at the point of the stick when he withdraws it: if the eggs
are freshly laid, the point will be covered with yellow yolk, if partly
hatched blood will show itself. The eggs are eaten in either condition.
The lucky hunter, immediately he finds a nest, digs out the eggs with
his hands and yam stick, and carries them in a food-vessel back to
camp. Their preparation is much the same as that of birds’ eggs, but,
in the case of the turtle’s, the white of the egg does not coagulate.
 Snakes and lizards, especially the larger species, contribute
towards the daily meals. They are tracked to their holes and hiding
places and dug out. Great catches are made in the northern coastal
districts by setting fire to areas covered with long, dry grass. The
hunting party surrounds the burning patch and kills the reptiles, as
they are driven out of their hiding places by the heat. Many creatures
are overtaken by the flames and partially roasted before they can
escape. These are collected as soon as the ground permits of
walking over it, but very often such morsels fall into the claws of the
birds of prey, which hover over the place directly the fires are started.
In order to ensure a rapid spread of the flames, the natives make
use of a stick, about a yard long, with a hook at one end. With this
stick in their hand, they pick up some of the blazing grass at the
hook-end, and run with it along and through the grass, setting fire to
as much as they can, and in as short a time as possible.
Of the lizards, the most favoured are the species of Varanus,
popularly known as the printhy and the goanna. These species live
in central and northern Australia and attain a considerable size, the
printhy in particular, living in the MacDonnell and Musgrave Ranges,
attain a size of over six feet. These lizards in a good season are
considered a delicacy, and the fat is prized as nutriment, as
medicine, or as cosmetic ointment alike. The lizards are slain either
in the caves they inhabit or as they are running from the hunter. In
sandy stretches of country, the smaller goannas are often dug out of
the holes they dwell in, and are killed on the spot.
Fishing is indulged in wherever the conditions permit of it.
Opportunities are naturally rare in central Australia, and are
restricted to only a few permanent water-holes along the courses of
river systems like the Cooper, Diamentina, and Finke. In the northern
rivers, which are nearly all permanently flowing, as for example the
Fitzroy, Prince Regent, Victoria, Daly, Alligators, Roper, and
Leichhardt, there is always an abundant supply of fish available. A
common method practised both in central and northern Australia is
to form a fishing party of men and boys, who enter a water-hole at
one end and drive the fish before them, by making as much noise
and splash as possible, at the same time gradually working their way
towards the shallow water. Great care is taken not to allow any of the
prey to make its escape by darting back through the line of the party
into deep water again. Suddenly a final, united drive is made,
through which most of the terrified fish find themselves in
disastrously shallow water. In their frantic endeavour to escape, they
entangle themselves in the mud, and can easily be grabbed by the
members of the party. As fast as the fish are taken by the men, they
are thrown on to the dry bank, where some gins are in readiness to
seize them and dispatch them by crushing their heads between their
teeth.
Many of the larger fish living in the water-holes have the habit of
throwing themselves out of the water when the mud is stirred up in it;
lying high and dry upon the muddy banks of the hole, they are easily
seized by the natives and killed.
In the western rivers district of the Northern Territory, after the
water has dried up in the creeks, leaving only shallow pools behind,
the imprisoned fish are driven towards small inlets by means of long
bundles of grass and twigs held horizontally in the water. In this way
they are pushed forward on to the bank, and the water filters back to
the hole. The fish are retained by the brushwood, from which they
are easily extricated by the hunters.
The Carpentaria tribes build ingenious races at suitable sites, as
for instance at a point where a river drains a billabong. By means of
a series of embankments, the water is conducted along a number of
constricted channels to long hollow logs, through which it flows, and,
subsequently, empties itself over stacks of brushwood. The fish are
entangled in the brushwood, whence they are removed by the
hunters to a place of safety.
Crawfish are traced in shallow pools by keeping a constant look-
out for the ends of their antennæ, which stick out above the surface
of the turbid water; the native seizes these, and, with a jerk, hurls the
crustaceans on to the bank.
 PLATE XVI

1. Wongapitcha women carrying dogs which they hold across their backs to enjoy
the warmth of the animals’ bodies.

2. Kolaia man standing in the characteristic bird-like attitude, Cambridge Gulf.

In the Victoria River district of the Northern Territory, where there

are suitable constrictions in shallow tidal-inlets and creeks, the
natives sit in a line across the opening at ebb-tide after the following
fashion: Each person squats with his legs doubled in the knees, the
thighs resting well apart and in contact, one on either side, with
those of his neighbours, who are seated just as he. When the last of
the water ebbs out, the fish endeavour to make through the line of
the fishers, but the moment one invades the angle contained by an
aboriginal’s thighs, it is immediately pounced upon, caught, and
thrown across to the women waiting on the shore.
 In place of the human line, very often a net is spanned across an
ebbing inlet, being kept in a more or less vertical position by a
number of stakes, which are driven into the sand. These nets are
made of vegetable fibre twine, strung or knitted together, after a
loop-within-loop pattern, into pieces many yards in length.
Barriers are also built across shallow inlets, which upon the
recession of the tide may occasionally retain large numbers of fish.
Such structures are plentiful in the Berringin territory along the north
coast, and in the Carpentaria Gulf country.
More temporary structures are made of branches and strips of
paper-bark, stayed by vertical piles, driven into the sand at short
distances apart. This type of barrier was seen mostly across the
beds of creeks such as the McKinlay, Cullen, and Lennard.
A kind of noose is made by the Daly River tribes consisting of a
long piece of big meshwork, which is loosely suspended across a
narrow arm of water, or a creek, known to be frequented by larger
varieties of fish. Whilst endeavouring to swim through the meshes of
this contrivance, which at first offers no material resistance to the
attempt, the fish, in carrying the noose onwards, forces its body
partly through one of the meshes. Some of the prey might succeed
in slipping through, others will pull the noose over their heads and fix
the mesh in such a position that it will move neither forwards nor
backwards. In this case, the fish will be obliged to linger until the
natives come along to ascertain what luck they have had, when it is
removed, together with any others which have met with a similar
fate.
Practically all coastal tribes of Australia have made use of fishing
nets at some time or other. Nowadays only the far northern coastal
tribes still practise netting. The Daly River tribes, the Wogait, Sherait,
Larrekiya, Berringin, and others construct nets after one and the
same principle. Two hoops are made of the long shoots of Spinifex,
growing upon the sandhills on the shore, usually by twisting two
pairs of such pieces together, respectively, and tying their ends so as
to form a complete ring, measuring about five feet in diameter.
Round the inside of this ring is tied a circular net made out of fibre
twine or of Hybiscus bark. The net is made by hand, after the loop-
within-loop method previously referred to. To use the net, two
natives, usually females, seize it with one hand placed at either side
of the rim. As they wade out to a suitable depth, they hold the net
between them, partly submerged and slightly inclined, so that the
lower edge is in advance of the upper. In their free hands the gins
carry branches, with which they frequently beat the water on either
side, so as to drive any fish, within the beating radius, towards the
centre of the net. So soon as a fish is noticed to go inside, the net is
quickly turned up into a horizontal position and the captive bagged
(Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Berringin women netting fish.

A constant watch is kept for large fish, which may be swimming

close in to shore, in order that they might be dispatched with a stone
or throwing stick. Feeding stingrays are often captured this way.
When saw-fish come into shallow water, the natives wade in, seize
the fish by their tails, and throw them up on to dry land before the
dangerous “saws” can do any harm.
The spear is a favourite weapon with which to obtain a fish. A
special type is used by the Larrekiya, Wogait, the Alligator River, and
other coastal tribes in the north. The spear is about eleven feet long,
has a shaft of reed or bamboo, and three barbed prongs of ironwood
grouped in a circle around the head of the shaft. These spikes,
measuring from twelve to fifteen inches, are attached with resin and
string or paperbark. The barbs are short and directed backwards,
each prong containing from eight to eleven, gradually increasing in
size from the point towards the shaft. This trident-spear is used
mostly for salt-water fish, and is thrown with or without a spear-
thrower. The idea of the three spikes is to jam the fish so that it is
held by the retrorse barbs. The spearing is done either off reefs and
rocks, or simply by wading out into shallow water and securing the
prey as it emerges from sea-weed or swims near the sandy bottom;
many of the coastal and river tribes do much of their spearing from
the bow of a canoe. Some tribes make similar fish-spears, but with
two prongs only.
The Kimberley tribes of Western Australia, the island tribes off the
north coast and the north Queensland coastal tribes use straight,
pointed spears of mangrove wood, those of the Crocker Island being
exceptionally well finished and of harder wood.
The tribes living more inland in the river districts of the north also
use a singly pointed, straight fish-spear. A native does most of his
fishing by perching himself upon a high bank, rock, or fallen log, at a
place where he knows fish are being attracted to the surface of the
water by flies or other causes. He stands rigidly for hours, with his
spear poised, patiently waiting for the opportunity, which will allow
him to thrust the sharp point into the body of the unsuspecting prey.
The spear is thrown with such force that it either sticks in the mud
below or disappears under water for a while. In either case, the
native has to wade or swim out to the missile, and when he retakes
it, the fish, if he has been successful, is found sticking to the end of
the spear.
The hook and line are used by the Daly and Alligator River tribes
of the Northern Territory. Two types of hook are employed. One is cut
out of a pelvic bone or shoulder blade of the kangaroo, or out of the
pearl shell. It is of a strongly bent sickle-shape, pointed at one end
and containing a notch at the other, to which a line can be securely
tied.
The other hook consists of two pieces of bone of unequal length.
The shorter and thinner piece, about two inches in length, is pointed
at one end and tied at an angle to the bigger piece, which is about