Handbook of Human-Machine Systems

Giancarlo Fortino
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Handbook of Human-Machine Systems
 IEEE Press
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IEEE Press Editorial Board

Sarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli Benediktsson Behzad Razavi Jeffrey Reed

Anjan Bose Jim Lyke Diomidis Spinellis
James Duncan Hai Li Adam Drobot
Amin Moeness Brian Johnson Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Handbook of Human-Machine Systems

Edited by

Giancarlo Fortino
University of Calabria
Italy

David Kaber
University of Florida
USA

Andreas Nürnberger
Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg
Germany

David Mendonça
MITRE Corporation
USA
Copyright © 2023 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

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 v

Contents

Editors Biography xxi

List of Contributors xxiii
Preface xxxiii

1 Introduction 1
Giancarlo Fortino, David Kaber, Andreas Nürnberger, and David Mendonça
1.1 Book Rationale 1
1.2 Chapters Overview 2
Acknowledgments 8
References 8

2 Brain–Computer Interfaces: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Future

Directions 11
Tiago H. Falk, Christoph Guger, and Ivan Volosyak
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Background 12
2.2.1 Active/Reactive BCIs 13
2.2.2 Passive BCIs 14
2.2.3 Hybrid BCIs 15
2.3 Recent Advances and Applications 15
2.3.1 Active/Reactive BCIs 15
2.3.2 Passive BCIs 16
2.3.3 Hybrid BCIs 16
2.4 Future Research Challenges 16
2.4.1 Current Research Issues 17
2.4.2 Future Research Directions 17
2.5 Conclusions 18
References 18

3 Brain–Computer Interfaces for Affective Neurofeedback Applications 23

Lucas R. Trambaiolli and Tiago H. Falk
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Background 23
3.3 State-of-the-Art 24
3.3.1 Depressive Disorder 25
3.3.2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD 26
3.4 Future Research Challenges 27
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3.4.1 Open Challenges 27

3.4.2 Future Directions 28
3.5 Conclusion 28
References 29

4 Pediatric Brain–Computer Interfaces: An Unmet Need 35

Eli Kinney-Lang, Erica D. Floreani, Niloufaralsadat Hashemi, Dion Kelly, Stefanie S. Bradley,
Christine Horner, Brian Irvine, Zeanna Jadavji, Danette Rowley, Ilyas Sadybekov, Si Long
Jenny Tou, Ephrem Zewdie, Tom Chau, and Adam Kirton
4.1 Introduction 35
4.1.1 Motivation 36
4.2 Background 36
4.2.1 Components of a BCI 36
4.2.1.1 Signal Acquisition 36
4.2.1.2 Signal Processing 36
4.2.1.3 Feedback 36
4.2.1.4 Paradigms 37
4.2.2 Brain Anatomy and Physiology 37
4.2.3 Developmental Neurophysiology 38
4.2.4 Clinical Translation of BCI 38
4.2.4.1 Assistive Technology (AT) 38
4.2.4.2 Clinical Assessment 39
4.3 Current Body of Knowledge 39
4.4 Considerations for Pediatric BCI 40
4.4.1 Developmental Impact on EEG-based BCI 40
4.4.2 Hardware for Pediatric BCI 41
4.4.3 Signal Processing for Pediatric BCI 41
4.4.3.1 Feature Extraction, Selection and Classification 42
4.4.3.2 Emerging Techniques 42
4.4.4 Designing Experiments for Pediatric BCI 43
4.4.5 Meaningful Applications for Pediatric BCI 43
4.4.6 Clinical Translation of Pediatric BCI 44
4.5 Conclusions 44
References 45

5 Brain–Computer Interface-based Predator–Prey Drone Interactions 49

Abdelkader Nasreddine Belkacem and Abderrahmane Lakas
5.1 Introduction 49
5.2 Related Work 50
5.3 Predator–Prey Drone Interaction 51
5.4 Conclusion and Future Challenges 57
References 58

6 Levels of Cooperation in Human–Machine Systems: A Human–BCI–Robot

Example 61
Marie-Pierre Pacaux-Lemoine, Lydia Habib, and Tom Carlson
6.1 Introduction 61
 Contents vii

6.2 Levels of Cooperation 61

6.3 Application to the Control of a Robot by Thought 63
6.3.1 Designing the System 64
6.3.2 Experiments and Results 66
6.4 Results from the Methodological Point of View 67
6.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 68
References 69

7 Human–Machine Social Systems: Test and Validation via Military

Use Cases 71
Charlene K. Stokes, Monika Lohani, Arwen H. DeCostanza, and Elliot Loh
7.1 Introduction 71
7.2 Background Summary: From Tools to Teammates 72
7.2.1 Two Sides of the Equation 72
7.2.2 Moving Beyond the Cognitive Revolution 73
7.2.2.1 A Rediscovery of the Unconscious 74
7.3 Future Research Directions 75
7.3.1 Machine: Functional Designs 75
7.3.2 Human: Ground Truth 76
7.3.2.1 Physiological Computing 76
7.3.3 Context: Tying It All Together 77
7.3.3.1 Training and Team Models 77
7.4 Conclusion 79
References 79

8 The Role of Multimodal Data for Modeling Communication in Artificial

Social Agents 83
Stephanie Gross and Brigitte Krenn
8.1 Introduction 83
8.2 Background 84
8.2.1 Context 84
8.2.2 Basic Definitions 84
8.3 Related Work 84
8.3.1 HHI Data 85
8.3.2 HRI Data 85
8.3.2.1 Joint Attention and Robot Turn-Taking Capabilities 85
8.3.3 Public Availability of the Data 87
8.4 Datasets and Resulting Implications 87
8.4.1 Human Communicative Signals 87
8.4.1.1 Experimental Setup 87
8.4.1.2 Data Analysis and Results 88
8.4.2 Humans Reacting to Robot Signals 89
8.4.2.1 Comparing Different Robotic Turn-Giving Signals 89
8.4.2.2 Comparing Different Transparency Mechanisms 90
8.5 Conclusions 91
8.6 Future Research Challenges 91
References 91
viii Contents

9 Modeling Interactions Happening in People-Driven Collaborative

Processes 95
Maximiliano Canche, Sergio F. Ochoa, Daniel Perovich, and Rodrigo Santos
9.1 Introduction 95
9.2 Background 97
9.3 State-of-the-Art in Interaction Modeling Languages and Notations 98
9.3.1 Visual Languages and Notations 99
9.3.2 Comparison of Interaction Modeling Languages and Notations 100
9.4 Challenges and Future Research Directions 101
References 102

10 Transparent Communications for Human–Machine Teaming 105

Jessie Y. C. Chen
10.1 Introduction 105
10.2 Definitions and Frameworks 105
10.3 Implementation of Transparent Human–Machine Interfaces in Intelligent
Systems 106
10.3.1 Human–Robot Interaction 106
10.3.2 Multiagent Systems and Human–Swarm Interaction 108
10.3.3 Automated/Autonomous Driving 109
10.3.4 Explainable AI-Based Systems 109
10.3.5 Guidelines and Assessment Methods 109
10.4 Future Research Directions 110
References 111

11 Conversational Human–Machine Interfaces 115

María Jesús Rodríguez-Sánchez, Kawtar Benghazi, David Griol, and Zoraida Callejas
11.1 Introduction 115
11.2 Background 115
11.2.1 History of the Development of the Field 116
11.2.2 Basic Definitions 117
11.3 State-of-the-Art 117
11.3.1 Discussion of the Most Important Scientific/Technical Contributions 117
11.3.2 Comparison Table 119
11.4 Future Research Challenges 121
11.4.1 Current Research Issues 121
11.4.2 Future Research Directions Dealing with the Current Issues 121
References 122

12 Interaction-Centered Design: An Enduring Strategy and Methodology for

Sociotechnical Systems 125
Ming Hou, Scott Fang, Wenbi Wang, and Philip S. E. Farrell
12.1 Introduction 125
12.2 Evolution of HMS Design Strategy 126
12.2.1 A HMS Technology: Intelligent Adaptive System 126
12.2.2 Evolution of IAS Design Strategy 128
12.3 State-of-the-Art: Interaction-Centered Design 130
 Contents ix

12.3.1 A Generic Agent-based ICD Framework 130

12.3.2 IMPACTS: An Human–Machine Teaming Trust Model 132
12.3.3 ICD Roadmap for IAS Design and Development 133
12.3.4 ICD Validation, Adoption, and Contributions 134
12.4 IAS Design Challenges and Future Work 135
12.4.1 Challenges of HMS Technology 136
12.4.2 Future Work in IAS Design and Validation 136
References 137

13 Human–Machine Computing: Paradigm, Challenges, and Practices 141

Zhiwen Yu, Qingyang Li, and Bin Guo
13.1 Introduction 141
13.2 Background 142
13.2.1 History of the Development 142
13.2.2 Basic Definitions 143
13.3 State of the Art 144
13.3.1 Technical Contributions 144
13.3.2 Comparison Table 148
13.4 Future Research Challenges 150
13.4.1 Current Research Issues 150
13.4.2 Future Research Directions 151
References 152

14 Companion Technology 155

Andreas Wendemuth
14.1 Introduction 155
14.2 Background 155
14.2.1 History 156
14.2.2 Basic Definitions 157
14.3 State-of-the-Art 158
14.3.1 Discussion of the Most Important Scientific/Technical Contributions 159
14.4 Future Research Challenges 159
14.4.1 Current Research Issues 159
14.4.2 Future Research Directions Dealing with the Current Issues 160
References 161

15 A Survey on Rollator-Type Mobility Assistance Robots 165

Milad Geravand, Christian Werner, Klaus Hauer, and Angelika Peer
15.1 Introduction 165
15.2 Mobility Assistance Platforms 165
15.2.1 Actuation 166
15.2.2 Kinematics 166
15.2.2.1 Locomotion Support 166
15.2.2.2 STS Support 166
15.2.3 Sensors 168
15.2.4 Human–Machine Interfaces 168
15.3 Functionalities 168
x Contents

15.3.1 STS Assistance 169

15.3.2 Walking Assistance 169
15.3.2.1 Maneuverability Improvement 169
15.3.2.2 Gravity Compensation 170
15.3.2.3 Obstacle Avoidance 170
15.3.2.4 Falls Risk Prediction and Fall Prevention 170
15.3.3 Localization and Navigation 170
15.3.3.1 Map Building and Localization 171
15.3.3.2 Path Planning 171
15.3.3.3 Assisted Localization 171
15.3.3.4 Assisted Navigation 171
15.3.4 Further Functionalities 171
15.3.4.1 Reminder Systems 171
15.3.4.2 Health Monitoring 171
15.3.4.3 Communication, Information, Entertainment, and Training 172
15.4 Conclusion 172
References 173

16 A Wearable Affective Robot 181

Jia Liu, Jinfeng Xu, Min Chen, and Iztok Humar
16.1 Introduction 181
16.2 Architecture Design and Characteristics 183
16.2.1 Architecture of a Wearable Affective Robot 183
16.2.2 Characteristics of a Wearable Affective Robot 184
16.3 Design of the Wearable, Affective Robot’s Hardware 185
16.3.1 AIWAC Box Hardware Design 185
16.3.2 Hardware Design of the EEG Acquisition 185
16.3.3 AIWAC Smart Tactile Device 185
16.3.4 Prototype of the Wearable Affective Robot 186
16.4 Algorithm for the Wearable Affective Robot 186
16.4.1 Algorithm for Affective Recognition 186
16.4.2 User-Behavior Perception based on a Brain-Wearable Device 186
16.5 Life Modeling of the Wearable Affective Robot 187
16.5.1 Data Set Labeling and Processing 188
16.5.2 Multidimensional Data Integration 188
16.5.3 Modeling of Associated Scenarios 188
16.6 Challenges and Prospects 189
16.6.1 Research Challenges of the Wearable Affective Robot 189
16.6.2 Application Scenarios for the Wearable Affective Robot 189
16.7 Conclusions 190
References 190

17 Visual Human–Computer Interactions for Intelligent Vehicles 193

Xumeng Wang, Wei Chen, and Fei-Yue Wang
17.1 Introduction 193
17.2 Background 193
 Contents xi

17.3 State-of-the-Art 194

17.3.1 VHCI in Vehicles 194
17.3.1.1 Information Feedback from Intelligent Vehicles 195
17.3.1.2 Human-Guided Driving 195
17.3.2 VHCI Among Vehicles 195
17.3.3 VHCI Beyond Vehicles 195
17.4 Future Research Challenges 196
17.4.1 VHCI for Intelligent Vehicles 196
17.4.1.1 Vehicle Development 196
17.4.1.2 Vehicle Manufacture 197
17.4.1.3 Preference Recording 197
17.4.1.4 Vehicle Usage 197
17.4.2 VHCI for Intelligent Transportation Systems 198
17.4.2.1 Parallel World 198
17.4.2.2 The Framework of Intelligent Transportation Systems 198
References 199

18 Intelligent Collaboration Between Humans and Robots 203

Andrea Maria Zanchettin
18.1 Introduction 203
18.2 Background 203
18.2.1 Context 203
18.2.2 Basic Definitions 204
18.3 Related Work 205
18.4 Validation Cases 206
18.4.1 A Simple Verification Scenario 207
18.4.2 Activity Recognition Based on Semantic Hand-Object Interaction 208
18.5 Conclusions 210
18.6 Future Research Challenges 210
References 210

19 To Be Trustworthy and To Trust: The New Frontier of Intelligent

Systems 213
Rino Falcone, Alessandro Sapienza, Filippo Cantucci, and Cristiano Castelfranchi
19.1 Introduction 213
19.2 Background 214
19.3 Basic Definitions 214
19.4 State-of-the-Art 215
19.4.1 Trust in Different Domains 215
19.4.2 Selected Articles 215
19.4.3 Differences in the Use of Trust 216
19.4.4 Approaches to Model Trust 217
19.4.5 Sources of Trust 218
19.4.6 Different Computational Models of Trust 218
19.5 Future Research Challenges 220
References 221
xii Contents

20 Decoding Humans’ and Virtual Agents’ Emotional Expressions 225

Terry Amorese, Gennaro Cordasco, Marialucia Cuciniello, Olga Shevaleva, Stefano Marrone,
Carl Vogel, and Anna Esposito
20.1 Introduction 225
20.2 Related Work 226
20.3 Materials and Methodology 227
20.3.1 Participants 227
20.3.2 Stimuli 228
20.3.3 Tools and Procedures 228
20.4 Descriptive Statistics 229
20.5 Data Analysis and Results 230
20.5.1 Comparison Synthetic vs. Naturalistic Experiment 234
20.6 Discussion and Conclusions 235
Acknowledgment 238
References 238

21 Intelligent Computational Edge: From Pervasive Computing and Internet of

Things to Computing Continuum 241
Radmila Juric
21.1 Introduction 241
21.2 The Journey of Pervasive Computing 242
21.3 The Power of the IoT 243
21.3.1 Inherent Problems with the IoT 244
21.4 IoT: The Journey from Cloud to Edge 245
21.5 Toward Intelligent Computational Edge 246
21.6 Is Computing Continuum the Answer? 247
21.7 Do We Have More Questions than Answers? 248
21.8 What Would our Vision Be? 249
References 251

22 Implementing Context Awareness in Autonomous Vehicles 257

Federico Faruffini, Alessandro Correa-Victorino, and Marie-Hélène Abel
22.1 Introduction 257
22.2 Background 258
22.2.1 Ontologies 258
22.2.2 Autonomous Driving 258
22.2.3 Basic Definitions 259
22.3 Related Works 260
22.4 Implementation and Tests 261
22.4.1 Implementing the Context of Navigation 261
22.4.2 Control Loop Rule 262
22.4.3 Simulations 263
22.5 Conclusions 264
22.6 Future Research Challenges 264
References 264
 Contents xiii

23 The Augmented Workforce: A Systematic Review of Operator Assistance

Systems 267
Elisa Roth, Mirco Moencks, and Thomas Bohné
23.1 Introduction 267
23.2 Background 268
23.2.1 Definitions 268
23.3 State of the Art 269
23.3.1 Empirical Considerations 270
23.3.1.1 Application Areas 270
23.3.2 Assistance Capabilities 270
23.3.2.1 Task Guidance 271
23.3.2.2 Knowledge Management 271
23.3.2.3 Monitoring 273
23.3.2.4 Communication 273
23.3.2.5 Decision-Making 273
23.3.3 Meta-capabilities 274
23.3.3.1 Configuration Flexibility 274
23.3.3.2 Interoperability 274
23.3.3.3 Content Authoring 274
23.3.3.4 Initiation 274
23.3.3.5 Hardware 275
23.3.3.6 User Interfaces 275
23.4 Future Research Directions 275
23.4.1 Empirical Evidence 275
23.4.2 Collaborative Research 277
23.4.3 Systemic Approaches 277
23.4.4 Technology-Mediated Learning 277
23.5 Conclusion 277
References 278

24 Cognitive Performance Modeling 281

Maryam Zahabi and Junho Park
24.1 Introduction 281
24.2 Background 281
24.3 State-of-the-Art 282
24.4 Current Research Issues 286
24.5 Future Research Directions Dealing with the Current Issues 286
References 287

25 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems: Transparency and Driver Performance

Effects 291
Yulin Deng and David B. Kaber
25.1 Introduction 291
25.2 Background 292
25.2.1 Context 292
xiv Contents

25.2.2 Basic Definition 292

25.3 Related Work 293
25.4 Method 294
25.4.1 Apparatus 295
25.4.2 Participants 296
25.4.3 Experiment Design 296
25.4.4 Tasks 297
25.4.5 Dependent Variables 297
25.4.5.1 Hazard Negotiation Performance 297
25.4.5.2 Vehicle Control Performance 298
25.4.6 Procedure 298
25.5 Results 299
25.5.1 Hazard Reaction Performance 299
25.5.2 Posthazard Manual Driving Performance 299
25.5.3 Posttesting Usability Questionnaire 301
25.6 Discussion 302
25.7 Conclusion 303
25.8 Future Research 304
References 304

26 RGB-D Based Human Action Recognition: From Handcrafted to Deep

Learning 307
Bangli Liu and Honghai Liu
26.1 Introduction 307
26.2 RGB-D Sensors and 3D Data 307
26.3 Human Action Recognition via Handcrafted Methods 308
26.3.1 Skeleton-Based Methods 308
26.3.2 Depth-Based Methods 309
26.3.3 Hybrid Feature-Based Methods 309
26.4 Human Action Recognition via Deep Learning Methods 310
26.4.1 CNN-Based Methods 310
26.4.2 RNN-Based Methods 311
26.4.3 GCN-Based Methods 313
26.5 Discussion 314
26.6 RGB-D Datasets 314
26.7 Conclusion and Future Directions 315
References 316

27 Hybrid Intelligence: Augmenting Employees’ Decision-Making with AI-Based

Applications 321
Ina Heine, Thomas Hellebrandt, Louis Huebser, and Marcos Padrón
27.1 Introduction 321
27.2 Background 321
27.2.1 Context 321
27.2.2 Basic Definitions 322
27.3 Related Work 323
27.4 Technical Part of the Chapter 324
 Contents xv

27.4.1 Description of the Use Case 324

27.4.1.1 Business Model 324
27.4.1.2 Process 324
27.4.1.3 Use Case Objectives 325
27.4.2 Description of the Envisioned Solution 325
27.4.3 Development Approach of AI Application 326
27.4.3.1 Development Process 326
27.4.3.2 Process Analysis and Time Study 326
27.4.3.3 Development and Deployment Data 327
27.4.3.4 System Testing and Deployment 327
27.4.3.5 Development Infrastructure and Development Cost Monitoring 327
27.5 Conclusions 330
27.6 Future Research Challenges 330
References 330

28 Human Factors in Driving 333

Birsen Donmez, Dengbo He, and Holland M. Vasquez
28.1 Introduction 333
28.2 Research Methodologies 334
28.3 In-Vehicle Electronic Devices 335
28.3.1 Distraction 335
28.3.2 Interaction Modality 336
28.3.2.1 Visual and Manual Modalities 336
28.3.2.2 Auditory and Vocal Modalities 337
28.3.2.3 Haptic Modality 338
28.3.3 Wearable Devices 338
28.4 Vehicle Automation 339
28.4.1 Driver Support Features 339
28.4.2 Automated Driving Features 341
28.5 Driver Monitoring Systems 342
28.6 Conclusion 343
References 343

29 Wearable Computing Systems: State-of-the-Art and Research

Challenges 349
Giancarlo Fortino and Raffaele Gravina
29.1 Introduction 349
29.2 Wearable Devices 350
29.2.1 A History of Wearables 350
29.2.2 Sensor Types 351
29.2.2.1 Physiological Sensors 352
29.2.2.2 Inertial Sensors 352
29.2.2.3 Visual Sensors 352
29.2.2.4 Audio Sensors 355
29.2.2.5 Other Sensors 355
29.3 Body Sensor Networks-based Wearable Computing Systems 355
29.3.1 Body Sensor Networks 355
xvi Contents

29.3.2 The SPINE Body-of-Knowledge 357

29.3.2.1 The SPINE Framework 357
29.3.2.2 The BodyCloud Framework 359
29.4 Applications of Wearable Devices and BSNs 360
29.4.1 Healthcare 360
29.4.1.1 Cardiovascular Disease 362
29.4.1.2 Parkinson’s Disease 362
29.4.1.3 Respiratory Disease 362
29.4.1.4 Diabetes 363
29.4.1.5 Rehabilitation 363
29.4.2 Fitness 363
29.4.2.1 Diet Monitoring 363
29.4.2.2 Activity/Fitness Tracker 363
29.4.3 Sports 364
29.4.4 Entertainment 364
29.5 Challenges and Prospects 364
29.5.1 Materials and Wearability 364
29.5.2 Power Supply 365
29.5.3 Security and Privacy 365
29.5.4 Communication 365
29.5.5 Embedded Computing, Development Methodologies, and Edge AI 365
29.6 Conclusions 365
Acknowledgment 366
References 366

30 Multisensor Wearable Device for Monitoring Vital Signs and Physical

Activity 373
Joshua Di Tocco, Luigi Raiano, Daniela lo Presti, Carlo Massaroni, Domenico Formica, and
Emiliano Schena
30.1 Introduction 373
30.2 Background 373
30.2.1 Context 373
30.2.2 Basic Definitions 374
30.3 Related Work 375
30.4 Case Study: Multisensor Wearable Device for Monitoring RR and Physical
Activity 376
30.4.1 Wearable Device Description 376
30.4.1.1 Module for the Estimation of RR 377
30.4.1.2 Module for the Estimation of Physical Activity 377
30.4.2 Experimental Setup and Protocol 378
30.4.2.1 Experimental Setup 378
30.4.2.2 Experimental Protocol 378
30.4.3 Data Analysis 378
30.4.4 Results 378
30.5 Conclusions 379
30.6 Future Research Challenges 380
References 380
 Contents xvii

31 Integration of Machine Learning with Wearable Technologies 383

Darius Nahavandi, Roohallah Alizadehsani, and Abbas Khosravi
31.1 Introduction 383
31.2 Background 384
31.2.1 History of Wearables 384
31.2.2 Supervised Learning 384
31.2.3 Unsupervised Learning 386
31.2.4 Deep Learning 386
31.2.5 Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient 387
31.2.6 Cloud Computing 388
31.2.7 Edge Computing 388
31.3 State of the Art 389
31.4 Future Research Challenges 392
References 393

32 Gesture-Based Computing 397

Gennaro Costagliola, Mattia De Rosa, and Vittorio Fuccella
32.1 Introduction 397
32.2 Background 398
32.2.1 History of the Development of Gesture-Based Computing 398
32.2.2 Basic Definitions 399
32.3 State of the Art 399
32.4 Future Research Challenges 402
32.4.1 Current Research Issues 402
32.4.2 Future Research Directions Dealing with the Current Issues 403
Acknowledgment 403
References 403

33 EEG-based Affective Computing 409

Xueliang Quan and Dongrui Wu
33.1 Introduction 409
33.2 Background 409
33.2.1 Brief History 409
33.2.2 Emotion Theory 410
33.2.3 Emotion Representation 410
33.2.4 EEG 410
33.2.5 EEG-Based Emotion Recognition 411
33.3 State-of-the-Art 411
33.3.1 Public Datasets 411
33.3.2 EEG Feature Extraction 411
33.3.3 Feature Fusion 412
33.3.4 Affective Computing Algorithms 413
33.3.4.1 Transfer Learning 413
33.3.4.2 Active Learning 413
33.3.4.3 Deep Learning 413
33.4 Challenges and Future Directions 414
Acknowledgment 415
References 415
xviii Contents

34 Security of Human Machine Systems 419

Francesco Flammini, Emanuele Bellini, Maria Stella de Biase, and Stefano Marrone
34.1 Introduction 419
34.2 Background 420
34.2.1 An Historical Retrospective 420
34.2.2 Foundations of Security Theory 421
34.2.3 A Reference Model 421
34.3 State of the Art 422
34.3.1 Survey Methodology 422
34.3.2 Research Trends 425
34.4 Conclusions and Future Research 426
References 428

35 Integrating Innovation: The Role of Standards in Promoting Responsible

Development of Human–Machine Systems 431
Zach McKinney, Martijn de Neeling, Luigi Bianchi, and Ricardo Chavarriaga
35.1 Introduction to Standards in Human–Machine Systems 431
35.1.1 What Are Standards? 431
35.1.2 Standards in Context: Technology Governance, Best Practice, and Soft Law 432
35.1.3 The Need for Standards in HMS 433
35.1.4 Benefits of Standards 433
35.1.5 What Makes an Effective Standard? 434
35.2 The HMS Standards Landscape 435
35.2.1 Standards in Neuroscience and Neurotechnology for Brain–Machine Interfaces 435
35.2.2 IEEE P2731 – Unified Terminology for BCI 435
35.2.2.1 The BCI Glossary 439
35.2.2.2 The BCI Functional Model 439
35.2.2.3 BCI Data Storage 439
35.2.3 IEEE P2794 – Reporting Standard for in vivo Neural Interface Research (RSNIR) 441
35.3 Standards Development Process 443
35.3.1 Who Can Participate in Standards Development? 443
35.3.2 Why Should I Participate in Standards Development? 444
35.3.3 How Can I get Involved in Standards Development? 444
35.4 Strategic Considerations and Discussion 444
35.4.1 Challenges to Development and Barriers to Adoption of Standards 444
35.4.2 Strategies to Promote Standards Development and Adoption 445
35.4.3 Final Perspective: On Innovation 445
Acknowledgments 446
References 446

36 Situation Awareness in Human-Machine Systems 451

Giuseppe D’Aniello and Matteo Gaeta
36.1 Introduction 451
36.2 Background 452
36.3 State-of-the-Art 453
36.3.1 Situation Identification Techniques in HMS 454
36.3.2 Situation Evolution in HMS 455
 Contents xix

36.3.3 Situation-Aware Human Machine-Systems 455

36.4 Discussion and Research Challenges 456
36.5 Conclusion 458
References 458

37 Modeling, Analyzing, and Fostering the Adoption of New Technologies: The

Case of Electric Vehicles 463
Valentina Breschi, Chiara Ravazzi, Silvia Strada, Fabrizio Dabbene, and Mara Tanelli
37.1 Introduction 463
37.2 Background 464
37.2.1 An Agent-based Model for EV Transition 464
37.2.2 Calibration Based on Real Mobility Patterns 466
37.3 Fostering the EV Transition via Control over Networks 468
37.3.1 Related Work: A Perspective Analysis 468
37.3.2 A New Model for EV Transition with Incentive Policies 469
37.3.2.1 Modeling Time-varying Thresholds 469
37.3.2.2 Calibration of the Model 470
37.4 Boosting EV Adoption with Feedback 470
37.4.1 Formulation of the Optimal Control Problem 470
37.4.2 Derivation of the Optimal Policies 471
37.4.3 A Receding Horizon Strategy to Boost EV Adoption 472
37.5 Experimental Results 473
37.6 Conclusions 476
37.7 Future Research Challenges 477
Acknowledgments 477
References 477

Index 479
 xxi

Editors Biography

Giancarlo Fortino (IEEE Fellow ’22) is full professor of Computer Engineering in the Department
of Informatics, Modeling, Electronics, and Systems at the University of Calabria (Unical), Italy.
He has a PhD in Systems and Computer Engineering from University of Calabria in 2000. His
research interests include wearable computing systems, Internet of Things, and cybersecurity. He
is named Highly Cited Researcher 2002–2022 by Clarivate in Computer Science. He has authored
more than 650 papers in international journals, conferences, and books. He is (founding) series
editor of the IEEE Press Book Series on Human–Machine Systems and of the Springer Internet
of Things series, and is Associate Editor of premier IEEE Transactions. He is cofounder and CEO
of SenSysCal S.r.l., a Unical spinoff focused on innovative IoT systems, and cofounder of BigTech
S.r.l., a startup focused on AI-driven systems and Big Data. Fortino is currently a member of the
IEEE SMCS BoG and co-chair of the SMCS TC on IWCD.

David Kaber is currently the Dean’s Leadership Professor and Chair of the Department of Indus-
trial and Systems Engineering at the University of Florida (UF). Prior to joining UF, Kaber was a
distinguished professor of industrial engineering at North Carolina State University where he also
served as the Director of Research for the Ergonomics Center of North Carolina. Kaber’s primary
area of research interest is human-systems engineering with a focus on human–automaton
interaction, including design and analysis for situation awareness in complex human in-the-loop
systems. Domains of study for his research have included physical work systems, industrial safety
systems, robotic systems, transportation systems, and healthcare. Kaber is a fellow of IEEE and
previous editor-in-chief of the IEEE Transactions on Human–Machine Systems. He is a fellow of
Institute of Industrial Engineers and a fellow of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Kaber
is also a Certified Human Factors Professional (BCPE) and a Certified Safety Professional (BCSP).

Andreas Nürnberger is professor of Data and Knowledge Engineering at the Otto-von-Guericke

Universität Magdeburg (OVGU), Germany. His research focuses on adaptivity in human–machine
systems, considering aspects such as user behavior analysis and intelligent user assistance. He
was involved in the organization of many conferences and workshops in related areas and the
development of new scientific events, among others, the IEEE SMCS sponsored international
conference series on Human–Machine Systems (IEEE ICHMS). Andreas was visiting researcher
at the University of Melbourne, Australia; postdoc at UC Berkeley, United States; and visiting
professor at Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris. Andreas is an Emmy Noether Fellow of the
German Science Foundation (DFG).
xxii Editors Biography

David Mendonça (Senior Member, 2012) is Senior Principal Decision Scientist at MITRE Cor-
poration. He previously held the rank of professor in the Department of Industrial and Systems
Engineering and in the Department of Cognitive Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
He served as a Program Director at the National Science Foundation from 2015 to 2017. He was
a visiting scholar at the University of Lisbon (Portugal) and at Delft University of Technology
(The Netherlands). He is currently a member of the Board of Governors of the IEEE Systems,
Man and Cybernetics Society, and of the IEEE Boston (Massachusetts) Section. He holds a PhD
in Decision Sciences and Engineering Systems from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, an MS from
Carnegie Mellon University, and a BA from University of Massachusetts/Amherst.
 xxiii

List of Contributors

Marie-Hélène Abel Kawtar Benghazi

Heudiasyc Laboratory Universidad de Granada
University of Technology of Compiègne Granada
Compiègne Spain
France
Luigi Bianchi
Roohallah Alizadehsani Department of Civil Engineering and
Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Computer Science Engineering
Innovation (IISRI) “Tor Vergata” University of Rome
Deakin University Rome
Waurn Ponds, VIC Italy
Australia
Maria Stella De Biase
Terry Amorese Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica
Department of Psychology Universitá degli Studi della Campania
Università della Campania “L. Vanvitelli” “Luigi Vanvitelli”
Caserta Caserta
Italy Italy

Abdelkader Nasreddine Belkacem Thomas Bohné

Department of Computer and Network Department of Engineering
Engineering Institute for Manufacturing
College of Information Technology University of Cambridge
United Arab Emirates University Cambridge
Al Ain UK
UAE
Stefanie S. Bradley
Emanuele Bellini III Bloorview Research Institute
Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation
Universitá degli Studi della Campania Hospital
“Luigi Vanvitelli” Toronto
Caserta Canada
Italy
xxiv List of Contributors

Valentina Breschi Ricardo Chavarriaga

Department of Electrical Engineering Centre for Artificial Intelligence
Eindhoven University of Technology School of Engineering
Eindhoven Zurich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW
Netherlands Winterthur
Switzerland
Zoraida Callejas
and
Universidad de Granada
Granada CLAIRE Office Switzerland, ZHAW digital
Spain Zurich University of Applied Sciences
Winterthur
Maximiliano Canche Zürich
Faculty of Mathematics Switzerland
Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán
Mérida, Yucatán Jessie Y. C. Chen
Mexico U.S. Army Research Laboratory
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
Filippo Cantucci USA
Trust Theory and Technology Group
Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Min Chen
Technologies School of Computer Science and Technology
National Research Council of Italy Huazhong University of Science and
Rome Technology
Italy Wuhan
China
Tom Carlson
Aspire Create Wei Chen
University College London State Key Lab of CAD&CG
Stanmore, Middlesex Zhejiang University
UK Hangzhou
China
Cristiano Castelfranchi
Trust Theory and Technology Group Gennaro Cordasco
Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Department of Psychology
Technologies Università della Campania “L. Vanvitelli”
National Research Council of Italy Caserta
Rome Italy
Italy
Alessandro Correa-Victorino
Tom Chau Heudiasyc Laboratory
III Bloorview Research Institute University of Technology of Compiègne
Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Compiègne
Hospital France
Toronto
Canada
 List of Contributors xxv

Gennaro Costagliola Anna Esposito

Dipartimento di Informatica Department of Psychology
Università di Salerno Università della Campania “L. Vanvitelli”
Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Caserta
Fisciano (SA) Italy
Italy
Rino Falcone
Marialucia Cuciniello Trust Theory and Technology Group
Department of Psychology Institute of Cognitive Sciences and
Università della Campania “L. Vanvitelli” Technologies
Caserta National Research Council of Italy
Italy Rome
Italy
Giuseppe D’Aniello
Department of Information and Electrical Tiago H. Falk
Engineering and Applied Mathematics Institut national de la recherche scientifique
University of Salerno University of Quebec
Fisciano (SA) Montreal, Quebec
Italy Canada

Fabrizio Dabbene Scott Fang

Istituto di Elettronica e Ingegneria Toronto Research Center
dell’Informazione e delle Defence Research and Development Canada
Telecomunicazioni – IEIIT Toronto
Centro Nazionale delle Ricerche Canada
Torino
Italy Philip S. E. Farrell
Toronto Research Center
Arwen H. DeCostanza Defence Research and Development Canada
U.S. DEVCOM Toronto
Army Research Laboratory Canada
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD
USA Federico Faruffini
Heudiasyc Laboratory
Yulin Deng University of Technology of Compiègne
Cepheid Human Factors and Engineering Compiègne
Team France
Sunnyvale, CA
and
USA
DIBRIS
Birsen Donmez University of Genoa
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Genoa
Engineering Italy
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON
Canada
xxvi List of Contributors

Francesco Flammini Raffaele Gravina

School of Innovation, Design, and Engineering Department of Informatics, Modeling
Mälardalen University Electronics and Systems
Eskilstuna University of Calabria
Sweden Rende
Italy
Erica D. Floreani
I BCI4Kids David Griol
University of Calgary Universidad de Granada
Calgary Granada
Canada Spain
and
Stephanie Gross
II Department of Pediatrics Austrian Research Institute for Artificial
Alberta Children’s Hospital Intelligence
Calgary Vienna
Canada Austria

Domenico Formica Christoph Guger

School of Engineering g.tec medical engineering GmbH
Newcastle University g.tec
UK Austria

Giancarlo Fortino Bin Guo

Department of Informatics, Modeling Department of intelligent computing system
Electronics and Systems School of Computer Science
University of Calabria Northwestern Polytechnical University
Rende Xi’an
Italy China

Vittorio Fuccella Lydia Habib

Dipartimento di Informatica Department of Automation and Control
Università di Salerno Univ. Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, CNRS
Fisciano (SA) UMR 8201 – LAMIH
Italy Valenciennes
France
Matteo Gaeta
Department of Information and Electrical Niloufaralsadat Hashemi
Engineering and Applied Mathematics III Bloorview Research Institute
University of Salerno Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation
Fisciano (SA) Hospital
Italy Toronto
Canada
Milad Geravand
Deep Care GmbH
Waiblingen
Germany
 List of Contributors xxvii

Klaus Hauer Ming Hou

Agaplesion Bethanien-Hospital, Geriatric Toronto Research Center
Centre Defence Research and Development Canada
University of Heidelberg Toronto
Heidelberg Canada
Germany
Louis Huebser
Dengbo He Organizational Development
Intelligent Transportation Thrust, Systems Hub Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production
Hong Kong University of Science and Engineering
Technology (Guangzhou) RWTH Aachen University
Guangzhou Aachen, NRW
China Germany
and
Iztok Humar
Department of Civil and Environmental Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Engineering University of Ljubljana
Hong Kong University of Science and Ljubljana
Technology Slovenia
Hong Kong SAR
China Brian Irvine
II Department of Pediatrics
Ina Heine Alberta Children’s Hospital
Organizational Development Calgary
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Canada
Engineering
and
RWTH Aachen University
Aachen, NRW III Bloorview Research Institute
Germany Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation
Hospital
Thomas Hellebrandt Toronto
Organizational Development Canada
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production
Engineering Zeanna Jadavji
RWTH Aachen University I BCI4Kids
Aachen, NRW University of Calgary
Germany Calgary
Canada
Christine Horner
III Bloorview Research Institute Radmila Juric
Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Independent Researcher London
Hospital UK
Toronto
Canada
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 —Dans quel guêpier suis-je donc, s’écria-t-il? Tout s’embrouille autour
de moi; je n’y reconnais plus rien; jamais pareil fait ne s’est produit; jamais
aussi ce stupide règlement dépourvu de sanction ne m’a paru aussi ridicule
qu’aujourd’hui. Je ne veux dénoncer personne, mais je ne veux pas qu’on
me dénonce; cela n’en finirait plus. Continuez à jouer aux cartes, jouez
toute la journée, si le cœur vous en dit, mais laissez-nous la paix.
—Avant de vous en aller, voulez-vous me dire pourquoi la Compagnie a
imposé ce règlement? Pouvez-vous lui trouver une excuse, j’entends une
excuse rationnelle, plausible, et qui ne soit pas l’élucubration d’un cerveau
d’idiot?
—Certainement, je le puis; la raison en est bien simple. C’est pour ne
pas heurter les sentiments des autres voyageurs, de ceux qui ont des
principes religieux; ceux-ci ne supporteraient pas que le jour du Sabbat fût
profané en jouant aux cartes en wagon.
—C’est juste ce que je pensais. Ils ne regardent pas, eux, à voyager le
dimanche, mais ils ne veulent pas que les autres...
—Par Dieu! vous voyez juste! je n’y avais jamais pensé avant; au fond
quand on y réfléchit, ce règlement paraît stupide.
Sur ces entrefaites le surveillant du train arriva et fit mine de vouloir
faire cesser le jeu; mais le conducteur du wagon l’arrêta et le prit à part pour
lui expliquer la situation. Tout en resta là.
Pendant onze jours, je séjournai à Chicago, malade dans mon lit; je ne
vis donc rien de la foire et je dus retourner dans l’est, dès qu’il me fut
possible de voyager. Le major prit la précaution de retenir un wagon-salon
pour me donner plus de place et rendre mon voyage plus confortable; mais
quand nous arrivâmes à la gare, par suite d’une erreur, notre wagon n’était
pas attaché au train. Le conducteur nous avait bien réservé une section du
compartiment, mais, nous assura-t-il, il lui avait été impossible de faire
mieux. Le major déclara que rien ne nous pressait et que nous attendrions
jusqu’à ce qu’on ait accroché un wagon. Le conducteur lui répondit avec
une certaine ironie:
—Possible que vous ne soyez pas pressé, comme vous le dites, mais
nous n’avons pas de temps à perdre; veuillez monter, messieurs, et ne nous
faites pas attendre.
Mais le major refusa de monter en wagon et il m’engagea fort à l’imiter.
Il déclara qu’il voulait son wagon et qu’il l’aurait; le conducteur impatienté
s’écria:
—Nous ne pouvons mieux faire, nous ne sommes pas tenus à
l’impossible. Vous occuperez ces places réservées ou vous ne partirez pas.
On a commis une erreur qui ne peut être réparée au dernier moment. Le fait
se produit quelquefois et personne n’a jamais fait autant de difficultés que
vous.
—Ah! précisément; si tous les voyageurs savaient faire valoir leurs
droits, vous n’essaieriez pas aujourd’hui de trépigner les miens avec une
pareille désinvolture. Je ne tiens pas spécialement à vous causer des
désagréments, mais il est de mon devoir de protéger mon prochain contre
cette sorte d’empiètement. J’aurai mon wagon-salon ou bien j’attendrai à
Chicago et je poursuivrai la Compagnie pour violation de son contrat.
—Poursuivre la Compagnie pour une telle bagatelle?
—Certainement.
—Vous le feriez réellement?
—Oui.
Le conducteur regarda le major avec étonnement et ajouta:
—Décidément vous avez raison; j’y vois clair maintenant, je n’y avais
jamais songé auparavant. Tenez, je vais envoyer chercher le chef de gare.
Ce dernier arriva et parut plutôt ennuyé de la réclamation du major (mais
pas du tout de l’erreur commise).
Il accueillit la plainte du major avec brusquerie et sur le même ton que le
conducteur du train au début; mais il ne sut fléchir le major qui réclama
plus énergiquement que jamais son wagon-salon. Cependant le chef de gare
s’amadoua, chercha à plaisanter, et esquissa même un semblant d’excuses.
Cette bonne disposition facilitait un compromis, le major voulut bien faire
une concession. Il déclara qu’il renoncerait au wagon-salon retenu par lui à
l’avance, à condition qu’on lui en fournît un autre. Après des recherches
ardues on finit par trouver un voyageur de bonne composition qui consentit
à échanger son wagon-salon contre notre section de compartiment. Dans la
soirée, le surveillant du train vint nous trouver et, après une causerie très
courtoise, nous devînmes bons amis. Il souhaitait, nous déclara-t-il, que le
public fît plus souvent des protestations; cela produirait un très bon effet
d’après lui, les Compagnies de chemin de fer ne se décideraient à soigner
les voyageurs qu’autant que ces derniers défendraient eux-mêmes leurs
propres intérêts.
J’espérais que notre voyage s’effectuerait maintenant sans autres
«incidents réformateurs», mais il n’en fut rien.
Au wagon-restaurant, le matin, le major demanda du poulet grillé; le
garçon lui répondit:
—Ce plat ne figure pas sur le menu, monsieur, nous ne servons que ce
qui est sur le menu.
—Pourtant je vois là-bas un voyageur qui mange du poulet grillé.
—C’est possible, mais ce monsieur est un inspecteur de la Compagnie.
—Raison de plus pour que j’aie du poulet grillé; je n’aime pas ces
récriminations, dépêchez-vous et apportez-moi du poulet grillé.
Le garçon appela le maître d’hôtel qui expliqua très poliment que la
chose était impossible; des règlements très sévères s’y opposaient.
—Soit, mais alors vous devez appliquer impartialement ces règlements
ou les violer avec la même impartialité. Vous allez enlever à ce monsieur
son poulet ou m’en apporter un.
Le maître d’hôtel resta aussi ébahi qu’indécis. Il esquissait une
argumentation incohérente lorsque le conducteur survint et demanda de
quoi il s’agissait. Le maître d’hôtel expliqua qu’un voyageur s’obstinait à
avoir du poulet, tandis qu’il n’y en avait pas sur la carte et que le règlement
s’y opposait. Le conducteur répondit:
—Cramponnez-vous au règlement, vous n’avez pas autre chose à faire.
—Mais un instant, s’agit-il de ce voyageur? Dans ce cas, continua-t-il en
riant, croyez-moi, ne vous occupez plus du règlement; donnez-lui ce qu’il
demande et ne le laissez pas énumérer tous ses droits. Oui, donnez-lui tout
ce qu’il demande et si vous ne l’avez pas, arrêtez le train pour vous le
procurer.
Le major mangea son poulet, mais il avoua qu’il l’avait fait uniquement
par devoir, pour établir un principe, car il n’aimait pas le poulet.
J’ai manqué la foire, il est vrai, mais j’ai recueilli dans mon sac un
certain nombre de tours diplomatiques qui, plus tard, pourront m’être très
utiles; le lecteur les trouvera sans doute comme moi aussi pratiques que
subtils.
 UN VEINARD!
Ceci se passait à un banquet donné à Londres en l’honneur d’un des plus
illustres noms de l’armée anglaise de ce siècle. Pour des raisons que le
lecteur connaîtra plus tard, je préfère tenir secrets le nom et les titres de ce
héros, et je l’appellerai le lieutenant général Lord Arthur Scorosby V. C. K.
C. B. etc.... Quel prestige exerce un nom illustre! Là, devant moi, était assis
en chair et en os l’homme dont j’entendis parler plus d’un millier de fois,
depuis le jour où son nom, s’élevant d’un champ de bataille de Crimée,
monta jusqu’au zénith de la gloire. Je ne pouvais me rassasier de
contempler ce demi-dieu; j’étais en extase devant lui, je le buvais des yeux;
son calme, sa réserve, son attitude digne, la profonde honnêteté qui
s’exhalait de toute sa personne faisaient mon admiration; ce héros n’avait
pas conscience de sa valeur; il semblait ne pas se douter que des centaines
d’yeux admirateurs étaient fixés sur lui et que de toutes les poitrines des
assistants montait vers lui un culte profond d’adoration.
Le Clergyman assis à ma gauche était une de mes vieilles connaissances.
Clergyman aujourd’hui, il avait passé la première moitié de sa vie dans les
camps et sur les champs de bataille, comme instructeur à l’école militaire de
Woolwich.
A ce moment un éclair singulier illumina ses yeux, se penchant vers moi
il murmura confidentiellement à mon oreille, en désignant d’un geste
discret le héros du banquet:
—Entre nous, sa gloire est un pur accident; il la doit à un coup de veine
incroyable.
Cette déclaration me causa une grande surprise; s’il s’était agi de
Napoléon, de Socrate ou de Salomon, mon étonnement n’eût pas été plus
grand. Quelques jours plus tard, le Révérend me fournit l’explication
suivante de son étrange remarque:
—Il y a environ 40 ans j’étais instructeur à l’école militaire de
Woolwich; le hasard voulut que je me trouvasse là lorsque le jeune
Scorosby passa son examen préliminaire; sa nullité m’inspira une profonde
pitié: tandis que les autres élèves de sa section répondaient tous
brillamment, lui se montra d’une ignorance crasse. Il me fit évidemment
l’effet d’un brave garçon, doux et sans astuce, mais c’était navrant de le
voir planté debout comme un piquet et décocher des réponses d’une
stupidité et d’une ignorance prodigieuses. J’eus vraiment compassion de lui
et je me dis: «La prochaine fois qu’il passera un nouvel examen il sera
certainement renvoyé; aussi serait-il plus charitable d’adoucir sa chute
autant que possible.»
Je le pris à part et m’aperçus qu’il savait quelques mots de l’histoire de
César, mais c’était là tout son bagage; je me mis donc à l’œuvre et lui
rabâchai un certain stock de questions sur César, qui devaient
infailliblement être posées aux élèves. Vous me croirez si vous voulez: le
jour de l’examen il se montra transcendant dans ses réponses, si
transcendant qu’il recueillit force compliments pour ce «gavage» purement
superficiel; tandis que les autres, mille fois plus instruits que lui,
répondirent mal, et furent fruit-sec. Avec une veine fantastique qui ne se
reproduira peut-être pas deux fois dans un siècle, il n’eut pas à répondre à
d’autres questions. C’était stupéfiant. Pendant le temps que dura son
examen, je restai à côté de lui avec la sollicitude qu’éprouve une mère pour
son enfant estropié; il se tira toujours d’affaire comme par enchantement.
A n’en pas douter, les mathématiques allaient le couler et décider de son
sort; toujours par bonté d’âme pour adoucir sa chute, je le pris de nouveau à
part et je lui serinai un certain nombre de questions que l’examinateur ne
manquerait pas de poser; puis je l’abandonnai à son triste sort. Eh bien!
vous me croirez si vous voulez: à ma grande stupéfaction il mérita le
premier prix et reçut une véritable ovation de compliments.
Pendant une semaine il ne me fut plus possible de dormir: ma conscience
me torturait nuit et jour; par pure charité j’avais essayé de rendre moins
dure la déconfiture de cet infortuné jeune homme sans me douter du résultat
qui allait se produire. Je me sentais coupable et misérable: comment, par
mon fait, cette pauvre cervelle bornée allait se trouver en tête d’une
promotion et supporter de graves responsabilités! A n’en pas douter, à la
première occasion, un effondrement ne manquerait pas de se produire.
La guerre de Crimée venait d’être déclarée.
«Quel malheur, pensai-je, voici maintenant la guerre; ce pauvre âne va
avoir l’occasion d’étaler au grand jour sa nullité.» Je m’attendais à un
désastre: ce désastre se produisit: j’appris avec terreur que le jeune
Scorosby venait d’être nommé capitaine d’un régiment de marche. Qui eût
pu supposer qu’un tel poids de responsabilité dût peser sur des épaules aussi
faibles et aussi jeunes? J’aurais encore compris sa nomination au grade de
porte-étendard, mais à celui de capitaine, songez quelle folie! Je crus que
mes cheveux allaient en devenir blancs. Moi qui aime tant la tranquillité et
l’inaction, je me tins le triste raisonnement suivant: «Je suis responsable de
ce malheur vis-à-vis de ma patrie; j’accompagnerai donc cet incapable, je
resterai à ses côtés pour sauver ma patrie dans la mesure du possible.» Je
rassemblai le pauvre petit capital péniblement économisé pendant mes
années de dur labeur, je me mis en route avec un gros soupir et j’achetai un
grade de porte-étendard dans son régiment. Ainsi nous partîmes tous deux
pour la guerre.
Là, mon cher, quel spectacle effroyable! Il ne fit que des bévues, inepties
sur inepties; mais, voyez-vous, personne ne connaissait à fond cet individu,
personne n’avait mis au point ses capacités; aussi prit-on ses bévues
navrantes pour des traits de génie. Le spectacle de ses sottises me fit crier
de rage et délirer dans ma fureur; j’étais exaspéré de voir que chaque
nouvelle insanité de sa part augmentait sa réputation; je me disais: «Le jour
où les yeux de ses admirateurs s’ouvriront, sa chute sera aussi grande que
celle du soleil tombant du firmament.» Montant de grade en grade, il passa
par-dessus les cadavres de ses supérieurs; au plus chaud de la bataille, notre
colonel tomba frappé, et mon cœur se mit à battre affreusement, car
Scorosby allait prendre sa place. «Pour le coup, pensai-je, avant dix minutes
nous serons tous perdus.»
Le combat fut acharné; sur tous les points du champ de bataille les alliés
lâchaient pied. Notre régiment occupait une position de la plus haute
importance et la moindre bévue pouvait tout perdre. A ce moment critique,
notre fatal insensé fit quitter au régiment la position qu’il occupait, et le
lança à la charge contre la colline opposée où on ne voyait pas trace
d’ennemis.
«C’est la fin de tout, pensai-je cette fois. Le régiment s’ébranla; nous
avions franchi le faîte de la colline avant que ce mouvement insensé ait pu
être découvert et arrêté. Nous trouvâmes de l’autre côté une armée russe de
réserve au grand complet, dont personne ne soupçonnait l’existence.
Qu’arriva-t-il? Nous avions 95 chances sur 100 d’être massacrés. Mais non,
les Russes en conclurent que jamais un seul régiment ne se serait hasardé
dans une passe aussi dangereuse; ce devrait être l’armée anglaise tout
entière! Se croyant bloqués et découverts, les Russes firent demi-tour,
repassèrent la colline dans un affreux désordre. Nous les serrions de près
dans notre poursuite; arrivés sur le champ de bataille, ils se heurtèrent au
gros de l’armée ennemie; ce fut un chaos et une confusion épouvantables, et
la défaite des alliés se transforma en une éclatante victoire. Le maréchal
Canrobert contemplait ce spectacle avec ravissement, émerveillé, trépignant
de joie. Il fit appeler Scorosby, l’embrassa et le décora sur le champ de
bataille en présence de toutes les troupes.
Quelle avait donc été la fameuse bévue de Scorosby? Il avait tout
bonnement pris sa droite pour sa gauche, et rien de plus.
Il avait reçu l’ordre de se porter en arrière pour soutenir notre droite; au
lieu de cela, il chargea en avant et escalada la colline par la gauche. Il acquit
ce jour-là la réputation d’un grand génie militaire; la gloire de son nom
répandue dans tout le monde brillera dans les annales de l’histoire. Aux
yeux de tous, c’est un homme bon, doux, aimable et modeste, mais, en
réalité, il est au-dessous de tout comme incapacité. Une veine phénoménale
l’a servi jour par jour, année par année. Pendant un demi-siècle il a passé
pour un soldat des plus brillants; sa carrière militaire est émaillée d’un
nombre incalculable de bévues, cela ne l’a pas empêché de devenir
chevalier, baron, voire même lord; voyez plutôt sa poitrine, elle est
constellée de décorations. Eh! bien, monsieur, chacune de ces décorations
représente une gaffe colossale; prises dans leur ensemble, elles constituent
nettement la preuve qu’avant tout, pour réussir en ce monde, il faut être né
«veinard»!
 TABLE
LES PETERKINS 5
PERCE, MON AMI, PERCE 19
POURQUOI J’ÉTRANGLAI MA CONSCIENCE 29
LES AMOURS D’ALONZO FITZ CLARENCE ET DE ROSANNAH ETHELTON 59
LE CHAT DE DICK BAKER 95
LA FÊTE DISPENDIEUSE DU COLONEL MOSES GRICE 101
SUR LES BEBES 129
CONSIDERATIONS SUR LE TEMPS 135
UN SAUTEUR MEXICAIN_PUR-SANG 143
L’HOMME LE PLUS MÉCHANT ET LE PLUS STUPIDE DE TURQUIE 153
QUELQUES HÉROS D’OCCASION 165
A LA CURE D’APPÉTIT 179
EXTRAIT DU TIMES DE LONDRES EN 1904 201
NOS DIPLOMATES 223
EN VOYAGEANT AVEC UN RÉFORMATEUR 239
UN VEINARD 267

ACHEVÉ D’IMPRIMER

le vingt-deux mai mil neuf cent dix

PAR

BLAIS & ROY

A POITIERS

pour le

MERCVRE
 DE

FRANCE
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LES
PETERKINS ***

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