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Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 151
Halit Ünver
Global Networking,
Communication and
Culture: Conflict or
Convergence?
Spread of ICT, Internet Governance,
Superorganism Humanity
and Global Culture
Foreword by Vinton G. Cerf
Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
Volume 151
Series editor
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e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13304

Halit Ünver
Global Networking,
Communication and Culture:
Conflict or Convergence?
Spread of ICT, Internet Governance,
Superorganism Humanity and Global Culture
123
Halit Ünver
Research Institute for Applied Knowledge
Ulm
Germany
ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
ISBN 978-3-319-76447-4 ISBN 978-3-319-76448-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76448-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932986
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

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“I have no special talent. I am only
passionately curious.”
Albert Einstein
(1879–1955)
“Out beyond ideas of wrongdoing and

rightdoing, there is a field. I will meet
you there.”
Mevlânâ Dschalâl-ed-dîn Rumî
(1207–1273)
Vinton G. Cerf is Vice President and Chief Internet Evangelist for Google. He
contributes to global policy development and continued spread of the Internet. He
is the co-designer of the TCP/IP protocols and the architecture of the Internet and
widely known as one of the “Fathers of the Internet”. He is Fellow of the Royal
Society, and has served in executive positions at MCI, as President of ACM, the
Corporation for National Research Initiatives and the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency and on the faculty of Stanford University. His contributions have
been acknowledged and lauded, repeatedly, with honorary degrees and awards
that include the US National Medal of Technology, the Presidential Medal of
Freedom, the Turing Award 2004, the Marconi Prize and membership in the
National Academy of Engineering.
The book you are reading is an important contribution toward understanding the
nature of global communication, the growth of the Internet and the World Wide
Web, the role of smart phones and mobile telephony and the way in which these
technologies are applied in different cultural, economic, and educational contexts. It
is not an overstatement to say that the Internet with its diverse applications has
vii
viii Foreword by Vinton G. Cerf
become a significant and even crucial part of lives of about half of the world’s
population today. Efforts to develop the Internet protocols were international from
the beginning. The Internet has significantly contributed to globalization processes
and transcultural interactions which will continue into the future. The formation
of the Internet Society in 1992 was partly motivated by my belief that a society
would in fact emerge from the presence and spread of the Internet.
The main subject of this empirical research is to identify convergence/divergence
trends in the use of ICT in order to assess the existence of digital divides at a
country, culture, and worldwide levels. These investigations conclude that the
convergence regarding ICT usage proceeds faster worldwide than convergence in
terms of wealth and education in general. Multivariate analysis shows that ICT use
is most closely related to economic performance, followed by the Education Index,
which contributes only slightly less to ICT use than economic performance.
However, the adult literacy rate hardly has any influence on ICT use today. These
results can be explained by the fact that the (mobile) use of the modern-day Internet
is growing less expensive (devices and access) and can also be used by illiterate as
well as physically or cognitively disabled people. In the future, Internet-capable
devices and access will become less costly and thus facilitate ICT usage worldwide
bridging the technical digital divide. But there is still a way to go. As a result, we
need to consider means to minimize digital inequality in terms of information
asymmetry and to maintain concepts such as the open Internet or net neutrality. In
some sense, however, this book is unique in looking at the digital divide from the
perspective of different religions and cultures showing hardly any empirical cor-
relation between ICT access rates and religious affiliation, but a positive correlation
with religious diversity on ICT access rates in a country. It can be stated that the
social participatory effect of ICT usage is accepted by all worldviews and cultures.
This research is highly interdisciplinary and describes in the area of power
politics that similar bargaining positions can cross-cultural boundaries, and thus
convergence patterns can be observed in the global multi-stakeholder community
(technical community, civil society, private sector, and governments) within the
Internet governance ecosystem. One key milestone for multi-stakeholder conver-
gence in the field of Internet infrastructure governance was the transfer of unique
Internet parameter administration, the so-called IANA transition, by the US to a
broader international structure of responsibility. The Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA) stewardship transition is largely complete. On October 1, 2016,
the telecommunication authority of the US Department of Commerce (NTIA)
allowed the contract with ICANN for the performance of the IANA functions to
lapse. For the first time, a multi-stakeholder community controlled and managed the
root zone (top-level domains) of the Domain Name System and the global allo-
cation of Internet address space. This is a positive sign, bringing the diversity of
cultures worldwide into cooperative relationships and stimulating convergence of
power structures and processes in the Internet governance ecosystem. Bridging the
cultural gap between the technical and political communities should not be
underestimated as cooperation between these two stakeholders plays a central role,
especially in the digital transformation of society.
Foreword by Vinton G. Cerf ix
Overall, the author of this book claims that “it is not clear whether we as
humanity will succeed in the foreseeable future to develop a global culture that is
more than the sum of all cultures. It is open to the question of whether a largely
(digitally) networked world society will form a community, constituting a world
culture. However, one thing is true: There will be no global culture without a
digitally networked world society.”
Two things are evident as we look at the state of the Internet and the World Wide
Web today. The first is that the system is capable of supporting an extraordinary
degree of diversity. For proof, one has only to look at the endless collection of Web
sites and the hugely diverse platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, WeChat,
Amazon, Alibaba, YouTube, and soon the so-called Internet of Things. The second
is these platforms are put to use by highly diverse populations that may effectively
form disconnected islands by self-selection. This trend is sometimes called a bubble
chamber effect that reinforces boundaries between groups creating a digital divide
of a different kind. We can see both trends at work in today’s Internet. At the time
the Internet was designed, its inventors had a global infrastructure in mind. As the
system evolved and spread, we hoped that the Internet and the technologies that
support it could contribute to greater democracy, freedom of speech, and human
rights worldwide. These are certainly values that will have a decisive impact on the
shared future of billions of people and which can already be regarded as a basis for
global empathy and culture. There is no guarantee that a single, global society will
emerge from the widespread use of the Internet and ICTs. Indeed, such an outcome
can only result if there is widespread agreement and determination that such an
outcome is desirable.
Reston, VA, USA Vinton G. Cerf

Foreword by Franz Josef Radermacher
Franz Josef Radermacher is a German mathematician and economist. He is

Professor of Computer Science at Ulm University and the Director of the Research
Institute for Knowledge Processing/n (FAW/n). He is one of the Co-founders of the
Global Marshall Plan Initiative that suggests a socio-ecological plan to eradicate
poverty, increasing global wealth while protecting natural resources. He is a
Member of the Club of Rome since 2002 and President of the Senate of Economy
since 2010. He was a Member of the Information Society Forum of the EU
Commission between 1995 and 2001, is a Member of the scientific advisory board
of the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure since 2000, Member
of the advisory board of the Vodafone Institute for Society and Communication
since 2012, holds Best Human Award 2012, and was awarded with an honorary
doctorate from the International Hellenic University in Thessaloniki in 2013.
This book by Halit Ünver is an important contribution to a holistic understanding
of globalization processes in the context of digitalization and the global information
society. It derives from his doctoral thesis in Computer Science at Ulm
University/Germany. It integrates years of analysis on global cooperation and
conflict with a particular focus on cultural aspects of globalization against a
xi
xii Foreword by Franz Josef Radermacher
background of global digital transformation. Halit Ünver is well equipped for this
issue, given (1) his general interest in topics of global cultural diversity and cultural
exchange, (2) the broad scope of his studies in computer science and economics,
(3) his cultural background, with deep roots and contacts in Germany and Turkey,
and (4) his cultural connection via family ties to Kazakhstan and Russia.
The driving topic of this book is the quantitative and qualitative description
of the global information society. With view to recent years, the role of the (mobile)
Internet as a basis for global communication and international development is a
main issue. The leading question is whether people’s access to modern commu-
nication tools is influenced by cultural background. The result of the book is
clear-cut: All people more or less react similar to modern information and com-
munications technology no matter their cultural background. There is also a clear
indication of (fast) convergence concerning ICT usage worldwide since the
beginning of the new economy in 2000. This means that differences concerning,
e.g., Internet usage are eliminated much faster than differences in global material
situations such as income.
Two forces seem to be driving the issue. On the one hand, as a consequence of
Moore’s Law, powerful (digital) technologies are available and inexpensive. On the
other hand, modern ICT tools mean massive advantages for their users therefore
almost everyone is keen to use them. ICT devices are fashionable and modern. But
we should also take into account that even the forces which would like to feed
cultural conflicts make use of ICT, i.e., this technology is used by people who do
not want to see any type of (cultural) convergence on a global scale. However, in
general, the technology provides so much that it is very often misused. Therefore, it
may well be that society has to strongly manage and regulate ICT access and usage
in order to avoid massive disadvantages for society.
The book of Halit Ünver focuses on convergence and the current divides in
technology usage in the information age, particularly the most recent and most
powerful one: the (mobile) Internet. Still, differences remain and in international
politics we speak of divides. Halit Ünver addresses these divides systematically
such as the digital divide or digital inequality, what they mean and how they are to
be positioned. The question is: Where do these divides come from? Do they come
from different cultural backgrounds? It might be that certain religions are negative
toward these technologies. Of course, there could be divides between men and
women or divides between the young and the old.
Most natural are, obviously, two key figures that characterize digital divide: one
is income. This is due to the high cost of technology as a result of the latest
adaptations and updates. If we think about the total cost of ownership to process
and operate information there is always a cost. Therefore income is a principal
limiting factor of ICT use, which is analyzed and measured on a global scale in
detail in this book. Another important key figure is education. To make use of (high
quality) ICT, certain intellectual abilities are needed. For instance, if a technology
forces people to know different languages or to be literate, many people are
excluded. When looking at more analytical matters including mathematical graphs
and operators, one must possess the knowledge in making proper use of technology.
Foreword by Franz Josef Radermacher xiii
Certainly, in the early days of mobile communications, e.g., when SMS was the
mode of mobile electronic exchange of texts, literacy was crucial. Therefore,
education was a major factor in allowing access to ICT. Now, with greater avail-
ability of modern intelligent technology the need for certain formal competences of
use is being reduced. Nowadays, Internet offers, to a limited extent, translation of
texts into different languages. Very often, pictures can be used for communication.
They are quite universal and culturally neutral in usage if we do not consider
religious images or pictures. There is a certain tendency to at least make consid-
erable parts of content available without many formal requirements in education. In
parallel, global politics such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) work in the direction of higher education
levels and more balanced income situations everywhere, though there is a long way
to go. These are reported all over the world, but how much of this information is
reliable is another topic.
Besides culture, particular income and education are two key figures for con-
siderable differences in usage of modern ICT. Here, an additional problem in
understanding arises from the fact that (high) income and (high) education are also
correlated, which means that richer people tend to be better educated and better
educated people tend to have a higher income.
This book does an enormous work and effort as well as detailed analyses with
profound statistical and mathematical methods to clarify all kinds of dependencies
between the different issues. All in all, the author of the book can prove that culture
and religion are not an essential factor in distinguishing the adaptation of modern
ICT between different countries and regions in the world. The dominating factors
are income and education. As a result of a multivariate statistical analysis presented
in this book, it seems that income is more important as a separating dimension than
education.
This book gives deep insights into global networking processes and a signal that
can stimulate hope. At least for one of the most powerful technologies available in
the world, we have similar attitudes worldwide and between all cultures, concerning
usage. We see clear convergence in access and usage which is due to the relative
low cost of technology, its huge enabling potential to mobilize people and the
increasing emphasis on education as well as higher income worldwide. There is a
hope that there is a chance for a good future for a majority of humankind through
adapting the power of these technologies. So this can be a positively accelerating
factor to achieve a kind of global culture, particularly by allowing greater and
widespread interaction between people.
There are a lot of activities globally toward this convergence on the political,
economic, and civil society level. However, there are increasing risks of a different
nature, namely the use of this powerful technology for purposes that do not deal
with global cooperation and the implementation of sustainability and human rights.
The usage of modern ICT can possibly be used to support the interests of small
groups of privileged people. It is therefore not clear how the future will be affected
by technologies. To have a look at critical points is certainly of importance;
xiv Foreword by Franz Josef Radermacher
therefore, this book gives us two stimuli: an indication for hope and a critical view
at potential new risks.
As the main supervisor of his doctoral work, I congratulate Dr. Halit Ünver on
behalf of the Ulm University, the Research Institute of Applied Knowledge
Processing (FAW/n) in Ulm as well as the Senate of Economy, of which I am the
president. Because we were all highly interested in this work, we strongly support it
and we are happy that the book is now available in English. We congratulate the
author and wish him success going forward.
Ulm, Germany Franz Josef Radermacher

Foreword by Rainer Wieland
Rainer Wieland is a German Lawyer, Politician, and Member of the European

Parliament. Since 2009, he has been one of the Vice Presidents of the Parliament.
He is a Member of the conservative Christian Democratic Union, part of the
European People’s Party (EPP). Rainer Wieland was chairman of Europa-Union
Deutschland Baden-Württemberg (regional section of Union of European
Federalists) between 2001 and 2013 and since 2011 has been President of
Europa-Union Deutschland. As Vice President of EU Parliament, he has respon-
sibility for buildings, budget, transport, environment-conscious Parliament, Ad Hoc
Working Group on the implementation of security policies and strategies, relations
with the French, Belgian, and Luxembourg authorities on the seat and places of
work of the Parliament, Representing the President of the Parliament for Africa /
ACP, Member of the Committee on Constitutional Affairs, Member of the
Committee on Development. In 2009, Rainer Wieland received the Order of Merit
of the Federal Republic of Germany which is the only federal decoration of
Germany.
xv
xvi Foreword by Rainer Wieland
It is a pleasure for me, to write this Foreword to the book of Dr. Halit Ünver on
the subject Global Networking, Communication and Culture—Conflict or
Convergence. For the summary, in only a few sentences, of the core message
advanced in his research, led to no hesitation on my part. Mr. Ünver’s topic is of
paramount importance, not only for me, as Vice President of the European
Parliament, but for everyone. In today’s global society, it is hard not to think of
information and communications technology. On the contrary, it is part of our lives
and its development process is still far from complete. I speak here deliberately of a
global society, because the versatile technical possibilities available today make
fixed spatial, cultural, or religious boundaries unthinkable.
The Internet and Internet-capable smartphones allow each one of us, in every
conceivable place in the world, to build global networks and be in continuous
contact with each other and exchange information over wide spatial distances, as
well as exchange our cultural differences. Through ICT, distances are no longer
definite barriers to communication, including differences in culture and language or
government. Mr. Ünver has his finger on the pulse of our times and demonstrates
clearly and comprehensively, with his elaborations, that communication media
offers, more than anything else, the chance for establishing global balance. He
states clearly that it is not cultural or even religious differences that hinder the use or
access to these technologies. Rather, the divergent use of communication tech-
nologies results from differing conditions concerning prosperity and education.
Through his book, he supports the global demand of taking a path toward more
balanced income and education levels, in line with the positions of the United
Nations, OECD, and the European Union. Mr. Ünver illustrates that a cross-cultural
convergence is not only possible, but already in full progress. Our task now is to
bridge the serious existing global disparities in education and economic capacity.
As Mr. Ünver outlines, which I believe in a very convincing way, there is abso-
lutely no disparity with respect to the use of telecommunications media among the
major world views, such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.
In terms of information and communications technology, they are all well
advanced. The acceptance of using this communication option is therefore a
cross-religion as well as cross-cultural process and is important to promote.
Furthermore, Mr. Ünver addresses the fact that with growing technology and highly
developed methods of communication a change must be made in the context of
Internet governance. He argues correctly that globalization, in connection with the
way toward becoming a global information and knowledge society, could bring
more distinctive participatory governance. In addition, this could encourage a more
intense and well-functioning cooperation between countries, both in Europe and
globally.
In this context, Mr. Ünver does not ignore the potential risks associated with
globalization and related to ICT. He speaks here of a possible development in
which communication technology and networks do not result in convergence, but
lead to potential conflicts; a development in which these technologies could be used
for purposes of cultural struggle or for state control. In this context, Mr. Ünver
Foreword by Rainer Wieland xvii
illustrates the importance of democratic structures for global governance as well as

its processes and anchorages to prevent such threats.
I would like to thank Mr. Ünver for this outstanding work, which shows me once
again how important it is to deal in-depth with information and communications
technology, particularly in our current times. I can only agree with the conclusion
that the advancement of globalization in connection with communication media
offers a chance for us to provide a path toward a global culture of peace and mutual
respect—a direction that we should be following. Similarly to Mr. Ünver, I also
advocate the view that we should take advantage of the potential that Internet and
mobile telephony offer in order to create more balance, not only in the spheres of
politics, culture, and religion, but also economic, social, and environmental.
Brussels, Belgium Rainer Wieland

Acknowledgements
I am extremely lucky and grateful to have met the right people at the right time in
the right place, which in retrospect, belong or belonged to my own puzzle of
personal and professional development. I would like to take this opportunity to
thank all those who have actively supported and inspired me in the research and
writing process of this book, which essentially is the English version of my doctoral
thesis at Ulm University in Germany (2015) with some updates.
Special thanks go to Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. h.c. Franz Josef Radermacher, who
motivated me through his guidance and continuous inspiration over the long phase
of developing this book and broadly supported me in framing this issue. In recent
years, I have enormously benefited from his interdisciplinary understanding and
motivating attitude. He has methodically shaped and greatly influenced the content
of this work. Professor Radermacher, as my superior and doctoral supervisor, has
always offered me flexibility and space to successfully finish the work, participate
in higher-level teaching, complete a second degree in economics, and also to
become active in the economic, political, and the public sphere, where I particularly
can bring in my Turkish–German background. I would like to thank him for
recommending me via the Vodafone Institute for Society and Communications to
the Young Leaders Group 2012/2013 of the European Institute of Innovation and
Technology Foundation, steered by the EU Commission and Imperial College
London Business School. In this environment, I have gained initial experience in
bridging the cultural gap between the technical community and policy-makers.
I am eminently grateful to Prof. Dr. Michael Weber, President of the Ulm
University, who took over the second report of my doctoral thesis. Already as a
student of information technology, Professor Weber’s expertise on the subjects of
media and computer science fascinated me. It always has enriched me to have him
on board as an expert with excellent experience in research and teaching as well as
university–industry cooperation.
xix
xx Acknowledgements
I would especially like to thank Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Coy who has made, as an
external expert from the Humboldt University of Berlin, important contributions to
the nature of this book. I thank to both, Professor Coy and the Alcatel Foundation,
for providing me with the opportunity to work on a scientific basis in an inter-
disciplinary environment such as the Ph.D. group Computer Science, Culture and
Technology, on global issues of communication and to learn to think outside the
box.
A very big thank goes to Dr. Thomas Kämpke (1957–2015), who, as a senior
scientist at the Research Institute of Applied Knowledge (FAW/n) in Ulm, helped
me in forming this work up until his last days. I will probably never forget his moral
during his days in the hospital regarding my success. This is especially true for the
phrase “We need to switch to Plan B” when he knew that he only has a few weeks
left to live. I am very grateful for his consistency and attention to detail in sup-
porting my work. I was supervised by Dr. Kämpke in almost all relevant tasks of
this research work. It was a great pleasure to know Dr. Kämpke as a scientific
sparring partner at my side, and I will always remember him in lasting memory.
I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Franz Schweiggert and Prof. Dr. Frank
Kargl, both from Ulm University, for their cooperation in the doctoral committee. It
was always motivating and valuable for me to find the professional and human
support of Prof. Schweiggert at Ulm University, as a student and scientist. He also
provided assistance to me during my time at Daimler Corp. as a trainee. Many
thanks also to Prof. Kargl who participated in the doctoral committee following the
passing of Dr. Kämpke and supported me with technical questions about the
Internet ecosystem.
A big thank you goes to Vinton G. Cerf, Vice President of Google, co-designer
of the TCP/IP protocols and widely known as one of the “Fathers of the Internet” as
well as Turing-Award Winner, for the conversations with him and writing a pref-
ace. I met Vint Cerf for the first time at the Internet Governance Forum 2014 in
Istanbul. The initial talk with him immediately guided my thoughts on my subject
to a distant horizon. On the way to this horizon not only the invention and historical
development of the Internet can be found but also possible and uncertain devel-
opment paths accompanied by the knowledge that the future could be very different
from what we think about it today. My book is complete now but the topic is still in
my mind and on my horizon.
The same thank you goes also to the Vice President of the European Parliament
Rainer Wieland. About five years ago, we literally got to know each other high up
in the sky and talked intensively about technology, politics, and society. I gladly
accepted his invitation to Brussels and since then I thank Rainer Wieland for his
continuous support in politics and society.
I would especially like to thank my colleagues at the Institute for
Databases/Artificial Intelligence and the Research Institute for Applied Knowledge
Processing (FAW/n) in Ulm for their support and enriching cooperation over many
years. These include in particular Sabine Grau, Regina Simon, Elke Moc, Michael
Gerth, and Jürgen Dollinger. At this point, a great thank you also goes out to former
colleagues and students such as Tobias Rehfeld, Martin Borowiec, Sultana
Acknowledgements xxi
Chatzivasiliadou, Julian Schweiger, and Anil Aslaner, who contributed significantly

to the dissertation, especially in the area of database management and detail work.
For a final proof reading, I would like to thank Dr. Anne Wenger, Alev Kayagil,
and Christoph Baldauf.
Eminently I would like to thank my mother and my whole family who supported
me through permanent motivation and patience. I am proud of my mother who
followed my father from Sarıyahşi, a small village in the middle of Anatolia, to
Ankara and then to Germany and managed to pave my way with love and affection.
This also applies to my deceased father whose basic values have shaped me
decisively in my early childhood and youth.
My last big thank to Inna and our little daughter Aliya, who was born in the final
phase of the dissertation work. They have both made this crucial phase pleasant for
me with their motivation and support. Furthermore, they showed me a totally
different perspective on life and cultural exchange. They gave an additional
meaning to my ground of being. May we all together live in a world characterized
by sustainable development and convergence to a global culture!
Contents
Part I Preparation of the Topic

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Global Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Culture and Cultural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.4 Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.5 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Digital Divide and Digital Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Internet Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Superorganism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.4 Global Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Key Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 Information and Communications Technology . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Economic Performance and Social Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.4 Worldview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Data Management and Statistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.1 Data Procurement, Storage, Processing and Analysis . . . . . 27
2.4.2 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.3 Method of Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.4 Correlation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
xxiii
xxiv Contents
2.4.5 Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.4.6 Simple Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.7 Multiple Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.8 Test Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Expert Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 State of Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 39
3.1 Empirical Analysis of the Global Spread of ICT . . . ........... 40
3.1.1 Global Networking, Economic Performance
and Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 41
3.1.2 Global Networking and Worldview . . . . . . . ........... 46
3.2 Power Issues and Reflections on Possible Future
Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.1 Internet Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.2 Superorganism Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.3 Global Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Part II Empirical Analyses of the Global Spread of ICT

4 Global Networking: Relation to Economic Performance
and Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Global Networking and Economic Performance 2000–2013 . . . . . 62
4.1.1 Fixed Telephony and Economic Performance . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1.2 Mobile Telephony and Economic Performance . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.3 Internet and Economic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.4 Internet and Social Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1.5 Mobile Internet and Economic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.6 Intermediate Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2 Global Networking and Education Level 2000–2012 . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.1 Fixed Telephony and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.2 Fixed Telephone and Education Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.3 Mobile Telephony and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2.4 Mobile Telephony Education Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2.5 Internet and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.6 Internet and Education Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2.7 Mobile Internet and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2.8 Mobile Internet and Education Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.3 Combination of Key Figures Between 2000 and 2012 . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3.1 Fixed Telephony, Economic Performance
and Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3.2 Mobile Telephony, Economic Performance
4.3.3 Internet, Economic Performance and Education Level . . . . 127
Contents xxv
4.3.4 Mobile Internet, Economic Performance

4.4 System Theoretical Approach for Determining the Interaction
of Key Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4.1 Interaction Between Economic Performance
4.4.2 Interaction Between ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5 Global Networking and Worldview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1 Global Networking: Christianity and Islam 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.1 Fixed Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.1.2 Mobile Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.1.3 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.4 Mobile Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.5 Economic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2 Global Networking: Buddhism and Hinduism 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2.1 Fixed Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.3 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.4 Mobile Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.3 Global Networking: Judaism and Other Worldviews 2010 . . . . . . 176
5.3.1 Fixed Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.3.3 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.3.4 Mobile Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.4 Global Networking and Religion Diversity 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.4.1 Fixed Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.4.3 Internet and Religion Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.4.4 Mobile Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
xxvi Contents
Part III Power Issues and Reflections on Possible Future

Developments
6 Global Networking, Power and Control Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1 Internet Governance Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.1.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.1.2 Technical Power of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.1.3 Economic Power of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.1.4 Political Power of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2 Bargaining Positions of Some States and Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.1 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.2 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.2.3 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.4 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.2.5 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.2.6 Arab World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.2.7 Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.2.8 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.3 Change of Power Structures on the Way to a Global
Information Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7 The Global Superorganism as an Intelligent Human-Technology
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.1 The Development of Humanity to a Global Superorganism . . . . . . 222
7.1.1 Superorganism Humanity as Autopoietic System . . . . . . . . 223
7.1.2 Communication as a Driving Force
in Superorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.1.3 Evolution Based on Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.2 Always More Intelligent Human-Machine-Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.2.1 Intelligence of Social and Technical Systems . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.2.2 The Internet (of Things) as a Digital Nervous
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.2.3 Technical Intelligence: Example Automotive
Cars and Algorithmic Trading Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.3 Cultural Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.3.1 Inclusion Instead of Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.3.2 Balance Between Central and Distributed Control . . . . . . . 236
7.3.3 Global and Cultural Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8 Convergence Towards a Global Culture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.1 The Term Global Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.2 Three Fundamental Future Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Contents xxvii
8.2.1 Collapse – Overshoot and Decline Enforced

by Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.2 Increasing Social Inequality – Overshoot
and Managed Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.2.3 Balance – Sustainable Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3 Global Culture, World Ethos and World Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.3.1 Economical Culture as Part of a Global Culture . . . . . . . . 252
8.3.2 Educational Culture as Part of a World Ethos . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.3.3 Religious Culture and World Ethos as a Basis
for a Global Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.4 No Clash of Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9 Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.2 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Appendix A: Categorization of Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Appendix B: Statistical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
About the Author
Halit Ünver is a scientist and policy adviser at the

Research Institute for Applied Knowledge Processing
(FAW/n). After studying economics and information
technology, he earned a Ph.D. with a thesis on Global
Networking, Communication and Culture Conflict or
Convergence at the Ulm University, where he was a
scientist at the Institute of Databases/Artificial
Intelligence between 2009 and 2016. He is currently
Visiting Researcher at the Leadership Excellence Institute
(LEIZ) at Zeppelin University exploring the topic of
Leadership in the Digital Age. He was nominated by the
Vodafone Institute for Society and Communication to the
Young Leaders Group 2012/2013 of the European
Institute of Innovation and Technology, steered by the
European Commission and Imperial College London
Business School. Within this framework, he was awarded
at the Annual Innovation Forum in Brussels 2013.
He was a Member of the Alcatel-Lucent Foundation
for Communications Research Ph.D. working group
Computer Science, Culture, Technology between 2011
and 2014. He is a board member of the Ph.D. Network for
Sustainable Economics. Since 2015, he has participated
in the T20 process within the G20 presidency and was part
of the task force The Digital Economy during the German
G20 presidency in 2017. He is part of the Stiftung
Mercator network of young German, Turkish, and
European leaders from all sectors. Between 2005 and
2008, he was a Daimler AG student trainee in the fields of
truck production, global IT management, and R&D.
xxix
Acronyms
ALR Adult Literacy Rate

BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa
EI Education Index
FTR Fixed Telephony Rate
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDPpC Gross Domestic Product Per Capita
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
HDI Human Development Index
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
IAB Internet Architecture Board
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IGF Internet Governance Forum
ICT Information and Communications Technology
IPR Internet Penetration Rate
IRTF Internet Research Task Force
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISOC Internet Society
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IP Internet Protocol
MBR Mobile Internet Penetration Rate
MPR Mobile Phone Rate
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
Pew Pew Research Center
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
RDI Religion Diversity Index
SQL Structured Query Language
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
xxxi
xxxii Acronyms
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VoIP Voice over IP
WB World Bank
WCF World Culture Forum
WLL Wireless Local Loop
WSIS World Summit on the Information Society
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
WWW World Wide Web
Part I
Preparation of the Topic
Chapter 1
Introduction
Before anything else, preparation is the key to success.

(Alexander Graham Bell, 1847–1922)
This book is centered on the study of globalization and the diverse cultures represent-
ing the transition to a digital future in the context of sustainable development. The
processes of globalization are apparent in several periods in human history, however
remain modest when compared to the most recent global trends. If one looks at the
evolution of humanity as a system, the emergence of the spoken language can be
seen as a medium of communication for people as an all–important new basis for fu-
ture social and technical innovations. The invention of script also meant an immense
step forward with the letterpress laying the base for the global spread of knowledge.1
Nowadays, modern information technology allows for more wide-ranging and bigger
effects. Innovation in the field of information technology is currently considered as
innovation behind almost all other innovations. It is the fastest process of innovation
which has ever taken place in history.
In the late 19th and during the 20th centuries, the fixed telephony, as a local
oriented communication form, contributed decisively to the present globalization
process. Afterwards, the mobile phone, as a person oriented communication form,
has further accelerated this process. Today’s communications via the Internet and the
World Wide Web are unique in comparison to former processes of this kind. In this
respect, they operate at huge speed while bridging spatial and temporal distances,
spreading data across the globe. Therefore, the worldwide information and knowl-
edge society distinguishes itself by further increasing interlinking processes, enabled
1 By the way, these inventions had also caused social and economical risks and threatened the people.
For example, many writers had lost their jobs cause of the letterprin technology.
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 3

H. Ünver, Global Networking, Communication and Culture: Conflict
or Convergence?, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 151,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76448-1_1
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woman's private medical companion
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Title: The married woman's private medical companion

embracing the treatment of menstruation, or monthly
turns, during their stoppage, irregularity, or entire
suppression. Pregnancy, and how it may be
determined; with the treatment of its various diseases.
Discovery to prevent pregnancy; its great and
important necessity where malformation or inability
exists to give birth. To prevent miscarriage or abortion.
When proper and necessary to effect miscarriage.
When attended with entire safety. Causes and mode of
cure of barrenness, or sterility.
Author: A. M. Mauriceau
Release date: August 25, 2023 [eBook #71485]
Language: English
Original publication: US:
Credits: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

MARRIED WOMAN'S PRIVATE MEDICAL COMPANION ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.
THE MARRIED WOMAN’S
PRIVATE MEDICAL COMPANION,
EMBRACING THE TREATMENT OF
MENSTRUATION, OR MONTHLY TURNS,
DURING THEIR
STOPPAGE, IRREGULARITY, OR ENTIRE SUPPRESSION.
PREGNANCY,
AND
HOW IT MAY BE DETERMINED;

WITH THE TREATMENT OF ITS VARIOUS DISEASES.
DISCOVERY TO
PREVENT PREGNANCY;
ITS GREAT AND IMPORTANT NECESSITY WHERE
MALFORMATION OR INABILITY EXISTS TO

GIVE BIRTH.
TO PREVENT MISCARRIAGE OR ABORTION.
WHEN PROPER AND NECESSARY
TO EFFECT MISCARRIAGE.
WHEN ATTENDED WITH ENTIRE SAFETY.
CAUSES AND MODE OF CURE OF

BARRENNESS, OR STERILITY.
BY DR. A. M. MAURICEAU,
Professor of Diseases of Women.
Office, 129 Liberty street.
NEW YORK.
1847.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by
JOSEPH TROW,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the Southern District New York.
PREFACE.
The “Introduction” in the succeeding pages, being amply

explanatory, but few prefatory words will suffice. The object and
intention of the work is manifest and self-evident.
It is to extend to every female, whether wife, mother or daughter,
such information as will best qualify her to judge of her own
maladies, and, having ascertained their existence, apply the proper
remedies.
From these pages she will learn the causes, the symptoms and the
remedies, for such complaints to which she may be liable, the nature
of which she may not desire to impart to another.
Whether married or unmarried, she can, from these pages,
compare her own symptoms with those described, and act in
accordance with the mode of treatment prescribed. She will thereby
be exempt from those doubts, perplexities and anxieties, which arise
from ignorance of her situation, or the causes which produce it.
In short, the author sincerely believes that to the female budding
into womanhood,—to one about to become a wife, or to the wife
about becoming a mother, as well as to every one already a wife and a
mother, as also to the female in the decline of years, in whom nature
contemplates an important change, the “Married Woman’s Private
Medical Companion” contains instructions of such paramount
importance, as to embrace the present happiness and future welfare
of each.
One word in conclusion. It is not pretended that the concentration
of the results of medical research emanates from one author, for be
he ever so versed in medical science, he would come far, far short of
so herculean a task. It is, therefore, necessarily derived from authors
on medical and physiological sciences, of great acquirements and
distinguished celebrity.
It hardly need be added that great labour has been encountered in
the preparation of a work of this nature, as the most reliable and
correct sources have been availed of.
THE AUTHOR.
INDEX
Page.
ABORTION—
„ Symptoms of, 169
„ Causes of, 171
„ Treatment of, 171
„ Prevention of, 175
„ When dangerous, 168
„ When necessary to effect, 177
„ When attended with no danger, 169
AFTER-PAINS—
„ Causes of, 203
AFTER-BIRTH—
„ Caution respecting, 199
„ Mode of extracting, 199
ARTIFICIAL DELIVERY, 180
BARRENNESS, OR STERILITY—, 223
„ Causes of, 225
„ Remedy for, 232
CONCEPTION—(See Pregnancy), 36
„ Signs of, 37
„ Prevention of (See Pregnancy), 104
CHILDREN—Management of, 210
CONCLUDING REMARKS, 237
DELIVERY—Artificial, 180
DISEASES OF PREGNANCY, 61
Desomeaux’s Prevention to Pregnancy, 142
FALSE PAINS IN PREGNANCY, 187
FALSE Conception, 30
FAINTING, during Pregnancy, 87
FLOODING, 174
„ Causes of, 23
FRENCH SECRET, 144
„ For what purpose used, 144
„ Its use in France, 144
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, ix
INFANTS, still-born, 202
INFLAMMATION OF THE BREASTS, 205
„ To prevent inflamed or broken Breasts, 208
Index, v
LABOUR—Signs of, 182
„ Management of, 185
„ Ordinary or natural, 186
„ Preternatural or Cross-Births, 201
„ Laborious, or difficult, 202
„ Directions during, 198
„ Directions after, 99, 203
MALFORMATION of the Pelvis, 180
MENSTRUATION, or Monthly Turns, 1
„ Retention of, 8
„ Description, 8
„ Causes, 8
„ Symptoms, 9
„ Treatment, 10
„ Suppression of, 11
„ Description of, 11
„ Causes, 12
„ Symptoms, 12
„ Specific certain to effect a cure, 16
„ Painful and Imperfect, 18
„ Symptoms, 19
„ Causes, 19
„ Treatment, 20
MENSES—
„ Immoderate Flow of, 22
„ Symptoms, 22
„ Causes, 23
„ Treatment, 23
„ Prevention, 27
„ Decline of the, 28
„ Symptoms, 30
„ Causes, 30
„ Treatment, 33
MISCARRIAGE—See Abortion.
MORAND’S “ELIXIR,” 232
„ Its success in effecting Cures, 233
NAVEL CORD—
„ Manner of tying, 198
NURSING, 204
PORTUGUESE FEMALE PILLS, 16
PREFACE, iii
PREGNANCY, Signs of, 36
„ How it may be determined, 37
„ Ceasing to be unwell, 38
„ Morning Sickness, 49, 62
„ Shooting Pains through, Enlargement of and other Changes of the Breasts,
50
„ Changes of the Nipple, 51
„ Presence of Milk, 54
„ Quickening, 57
PREGNANCY,—Diseases of, 61
„ Being unwell during, 96
„ Costiveness, 72
„ Diarrhœa, 76
„ Enlargement of the Veins of the Legs, 82
„ Fainting Fits, 87
„ Heart-Burn, 70
„ Headache, 98
„ Inconvenience from size, 95
„ Painful and distended condition of th Breasts, 90
„ Pains in the Legs, &c., 92
„ Palpitation of the Heart, 85
„ Piles, 78
„ Salivation, or Discharge of Saliva, 89
„ Swelling of the Feet and Legs, 84
„ Soreness and Cracking of the Skin of the Abdomen, 94
„ Toothache, 88
„ Violent movement of the Child, 93
PREGNANCY—Prevention of, 104
„ When unnecessary, 110
„ When indispensable, 107
„ Practicability of, 141
„ Morality of, 146
„ Social importance of, 114
„ Mode of prevention, 142, 143, 144
„ Healthiness of, 145
„ Reasons for prevention, 144
„ Objections answered, 146
„ Proofs of success, 150, 152, 154
„ Use of in France and other parts of Europe, 149
SEXUAL WEAKNESS,
„ Symptoms, 157
„ Causes, 158
„ Treatment, 158
„ Regimen, 163
WOMB, falling down of the, 163
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
In introducing a subject of the nature treated of in this volume we

are perhaps treading upon interdicted if not dangerous ground, for
the world is not free from those pseudo-moralists, who would check,
and, if possible, arrest the onward progress of medical and
physiological science, and compel all to trudge on in the old beaten
path, neither turning to the left nor the right, much less to look
forward, but cast their glance backward. And although they behold
every other science marching with rapid strides to comparative
perfection:—what through the agency of steam and iron rails, space
as it were, annihilated; what but yesterday, comparatively speaking,
required weeks to perform, a few hours now suffice; nay the
lightning fluid itself is made subservient to man’s powers of
discovery and ingenuity, transmitting intelligence from distant
points with the speed of thought:—yet, in physiological and medical
science, we are required to be as an immovable rock, upon which the
overwhelming billows of physiological science and discovery are to
wash fruitlessly and in vain, to recede back into the dark sea of
ignorance.
Truly, is it that in all that concerns man’s welfare and woman’s
happiness, we are to stand still, while improvements and discoveries,
in arts and sciences connected with agricultural and mechanical
pursuits, are rushing by with the impetus of a torrent? Is it that
physiological and medical science has long since reached that state of
perfection that improvement and discovery are impossible? Is it that
preceding generations had engrossed, in physiology, all the
knowledge that could be attained, and left nothing for succeeding
generations to attain? Is it that disease, decrepitude, bodily suffering
and stinted and imperfect physical development among mankind has
no longer an existence? Is it that every woman enjoys the full bloom,
virgin freshness and beauty belonging to the enjoyment of a perfect
condition of health? Is it that we no longer behold the deathly pale,
sallow, sickly female of sixteen or eighteen, in the last stage of some
chronic disease, prepared for the cold embrace of death? Is it that for
the married woman six of the nine months of pregnancy is often a
state of suffering and anguish destructive to her health and cutting
off her days? Is it too, that it never happens that she often has
children only at the hazard of her own life, and that of her offspring?
Is it that children are invariably born healthy and rugged, capable of
enduring the ordinary maladies to which infancy may be subject, to
be reared into robust and virtuous sons and daughters? Is it that by
far the greatest proportion of those born, survive, instead of, at the
least, two-thirds being cut off in infancy? No, indeed, it is not
because of all this. It is because prejudice or ignorance thinks that if
men and women acquired the knowledge whereby to improve their
condition as social moral beings, guard against disease, and preserve
their health, that perhaps, it might lead to immorality and vice. This
is ever the pretext to arrest the progress of physiological discovery.
Discoveries, then, so directly and intimately connected with the
personal individual happiness of every man, woman, and child, are
alone to see no progress; without being met at the threshold with the
senseless and idle cry of “vice and immorality.” Thus then, the
sufferings, the pains, the anguish, which have existed five hundred
years ago, are to be irremediable and endured in despite of any
discoveries by which they can be prevented. We must do nothing to
alleviate, or better still, to prevent, the sufferings of the wife,
daughter, or mother, because it was not done five hundred years ago!
Monstrously absurd as is this reasoning, yet it is of this kind which
the discoveries introduced before the public in this work will be met.
But the subject is one which embraces our social joys and
comforts, the endearments of home and the family fire-side, the
health and well-being of wives, mothers, and daughters, and cannot
be retarded by the cobwebs in its way, to stem its onward course. No
female, either married, or about to be married—no wife about
becoming a mother—no mother having a daughter—no father who
desires to prolong the health, beauty, and vigor of his offspring—no
husband who has his own happiness, or the happiness of the
companion of his bosom at heart—no young man, even, having a
regard to his future welfare, should be without this important little
work. Here the wife, mother or daughter, can detect her own
complaints, trace them to their causes, and apply the remedy. This is
all important. For, how often does the young female (because of a
supposed delicacy), suffer in health rather than impart her malady to
another, and especially to a medical man; and thus, many diseases,
which though trifling in their origin, and at first easily removed,
become seated and confirmed in her constitution. How deplorable
are the consequences arising either from neglect or ignorance in the
treatment of females who are afflicted with a stoppage, irregularity,
or entire suppression of the menses or monthly turns, from which
spring a train of diseases, which it would, in this place, be useless to
enumerate, but which make our wives and daughters sickly, and our
offspring short-lived.
It is also important that the female should understand the cause
which might occasion a stoppage of the menses to possess the
information contained in this work, by which it can be ascertained
whether it may not arise from pregnancy and thereby avoid that
anxiety of mind arising from an uncertainty as to her real situation,
alternately imagining the one or the other, as her inclinations or
fears may tend.
During pregnancy, many a wife lives in almost perpetual bodily
ailment and suffering, which ought and should be prevented, and
would not in most cases exist if this work is perused. Here important
truths and discoveries are revealed, which may be the means of
saving many an affectionate wife and fond mother from a premature
grave. How many females marry, who, in becoming pregnant,
jeopardize their life, would learn, if they perused these pages, of the
discovery by which pregnancy can be prevented, by means at once
safe, simple, certain, and healthy, and thus many a victim would not
fall a sacrifice to the Cæsarean operation.
In respect, too, when a woman is threatened with miscarriage or
abortion it is important that the treatment, either to prevent it, or,
when that is impracticable, to assist and expedite it, should be
thoroughly understood, and its treatment made clear and simple,
that no unnecessary alarm need be occasioned when it occurs.
So, too, in regard to the various diseases accompanying and
belonging to pregnancy, every woman should know how to prevent
the one and ameliorate the other.
And finally, the subject of unfruitfulness, sterility, or barrenness, is
here presented in a manner, which, to some extent, demonstrates
that in most cases it can be cured, yet how many are pining in
childless loneliness, in utter despair of cure.
Such are some of the important topics treated of in these pages, so
intimately connected with every woman’s peace and happiness, with
which every woman should be conversant, and yet how little
informed are most females with what concerns themselves, their
children, and their husbands so much.
MANAGEMENT
OF
FEMALE COMPLAINTS.
MENSTRUATION.
One of the principal constitutional characteristics of the female, is

menstruation, or the monthly evacuations peculiar to the sex.
This important operation generally takes place about the age of
twelve or thirteen; but varies through the world, either in degree or
frequency, both from constitution and climate.
Women in the higher ranks of life, and those of a delicate, nervous
constitution, are subject to sickness, headache, and pains in the back
and loins, during periodical evacuation. Those of the lower rank,
inured to exercise and labor, and strangers to those refinements
which debilitate the system, and interrupt the functions essential to
the preservation of health, are seldom observed to suffer at these
times, unless from general indisposition, or a diseased state of the
womb.
After the discharge has become established it recurs periodically
while in health; and its recurrence is so regular, that it can be
calculated with great exactness. The usual period of its visitations is
from twenty-seven to thirty days. As to the time of its continuance,
this is various in different women; but it seldom continues longer
than six days, or less than three, and does not cease suddenly, but in
a gradual manner.
Its approach is generally preceded by certain feelings of
oppression or deviation from the ordinary state of health, which
warn the individual of what is to happen. There is, in particular, a
sensation of fulness about the lower part of the belly, and a
relaxation about the uterine system which can scarcely be overlooked
by the most heedless. The appetite becomes delicate, the limbs
tremble and feel weak, the face becomes pale, and there is a peculiar
dark streak or shade under the eyes; sometimes great restlessness,
slight fever, headache, heavy and dull pain in the small of the back
and bottom of the belly, swelled and hardened breasts, &c. All of
which are sometimes instantly relieved by a trifling discharge from
the vagina, and this not necessarily colored. It must at the same time
be admitted, that in some few constitutions these feelings are so
inconsiderable as to be little attended to; so that the woman mixes in
society as usual without any apparent inconvenience.
The period at which the menses make their appearance, is various;
it is much influenced by constitution, climate and mode of life. As a
general rule, it takes place at puberty, or at that period at which the
female is capable of propagating her species; and this period varies
as climate may differ. They constantly, however, keep pace with the
development of the body; where this is rapid, they will appear
proportionably earlier; where this process is slower, they will appear
later: but whenever the menses appear as regular evacuations, they
mark the period of puberty: thus, in hot countries, women
commence to menstruate at eight or nine years of age, and are not
unfrequently mothers at ten.[1]
In the more northern regions, as in Lapland, &c., this evacuation is
generally delayed until the female has attained her eighteenth or
nineteenth year: in the temperate latitudes the average period will be
found from the fourteenth to the sixteenth year. A difference, will,
nevertheless, be found in the women who may reside in cities, and in
those who dwell in the country of each respective portion of the
globe. It may also be observed, that in cold countries, women
continue to menstruate for a longer period than in warm; and as a
general rule, it will be found they are obnoxious to this discharge
double the period that elapses before it commences. Thus, women
who have not this discharge until eighteen, will be found to have it
until beyond fifty; those who commence at fourteen or fifteen, will
leave off at forty-five; those who begin so early as eight or nine, will
have it cease at twenty-five or six.[2]
On the appearance of the menses, or monthly turns, nature seems
to perfect her work, both as regards development and proportion: it
is the period of the most perfect beauty of which the female is
susceptible; it is the one at which the moral changes are not less
remarkable than the physical; it is a moment, of all others, the most
replete with consequences to the inexperienced and confiding
female.
At this period a great variety of interesting and curious
phenomena present themselves: the voice is found to change; the
neck and throat to increase in size, and to become more symmetrical;
the mammæ to swell; the nipple to protrude; the chest to expand; the
eyes to acquire intelligence, and increase of brilliancy; in a word, a
new being, almost, is created.
The quantity of fluid expended at a menstruous period differs in
different individuals; with girls who precociously menstruate, the
quantity is in general smaller, and the returns less regular. Climate
exerts an influence upon the quantity discharged, as well as upon the
periods at which this evacuation shall commence. Thus, in the
equatorial and more northern regions, it is less than in the more
temperate climates.
It is of importance for women to know that occasional
irregularities are not always the consequences of disease.
Constitutions vary as much in respect to the regular returns of this
discharge, as they do with regard to their first appearance or final
cessation. Those in whom the change occurs very early from vigor of
constitution, require little to be done for them; but in weak and
delicate habits, the non-appearance of this evacuation is too often
considered as the cause, whereas it ought to be viewed as the effect,
of the state of the habit unpropitious to its taking place. And,
according to family practice, under this false impression, warm teas
and forcing medicines are employed at the approach of this disease,
which have often done much harm.
Nature is not so defective in her own judgment as to require
auxiliaries. Care should be taken to improve the general state of the
health, by attention to diet, moderate exercise, change of air, &c.
In some instances the menstrual discharge does not make its
appearance before the age of seventeen or eighteen, and,
nevertheless, health is not in the least affected. The mere want of
evacuation at the ordinary time, therefore, is not to be considered as
morbid, unless the system be evidently deranged thereby. In many
cases, however, symptoms of disease appear which are evidently
connected with the defect of the menses, and go off upon its
discharge. The treatment, in such cases, must be regulated by the
particular circumstances and constitution of the individual. There is
no remedy adapted to every case of this kind; but an open state of the
bowels, and a due regulation of the diet, together with moderate
exercise, are useful in every instance of this complaint. Warm
clothing, too, particularly about the lower extremities, is of most
essential benefit. The occasional use of the warm bath is pleasant and
beneficial, especially if the skin be dry and warm. As the health
improves, the cold bath will prove an auxiliary, if, after using it, the
patient feels a glow of heat and a greater degree of liveliness. When
the means ordinarily employed have failed, marriage, or a change of
climate, has produced the wished-for effect.
In some instances the evacuation is impeded by a mechanical
cause, that is an obstruction of the passage to the womb. This
occasionally is met with, and the chief obstacle to its speedy removal
is the difficulty of ascertaining its existence. The operation by which
it is completely remedied, is not more painful nor formidable than
blood-letting.
Fortunately, in most cases, the evacuation takes place in due time,
and the constitution sustains no material or permanent injury. It is,
however, in every instance, proper to pay particular attention to the
system during the continuance of the evacuation.
The stomach and bowels, at this period, are very easily disordered,
and therefore, everything which is heavy or indigestible, ought to be
avoided. Some are hurt by eating fruits or vegetables; others by
taking fermented liquor. In this respect experience must enable each
individual to judge for herself. Exposure to cold, particularly getting
the feet wet, is hurtful, as it tends suddenly to obstruct the discharge.
The same effect is likewise produced by violent passions of the mind,
which are also, at this time, peculiarly apt to excite spasmodic
affections, or hysterical fits.
It is, in general, a very proper rule not to administer any very
active medicines, at this time, unless some violent symptom
absolutely requires them. Opiates, for instance, are, in many cases,
necessary to allay spasmodic affections, or abate pain; and they are,
in such circumstances, uniformly safe. They give speedy relief to
hysterical feeling or suffocation, or to spasm of the stomach or
bowels.
Dancing, exposure to much heat, or making any great or fatiguing
exertion, are improper. These causes may increase, to an improper
degree, the quantity of the evacuation, and in certain circumstances
may give a disposition to a falling down of the womb.
RETENTION OF THE MENSES.
Description.
The menstrual discharge is liable, from many causes, to become
obstructed at the period when it ought to appear; when this takes
place it is attended with very painful or serious effects; and, if nature
is not assisted, the health is impaired or the constitution
undermined, inducing consumption or some other complaint.
Causes.
The remote cause of this complaint is most frequently suppressed
perspiration; and it may arise, in part, from an inactive sedentary
life, and such habits as are peculiar to the higher classes of society,
particularly in cities and towns. The proximate cause of it seems to
be a want of power in the system, arising from inability to propel the
blood into the uterine vessels with sufficient force to open their
extremities and to allow a discharge of blood from them.
Symptoms.
Heaviness, listlessness to motion, fatigue on the least exercise,
palpitation of the heart, pains in the back, loins, and hips, flatulence,
acidities in the stomach and bowels, costiveness, a preternatural
appetite for chalk, lime, and various other absorbents, together with
many other dyspeptic symptoms. As it advances in its progress the
face becomes pale, and afterward assumes a yellowish hue, even
verging upon green, whence it has been called green sickness; the
lips lose their rosy color; the eyes are encircled with a livid areola;
the whole body has an unhealthy appearance, with every indication
of a want of power and energy in the constitution; the feet are
affected with swellings; the breathing is much hurried by any great
exertion of the body; the pulse is quick, but small; and the person is
liable to a cough, and to many of the symptoms of hysteria.
Sometimes a great quantity of pale urine is discharged in the
morning, and not unfrequently hectic fever attends. In cases of a
more chronic character there is a continued, though variable, state of
sallowness, yellowness, darkness, or a wan, squalid, or sordid
paleness of complexion, or ring of darkness surrounding the eyes,
and extending perhaps a little toward the temples and cheeks.
Treatment.
As this disease proceeds from debility, it is evident that the great
object to be fulfilled will be to give tone and energy to the system;
and if this debility has arisen from a sedentary life, the patient must
begin immediately to exercise in the open air, and, if practicable, to
change her residence. The tepid or warm bath should be used in
preference to the cold. The first medicine given may be the
pulverized mandrake root, combined with a little cream of tartar.
This, as well as other medicines, should be taken upon an empty
stomach: after it has been given, motherwort, pennyroyal, and other
herb teas may be freely drunk. After the exhibition of the purgative,
which may be occasionally repeated, gum aloes may be taken,
combined in such a manner as to prevent the piles. This medicine,
from its action upon the uterus through the medium of the rectum, is
very useful in retention of the menses. Emmenagogues, or “forcing
medicines,” should not be used to bring on the menses, except there
be a struggle or effort of nature to effect it, which may be known by
the periodical pains and pressing down about the hips and loins.
When this occurs let the feet be bathed, and perspiration promoted,
by drinking freely of diluent teas, such as pennyroyal, motherwort,
and garden thyme. Should considerable pains attend the complaint,
eight or ten grains of the diaphoretic powders may be given, and
fomentations of bitter herbs applied over the region of the womb.
Desomeaux’s Portuguese Pills are now recommended as the best
specific, especially if the disease proves obstinate.
The female should be very careful not to expose herself to the
vicissitudes of the weather, and not suffer the feet or clothes to
become wet: warm clothing must be worn, and particularly flannel.
For pain apply a heated brick, covered, to the bowels.
The diet should be light, nutritious, and easy of digestion.
SUPPRESSION OF THE MENSES.
Description.
In this disease there is a partial or total obstruction of the menses
in women from other causes than pregnancy and old age. The
menses should be regular as to the quantity and quality; that this
discharge should observe the monthly period, is essential to health.
When it is obstructed, nature makes her efforts to obtain for it some
other outlet; if these efforts of nature fail, the consequence may be,
fever, pulmonic diseases, spasmodic affections, hysteria, epilepsy,
mania, apoplexy, green sickness, according to the general habit and
disposition of the patient. Any interruption occurring after the
menses have once been established in their regular course, except
when occasioned by conception, is always to be considered as a case
of suppression. A constriction of the extreme vessels, arising from
accidental events, such as cold, anxiety of mind, fear, inactivity of
body, irregularities of diet, putting on damp clothes, the frequent use
of acids and other sedatives, &c., is the cause which evidently
produces a suppression of the menses. This shows the necessity for
certain cautions and attentions during the discharge. In some few
cases it appears as a symptom of other diseases, and particularly of
general debility in the system, showing a want of due action of the
vessels. When the menses have been suppressed for any considerable
length of time, it not unfrequently happens that the blood which
should have passed off by the uterus, being determined more
copiously and forcibly to other parts, gives rise to hemorrhages;
hence it is frequently poured out from the nose, stomach, lungs, and
other parts, in such cases. At first, however, febrile or inflammatory
symptoms appear, the pulse is hard and frequent, the skin hot, and
there is a severe pain in the head, back, and loins. Besides, the
patient is likewise much troubled with costiveness, colic pains, and
dyspeptic and hysteric symptoms.

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