Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and Application 2Nd Edition Morris Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Measurement and Instrumentation
Theory and Application 2nd Edition

Morris Solutions Manual
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CHAPTER 9
Solutions for Chapter 9

9.1 Discussion should cover at least the following points:
Digital meters give a higher measurement accuracy than analog instruments.
Digital meters have a faster speed of response to voltage changes than analog
instruments.
The binary nature of the output reading from a digital instrument means that it
can be readily applied to a display that is in the form of discrete numerals.
Where human operators are required to measure and record signal voltage levels,
this form of output makes an important contribution to measurement reliability
and accuracy, since the problem of analog meter parallax error is eliminated, and
the possibility of gross error through misreading the meter output is greatly
reduced.
The availability of a direct output in digital form in many instruments is also very
useful in the rapidly expanding range of computer control applications.
Digital meters also have very high input impedance (10 MU compared with 1e20 kU
for analog meters), which avoids the measurement system loading problem that
frequently occurs when analog meters are used. Digital meters can measure signals of
frequency up to 1 MHz.
Digital meters usually provide automatic ranging, which prevents overload and
reverse polarity connection.
9.2 The points expected in the explanation include:

Voltage-to-time conversion digital voltmeter:
It is a ramp type of instrument.
When an unknown voltage signal is applied to the input terminals of the instrument,
a negative-slope ramp waveform is generated internally and compared with the input
signal.
When the two are equal, a pulse is generated that opens a gate, and at a later
point in time a second pulse closes the gate when the negative ramp voltage
reaches zero.
The length of time between the gate opening and closing is monitored by an elec-
tronic counter, which produces a digital display according to the level of the input
voltage signal.
Measurement and Instrumentation. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800884-3.00030-7

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 Chapter 9
It is the simplest form of digital voltmeter (DVM) and is relatively cheap.

Its main drawbacks are nonlinearities in the shape of the ramp waveform used and
lack of noise rejection, and these problems lead to a typical inaccuracy of 0.05%.
Potentiometric DVM:
It uses a servo principle.
The error between the unknown input voltage level and a reference voltage is applied
to a servo-driven potentiometer that adjusts the reference voltage until it balances the
unknown voltage.
The output reading is produced by a mechanical drum-type digital display driven by
the potentiometer.
This is a relatively cheap form of DVM that gives excellent performance for its price.
Dual-slope integration DVM:
The unknown voltage is applied to an integrator for a fixed time T1, following which
a reference voltage of opposite sign is applied to the integrator, which discharges
down to a zero output in an interval T2 measured by a counter.
A diagram similar to Figure 9.1 in the book should be drawn to show the outpute
time relationship for the integrator. With the labeling shown in Figure 9.1, the
unknown voltage Vi can be calculated geometrically from the triangle as:
Vi ¼ Vref ðT1 =T2 Þ
This is a relatively simple form of DVM but quite expensive.
It has better noise-rejection capabilities than other types of DVM and gives
correspondingly better measurement accuracy (inaccuracy as low as 0.005%).
Voltage-to-frequency conversion DVM:
The unknown voltage signal is fed via a range switch and an amplifier into a con-
verter circuit whose output is in the form of a train of voltage pulses at a frequency
proportional to the magnitude of the input signal.
The main advantage of this type of DVM is its ability to reject AC noise.
9.3 Discussion of the following applications is expected:

Its use as indicators in system control panels, where deviations of controlled parame-
ters away from the normal expected range are spotted more easily by a pointer
moving against a scale in an analog meter rather than by variations in the numeric
output display of a digital meter.
Applications with significant noise and isolation problems, since analog instruments
tend to be less affected by such problems than digital instruments.
Applications where a mains power supply is not available and battery power is incon-
venient or impractical (analog instruments are passive instruments that do not need a
power supply).
Solutions for Chapter 9 3
Some applications for historical reasons (where the cost and effort of changing to a
digital instrument is not justified).
9.4 (a) Sketch the Meter
Permanent magnet
Pointer
N
S
Moving coil
Iron core
Spring
The meter consists of a rectangular coil wound round a soft iron core that
is suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. The signal being measured
is applied to the coil, and this produces a radial magnetic field. Interaction
between this induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet
causes a torque, which results in rotation of the coil. The amount of
rotation of the coil is measured by attaching a pointer to it that moves
past a graduated scale. The theoretical torque produced is given by:
T ¼ BIhwN
where B is the flux density of the radial field, I is the current flowing in
the coil, h is the height of the coil, w is the width of the coil, and N is
the number of turns in the coil. If the iron core is cylindrical and the air
gap between the coil and pole faces of the permanent magnet is uniform,
then the flux density B is constant, and the above equation can be
rewritten as:
T ¼ KI
i.e., the torque is proportional to the coil current and the instrument scale is
linear.
The torque due to the coil current is opposed by the reaction torque of a
torsional spring such that the final rotational displacement of the coil is propor-
tional to the measured current.
4 Chapter 9
(b) The moving-coil meter measures mean current.

0 p=2 1
Z Zp Z2p
1 @ 20ut 20ðut p=2Þ
Imean ¼ dut dut þ 20 sinðwt pÞdutA
2p p=2 p=2
0 p=2 p
0 1
Zp=2 Zp Z2p
20 @ 2ut 2ut
¼ dut 1 dut þ sinðut pÞdutA
2p p p
0 p=2 p
p=2 2 p !
10 ut2 ut 2p
¼ ut þ ½cosðut pÞp
p p 0 p p=2
10 p
¼ þ 2 ¼ þ1:366 amps
p 2
9.5 (a) Sketch the two forms of moving-iron meter:
(a) attraction type of meter and (b) repulsion type of meter.

Most moving-iron instruments are either of the attraction type or of the repul-
sion type, but a few instruments belong to a third combination type.
The signal to be measured is applied to a stationary coil, and the associated
field produced is usually amplified by the presence of an iron structure
associated with the fixed coil. The moving element in the instrument
consists of an iron vane that is suspended within the field of the fixed coil.
When the fixed coil is excited, the iron vane turns in a direction that
increases the flux through it.
For an excitation current I, the torque produced that causes the vane to turn
is given by:
I 2 dM
T¼
2dq
where M is the mutual inductance and q is the angular deflection. Rotation is
opposed by a spring that produces a backwards torque given by:
TS ¼ Kq
At equilibrium, T ¼ TS, and q is therefore given by:
I 2 dM
q¼
2Kdq
The instrument thus has a square-law response where the deflection is propor-
tional to the square of the signal being measured, i.e., the output reading is a
root-mean-squared (rms) quantity.
(b) A moving-iron meter measures rms current.
0 p=2 1
Z Zp 2 Z2p
1 @ 400ut 2
400ðut p=2Þ
2
Irms ¼ 2
dut þ dut þ 400 sin2 ðut pÞdutA
2p ðp=2Þ ðp=2Þ2
0 p=2 p
0
Zp=2 Zp h i
400 @
¼ ut dut þ
2
ut2 put þ ðp=2Þ2 dut
2pðp=2Þ2
0 p=2
1
p2 Z2p ½1 cos 2ðut pÞ
þ dutA
2 2
p
p=2 3 p !
800 ut3 ut put2 p2 ut p2 ut sin 2ðut pÞ2p
¼ 3 þ þ þ
p 3 0 3 2 4 p=2 2 2 4 p

800 p3 p3
¼ 166:66
p3 3 8
Thus,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Irms ¼ I 2rms ¼ 166:66 ¼ 12:90 amp
6 Chapter 9
9.6 (a) The moving-coil meter measures mean current.

0 p 1
Z Z2p
1 @ 10ðut pÞ
Imean ¼ 10 sinðwtÞdut dutA
2p p
0 p
" #2p !
1 p 10ðut pÞ2
¼ 10½cosðutÞ0
2p 2p
p
1
¼ ð10 þ 10 5pÞ ¼ þ0:683 amps
2p
(b) A moving-iron meter measures rms current.
0 p 1
Z Z2p 2
1 @ 100 sin2 ðutÞdut þ 100ðut pÞ
2
Irms ¼ dutA
2p p2
0 p
0 1
Zp Z2p
100 @ ð1 cos 2utÞ ut2 2put þ p2
¼ dut þ dutA
2p 2 p2
0 p
0 1
p " #2p
100 B 3
B ut sin 2ut þ ðutÞ put þ p ut C
2 2 C
¼ @ A
2p 2 4 0 3p 2 p2 p 2
p
100 p p
¼ þ ¼ 41:67
2p 2 3
Thus,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Irms ¼ I 2rms ¼ 6:45 amp
9.7 The bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies over which the oscilloscope
amplifier gain is within 3 dB of its peak value. This could be illustrated by a sketch
similar to Figure 9.9 in the book.
It is reasonable to expect the student to define the decibel: The dB expresses the ratio
between two quantities. For two voltage levels V1 and V2, the difference between the
two levels is expressed in decibels as 20 log10(V1/V2).
It follows from this that the 3 dB point is where the gain is 0.707 times its
maximum value. The derivation of this should be given as:
20 log10 ð0:7071Þ ¼ 3 dB
In most oscilloscopes, the amplifier is direct-coupled, which means that it amplifies

DC voltages by the same factor as low frequency AC ones. For such instruments, the
minimum frequency measurable is zero, and the bandwidth can be interpreted as the
maximum frequency where the sensitivity (deflection/volt) is within 3 dB of the peak
value.
The rise time is the transit time between the 10% and 90% levels of the response
when a step input is applied to the oscilloscope.
Design aim:
Oscilloscopes are normally designed such that:
Bandwidth Rise time ¼ 0:35
Thus, for a bandwidth of 100 MHz, rise time ¼ 0.35/100,000,000 ¼ 3.5 ns.
A good answer would go on to explain the constraints on choice of bandwidth:
The maximum frequency to be measured must be well within the bandwidth.
The 3 dB specification means that an oscilloscope with a specified inaccuracy of
2% and bandwidth of 100 MHz will have an inaccuracy of 5% when measuring
30 MHz signals, and this inaccuracy will increase still further at higher frequencies.
Thus, when applied to signal-amplitude measurement, the oscilloscope is only usable
at frequencies up to about 0.3 times its specified bandwidth.
This imposes a corresponding constraint on the rise time required according to:
Bandwidth Rise time ¼ 0:35
9.8 The following points are expected in the explanation:

Channel: A channel describes the basic subsystem of the instrument for displaying
one measurement signal (in an analog oscilloscope, this consists of an electron
source, focusing system, and deflector plates). This subsystem is often duplicated one
or more times within the instrument to provide a capability of displaying two or
more signals at the same time on the screen. The common oscilloscope configuration
with two channels can therefore display two separate signals simultaneously.
Single-ended input: This type of input only has one input terminal plus a ground
terminal per oscilloscope channel and, consequently, only allows signal voltages to
be measured relative to ground. It is normally only used in simple oscilloscopes.
Differential input: This type of input is provided on more expensive oscilloscopes.
Two input terminals plus a ground terminal are provided for each channel, which
allows the potentials at two nongrounded points in a circuit to be compared. This
type of input can also be used in single-ended mode to measure a signal relative to
ground by using just one of the input terminals plus ground.
Vertical sensitivity: This defines the magnitude of the input signal that will cause a
deflection of one division on the screen. The vertical sensitivity control is usually
labeled as “volts/div” on the oscilloscope panel. (In an analog oscilloscope, this is
8 Chapter 9
achieved by a series of attenuators and preamplifiers at the input to the oscilloscope

that condition the measured signal to the optimum magnitude for input to the main
amplifier and vertical deflection plates, thus enabling the instrument to measure a
very wide range of different signal magnitudes.)
Display position control: This allows the position at which a signal is displayed on
the screen to be controlled in two ways. The horizontal position is adjusted by a
horizontal position knob on the oscilloscope front panel, and similarly a vertical
position knob controls the vertical position. These controls adjust the position of the
display by biasing the measured signal with DC voltage levels.
9.9 The student should draw a block diagram similar to that in Figure 9.12 of the book.
The explanation of the mode of operation should cover the following points:
The first component is an amplifier/attenuator unit that allows the magnitude of the
input voltage signal to be adjusted to an appropriate level.
The next component is an analog-to-digital converter, which samples the input signal
at discrete points in time.
The next component is the acquisition memory unit, which stores the sampled signal
values.
The next component is a microprocessor, which receives the signal samples from the
acquisition memory unit. This carries out signal processing functions, manages the
front panel control settings, and prepares the output display.
The next component is the display memory module, which stores the output signal.
The final unit is the oscilloscope display unit, which received the output signal from
the display memory module.
The display unit consists of either a monochrome or multicolor liquid crystal display.
The signal displayed is actually a sequence of individual dots rather than a contin-
uous line as displayed by an analog oscilloscope. However, as the density of dots
increases, the display becomes closer and closer to a continuous line.
The density of the dots is entirely dependent upon the sampling rate at which the
analog signal is digitized and the rate at which the memory contents are read to
reconstruct the original signal.
As the speed of sampling and signal processing are a function of instrument cost,
more expensive instruments give better performance in terms of dot density and the
accuracy with which the analog signal is recorded and represented. Nevertheless, the
cost of computing power is now sufficiently low to mean that all, but the very
cheapest, instruments now have a display that looks very much like a continuous
trace.
Besides their ability to display the magnitude of voltage signals and other parameters
such as signal phase and frequency, most digital oscilloscopes can also carry out
analysis of the measured waveform and compute signal parameters such as maximum
and minimum signal levels, peakepeak values, mean values, rms values, rise time,
and fall time.
These additional functions are controlled by extra knobs and push buttons on the
front panel. They are also ideally suited to capturing transient signals when set to
single-sweep mode. This avoids the problem of the very careful synchronization that
is necessary to capture such signals on an analog oscilloscope.
In addition, digital oscilloscopes often have facilities to output analog signals to
devices like chart recorders and output digital signals in a form that is compatible
with standard interfaces like IEEE488 and RS232.
9.10 Diagram and mode of operation:

The student should draw a block diagram similar to that in Figure 9.13 of the book.
The first component is an amplifier/attenuator unit that allows the magnitude of the
input voltage signal to be adjusted to an appropriate level.
The next component is an analog-to-digital converter, which samples the input signal
The next component is the digital phosphor memory unit, which stores the sampled
signal values. This is not composed of chemical phosphor as its name might imply,
but is in fact entirely electronic.
Thereafter, data follows two parallel paths:
In the first path, there is a microprocessor. This processes the data acquired at each
sampling instant according to the settings on the control panel and sends the
processed signal to the instrument display unit.
The second path sends a snapshot of the input signal directly to the display unit at a
rate of 30 images per second.
The final unit is the oscilloscope display unit, which receives two inputs, one from
the microprocessor and one directly from the digital phosphor memory unit.
analog signal is digitized, and the rate at which the memory contents are read to
cheapest instruments now have a display that looks very much like a continuous trace.
10 Chapter 9
and fall time.
Advantages over digital storage oscilloscope:
The principal limitation of a digital storage oscilloscope is that the only signal infor-
mation captured is the status of the signal at each sampling instant. Thereafter, no
new signal information is captured during the time that the previous sample is being
processed. This means that any signal changes occurring between sampling instants,
such as fast transients, are not detected.
To overcome this, the digital phosphor oscilloscope has a parallel-processing archi-
tecture rather than the serial-processing architecture found in digital storage
oscilloscopes.
This enhanced processing capability enables the instrument to have a higher wave-
form capture rate.
It can detect very fast signal transients that are missed by digital storage
oscilloscopes.
9.11 Diagram and mode of operation:
The student should draw a block diagram similar to that in Figure 9.14 of the book.
The first component is an analog-to-digital converter, which samples the input signal
The next component is a low-bandwidth amplifier unit that allows the magnitude of
the input voltage signal to be adjusted to an appropriate level.
The next component is the acquisition memory unit, which stores the sampled signal
values.
The next component is a microprocessor, which receives the signal samples from the
acquisition memory unit. This carries out signal processing functions, manages the
front panel control settings, and prepares the output display.
The next component is the display memory module, which stores the output
signal.
The final unit is the oscilloscope display unit, which received the output signal from
the display memory module.
analog signal is digitized, and the rate at which the memory contents are read to
cheapest instruments now have a display that looks very much like a continuous trace.
and fall time.
Advantages and disadvantages:
The reversal of the positions of the analog-to-digital converter and the amplifier
compared with a digital storage oscilloscope means that the sampled signal applied to
the amplifier has a much lower frequency than the original signal. This allows the use
of a low-bandwidth amplifier.
The low bandwidth amplifier allows a digital sampling oscilloscope to have a band-
width of up to 25 GHz, which is about 10 times better than that achieved by other
types of oscilloscope.
However, the fact that the input signal is applied directly to the analog-to-digital con-
verter without any scaling means that the instrument can only be used to measure
signals whose peak magnitude is within a relatively small range of typically 1 V
peakepeak. By contrast, both digital storage and digital phosphor oscilloscopes can
typically deal with inputs up to 500 V.
12 Chapter 9
9.12 The following points are expected in the answer:

Explanation of a PC-based oscilloscope:
A PC-based oscilloscope consists of a hardware unit that connects to a
standard PC and allows it to perform the functions provided by a stand-alone
oscilloscope.
The hardware unit is connected to the PC via either a USB or a parallel port.
The hardware unit provides the signal scaling, analog-to-digital conversion, and
buffer memory functions found in a conventional oscilloscope.
More expensive PC-based oscilloscopes also provide some high-speed digital signal
processing functions within the hardware unit.
The host PC itself provides the control interface and display facilities.
Advantages and disadvantages:
The primary advantage of a PC-based oscilloscope over other types is cost; the cost
saving being achieved because the use of the PC obviates the need for the display
unit and the front control panel found in other forms of oscilloscope.
The larger size of a PC display compared with a conventional oscilloscope often
makes the output display easier to read.
A further advantage is one of portability, since a laptop plus add-on hardware unit is
usually smaller and lighter than a conventional oscilloscope.
PC-based oscilloscopes also facilitate the transfer of output data into standard PC
software such as spreadsheets and word processors.
One disadvantage is that electromagnetic noise originating in PC circuits requires the
hardware unit to be well shielded in order to avoid corruption of the measured signal.
A second disadvantage is that signal sampling rates can be limited by the mode of
connection of the hardware unit into the PC.
9.13 Discussion should cover at least the following points:
Main differences:
Digital storage oscilloscope has a serial-processing architecture, whereas the digital
phosphor oscilloscope has a parallel architecture.
The digital sampling oscilloscope performs analog-to-digital conversion of the
measured signal before any amplification.
Performance and typical usage:
Digital storage oscilloscope can only capture the status of the measured signal at
each sampling instant, which means that no new information is captured during the
time that the current sample is being processed. Hence, the instrument is not suitable
for displaying signals with fast transients.
The parallel-processing architecture of the digital phosphor oscilloscope allows it to
have a higher data capture rate than a digital storage oscilloscope, which means that
it is suitable for displaying signals with fast transients.
Because the measured signal is converted to digital form before amplification in the
digital sampling oscilloscope, the sampled signal applied to the amplifier has a much
lower frequency compared to that of the original signal. This means that a low-
bandwidth amplifier can be used and allows relatively high-frequency signals to be
measured, typically up to 25 GHz. This is about 10 times better than the other types
of oscilloscope. Thus the main application of a digital sampling oscilloscope is in
measuring high-frequency signals.
In a digital sampling oscilloscope, the input signal is applied directly to the analog-
to-digital converter without any scaling. This means that the digital sampling
oscilloscope can only be used to measure signals whose peak magnitude is within a
relatively small range of typically 1 V peakepeak.
By contrast, both digital storage and digital phosphor oscilloscopes can typically deal
with inputs up to 500 V.
9.14 Discussion should cover at least the following points about electronic displays and
computer monitor displays:
Electronic displays:
These enable a parameter value to be read immediately, thus allowing for any neces-
sary response to be made immediately.
The main requirement for displays is that they should be clear and unambiguous.
The two common types of character format used in displays are seven-segment and
7 5 dot matrix.
(Depending on time allowed, students may be expected to illustrate the form of these
by diagrams similar to those given in Figure 9.15 of the book.)
Both types of display have the advantage of being able to display alphabetic as well
as numeric information, although the 7-segment format can only display a limited
9-letter subset of the full 26-letter alphabet. This allows added meaning to be given
to the number displayed by including a word or letter code. It also allows a single
display unit to send information about several parameter values, cycling through each
in turn and including alphabetic information to indicate the nature of the variable
currently displayed.
Electronic output units usually consist of a number of side-by-side cells, where each
cell displays one character. Generally, these accept either serial or parallel digital
input signals, and the input format can be either binary-coded decimal (BCD) or
ACSII.
Technologies used for the individual elements in the display are either light emitting
diodes (LEDs) or liquid-crystal elements.
Computer monitor displays:
Computers provide an excellent mechanism for both displaying and storing informa-
tion, particularly in locations where a suitable computer is already available.
14 Chapter 9
Computers are cheap and highly reliable.

Software provides for alphanumeric displays of industrial plant variable and status
data, for which the plant operator can vary the size of font used to display the infor-
mation at will.
It is also easy to display other information such as plant layout diagrams, process
flow layouts etc. This allows not only the value of parameters that go outside control
limits to be displayed, but also their location on a schematic map of the plant.
Graphical displays of the behavior of a measured variable are also possible. However,
this poses a difficulty when there is a requirement to display the variable’s behavior
over a long period of time, since the length of the time axis is constrained by the size
of the monitor’s screen. To overcome this, the display resolution has to decrease as
the time period of the display increases.
Touch screens have the ability to display the same sort of information as a conven-
tional computer monitor, but they also provide a command-input facility in which the
operator simply has to touch the screen at points where images of keys or boxes are
displayed. The sensing elements behind the screen are protected by the glass and
continue to function even if the glass gets scratched.
Touch screens are usually totally sealed, and thus provide intrinsically safe operation
in hazardous environments.
9.15 Discussion should cover at least the following points about chart recorders, digital
oscilloscopes, digital data recorders, and hard-copy devices such as ink-jet and laser
printers.
This question could form the basis of an extended assignment, in which case
the student would be expected to sketch or include copied diagrams and/or
photographs of the various devices.
Chart recorders:
An electromechanical form of recorder, which is called a hybrid recorder by some
manufacturers.
Provide a noncorruptible record that has the merit of instant “viewability.”
Satisfy regulations set for many industries that require variables to be monitored and
recorded continuously with hard-copy output (N.B. paperless forms of chart recorder
often do not satisfy such regulations).
Satisfy similar requirements defined for ISO 9000 quality assurance procedures and
ISO 14000 environmental protection systems.
Satisfy special regulations in the defense industry that often require hard-copy output
to be kept for 10 years. Originally, chart recorders worked on the same principle as an
analog galvanometric moving-coil meter, except that the moving coil to which the
measured signal was applied carried a pen. The pen drew an ink trace on a strip of
ruled chart paper that was moved past the pen at constant speed by an electrical motor.
The resultant trace on the chart paper showed the variations with time in the magni-
tude of the measured signal. Commonly, such recorders had two or more pens of
different colors so that several measured parameters could be recorded simultaneously.
More recent chart recorders are controlled by a microprocessor and use a servo
system to move the pens instead of the galvanometric mechanism, in which the pen
is driven by a brushless servomotor, and a sensor on the pen feeds back a signal pro-
portional to pen position. In this form, the instrument is known as a potentiometric
recorder. The position signal is measured by a potentiometer in cheaper models, but
more expensive models achieve better performance and reliability by using a noncon-
tacting ultrasonic sensor to provide feedback on the pen position.
The difference between the pen position and the measured signal is applied as an
error signal that drives the motor. One consequence of this electromechanical
balancing mechanism is that the instrument has a slow response time in the range of
0.2e2.0 s, which means that electromechanical potentiometric recorders are only
suitable for measuring DC and slowly time-varying signals.
The microprocessor in a typical modern chart recorder provides functions like selec-
tion of range and chart speed, and also specification of alarm modes and levels to
detect when measured variables go outside acceptable limits.
Basic recorders currently available can record up to three different signals using three
different colored pens. However, multipoint recorders can have 24 or more inputs and
plot 6 or more different colored traces simultaneously.
As an alternative to pens, which can run out of ink at inconvenient times, recorders
using a heated stylus recording signals on heat-sensitive chart paper are available.
The multipoint strip chart recorder is a modification of the pen strip chart recorder
that uses a dot matrix print head striking against an ink ribbon instead of pens. A
typical model might allow up to 24 different signal inputs to be recorded simulta-
neously, using a 6-color ink ribbon.
As well as recording signals as a continuous trace, many models also allow for the
printing of alphanumeric data on the chart to record date, time, and other process
information. Some models also have a digital numeric display to provide information
on the current values of recorded variables.
A circular form of chart recorder is also available, in which the chart paper is circular
in shape and is rotated rather than moving translationally. The rotational speed of the
chart can be typically adjusted between one revolution in 1 h and one revolution in
31 days. Recorded charts are replaced and stored after each revolution, which means
replacement intervals that vary between hourly and monthly according to the chart
speed. The major advantage of the circular chart recorder over other forms is
compactness. Some models have up to four different colored pen assemblies,
allowing up to four different parameters to be recorded simultaneously.
16 Chapter 9
All these alternative forms of chart recorders are still limited to recording either
DC signals or very low frequency ones.
Finally, paperless forms of recorder exist where the output display is generated
entirely electronically. These have names such as virtual chart recorder and digital
chart recorder and display the time history of measured signals electronically, using
a color-matrix liquid crystal display. This avoids the chore of periodically replacing
chart paper and ink cartridges associated with other forms of chart recorder. Reli-
ability is also enhanced compared with electromechanical recorders. As well as
displaying the most recent time history of measured signals on its screen, the instru-
ment also stores a much larger past history.
Some models of paperless recorder can record 100 samples per second, allowing the
recording of frequencies up to about 20 Hz.
A Videographic recorder is an enhanced form of paperless chart recorder that has
additional display modes such as bar graphs (histograms) and digital numbers.
Digital oscilloscope:
Many digital oscilloscopes have facilities to output analog signals to devices like
chart recorders and output digital signals in a form that is compatible with standard
interfaces like IEEE488 and RS232.
Digital oscilloscopes come in three forms: digital storage oscilloscope, digital phos-
phor oscilloscope, and digital sampling oscilloscope.
If the question is used as the basis for an extended assignment, the student might
be expected to cover the mode of operation of each of these (see solutions to
questions 9.9, 9.10 and 9.11 for suggested details).
The digital storage oscilloscope and digital phosphor oscilloscope can typically
record signals of up to 2.5 GHz.
The digital sampling oscilloscope can typically record signals of up to 25 GHz.
Digital data recorder:
Digital data recorders, also known as data loggers, provide a further alternative way
of recording measurement data in digital format.
Data so recorded can then be transferred at a future time either to a computer for
further analysis or to one of the hard-copy output devices described earlier.
Most recorders have facilities to handle measurements in the form of both analog and
digital signals. Common analog input signals allowed include DC voltages, DC cur-
rents, AC voltages, and AC currents. Digital inputs can usually be either in the form
of data from digital measuring instruments or discrete data representing events such
as switch closures or relay operations.
Some models provide alarm facilities to alert operators to abnormal conditions during
data recording operations.
Typical maximum frequency for recorded signals is 10 kHz.
Ink-jet and laser printers:

Ink-jet and laser printers are now widely used as an alternative means of storing mea-
surement system output in a paper form.
Since a computer is a routine part of many data acquisition and processing opera-
tions, it often makes sense to output the data in a suitable form to a computer printer
rather than a chart recorder.
This saves the cost of a separate recorder and is facilitated by the ready availability
of software that can output measurement data in a graphical format.
9.16 Discussion should cover at least the following points.

This question could form the basis of an extended assignment, in which case the
student would be expected to sketch or include copied diagrams and/or photo-
graphs of the various devices.
The chart recorder is an electromechanical instrument, which is called a hybrid
recorder by some manufacturers.
Provides a noncorruptible record that has the merit of instant “viewability.”
Satisfy regulations set for many industries that require variables to be monitored and
recorded continuously with hard-copy output (N.B. paperless forms of chart recorder
often do not satisfy such regulations).
Satisfy similar requirements defined for ISO 9000 quality assurance procedures and
ISO 14000 environmental protection systems.
Satisfy special regulations in the defense industry that often require hard-copy output
to be kept for 10 years. Originally, chart recorders worked on the same principle as
an analog galvanometric moving-coil meter, except that the moving coil to which the
measured signal was applied carried a pen. The pen drew an ink trace on a strip of
ruled chart paper that was moved past the pen at constant speed by an electrical
motor. The resultant trace on the chart paper showed the variations with time in the
magnitude of the measured signal. Commonly, such recorders had two or more pens
of different colors so that several measured parameters could be recorded
simultaneously.
More recent chart recorders are controlled by a microprocessor and use a servo
system to move the pens instead of the galvanometric mechanism, in which the pen
is driven by a brushless servomotor, and a sensor on the pen feeds back a signal pro-
portional to pen position. In this form, the instrument is known as a potentiometric
recorder. The position signal is measured by a potentiometer in cheaper models, but
more expensive models achieve better performance and reliability by using a noncon-
tacting ultrasonic sensor to provide feedback on the pen position.
The difference between the pen position and the measured signal is applied as an
error signal that drives the motor. One consequence of this electromechanical
balancing mechanism is that the instrument has a slow response time in the range of
18 Chapter 9
0.2e2.0 s, which means that electromechanical potentiometric recorders are only

suitable for measuring DC and slowly time-varying signals.
The microprocessor in a typical modern chart recorder provides functions like selec-
tion of range and chart speed, and also specification of alarm modes and levels to
detect when measured variables go outside acceptable limits.
Basic recorders currently available can record up to three different signals using three
different colored pens. However, multipoint recorders can have 24 or more inputs and
plot 6 or more different colored traces simultaneously.
As an alternative to pens, which can run out of ink at inconvenient times, recorders
using a heated stylus recording signals on heat-sensitive chart paper are available.
The multipoint strip chart recorder is a modification of the pen strip chart recorder
that uses a dot matrix print head striking against an ink ribbon instead of pens.
A typical model might allow up to 24 different signal inputs to be recorded simulta-
neously, using a 6-color ink ribbon.
As well as recording signals as a continuous trace, many models also allow for the
printing of alphanumeric data on the chart to record date, time, and other process in-
formation. Some models also have a digital numeric display to provide information
on the current values of recorded variables.
A circular form of chart recorder is also available, in which the chart paper is circular
in shape and is rotated rather than moving translationally. The rotational speed of the
chart can be typically adjusted between one revolution in 1 h and one revolution in
31 days. Recorded charts are replaced and stored after each revolution, which means
replacement intervals that vary between hourly and monthly according to the chart
speed. The major advantage of the circular chart recorder over other forms is
compactness. Some models have up to four different colored pen assemblies,
allowing up to four different parameters to be recorded simultaneously.
All these alternative forms of chart recorders are still limited to recording either
DC signals or very low frequency ones.
Finally, paperless forms of recorder exist where the output display is generated
entirely electronically. These have names such as virtual chart recorder and digital
chart recorder and display the time history of measured signals electronically, using
a color-matrix liquid crystal display. This avoids the chore of periodically replacing
chart paper and ink cartridges associated with other forms of chart recorder. Reli-
ability is also enhanced compared with electromechanical recorders. As well as
displaying the most recent time history of measured signals on its screen, the instru-
ment also stores a much larger past history.
Some models of paperless recorder can record 100 samples per second, allowing the
recording of frequencies up to about 20 Hz.
A Videographic recorder is an enhanced form of paperless chart recorder that has

additional display modes such as bar graphs (histograms) and digital numbers.

Digital data recorders are also known as data loggers.
They provide a way of recording measurement data in digital format. Data so
recorded can then be transferred at a future time either to a computer for further anal-
ysis, to any of the form of measurement display device or to a hard-copy output
device such as a chart recorder or inkjet/laser printer.
Features contained within a data recorder/data logger vary according to the particular
manufacturer/model under discussion.
Most recorders have facilities to handle measurements in the form of both analog and
digital signals. Common analog input signals allowed include DC voltages, DC cur-
rents, AC voltages, and AC currents. Digital inputs can usually be either in the form
of data from digital measuring instruments or discrete data representing events such
as switch closures or relay operations.
Some models also provide alarm facilities to alert operators to abnormal conditions
during data recording operations.
Many data recorders provide special input facilities that are optimized for
particular kinds of measurement sensor such as accelerometers, thermocouples,
thermistors, resistance thermometers, strain gauges (including strain gauge
bridges), linear variable differential transformers, and rotational differential
transformers.
Some instruments also have special facilities for dealing with inputs from less
common devices like encoders, counters, timers, tachometers, and clocks. A few
recorders also incorporate integral sensors when they are designed to measure a
particular type of physical variable.
The quality of the data recorded by a digital recorder is a function of the cost of the
instrument. Paying more usually means getting more memory to provide a greater
data storage capacity, greater resolution in the analog-to-digital converter to give
better recording accuracy, and faster data processing to allow a greater data sampling
frequency.
Typical maximum frequency for recorded signals is 10 kHz.

General points:
In some circumstances, it is clearly best to use either just tabular or just graphical
mode of data presentation. However, in many data collection exercises, part of the
measurements and calculations are expressed in tabular form and part graphically, so
making best use of the merits of each technique.
20 Chapter 9
Tabular presentation:
Allows data values to be recorded in a precise way that exactly maintains the accu-
racy to which the data values were measured. In other words, the data values are
written down exactly as measured.
With tabular presentation, it is easy to add further values calculated from the raw data.
Graphical presentation:
Presentation of data in graphical form involves some compromise in the accuracy to
which the data are recorded, as the exact values of measurements are lost.
Graphs provide a pictorial representation of results that is more readily compre-
hended than a set of tabular results.
Graphs are particularly useful for expressing the quantitative significance of results
and showing whether a linear relationship exists between two variables.
Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is clearly outside the straight line or
curve that seems to fit the rest of the data points. Such a data point is probably either
due to a human mistake in reading an instrument or else to a momentary malfunction
in the measuring instrument itself. Spotting such erroneous data is less easy with
tabular presentation.
The next step is to draw some line through these data points that best represents the
relationship between the two variables. This line will normally be either a straight
one or a smooth curve. The data points will not usually lie exactly on this line but
instead will lie on either side of it. The magnitude of the excursions of the data
points from the line drawn will depend on the magnitude of the random measurement
errors associated with the data.
Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is clearly outside the straight line or
curve that seems to fit the rest of the data points. Such a data point is probably either
due to a human mistake in reading an instrument or else to a momentary malfunction
in the measuring instrument itself. If the graph shows such a data point where a
human mistake or instrument malfunction is suspected, the proper course of action is
to repeat that particular measurement, and then discard the original data point if the
mistake or malfunction is confirmed.
The graph should have a title or caption that explains what data are being presented
in the graph.
Both axes of the graph should be labeled to express clearly what variable is associ-
ated with each axis and to define the units in which the variables are expressed.
The number of points marked along each axis should be kept reasonably smalld
about five divisions is often a suitable number.
No attempt should be made to draw the graph outside the boundaries corresponding
to the maximum and minimum data values measured.
Great care should be taken in drawing either a straight line or curve through the
data points.
Background theory relating to the relationship between the data being drawn on the
graph often indicates the required form of line (linear, first order, second order etc.).
The line or curve drawn through the data points should be a smooth one, rather than
joining the data points by a jagged line that passes exactly through each data point.
This is justified on account of the random errors that are known to affect measure-
ments, which means that the line or curve is not expected to pass exactly through
each data point.
Sometimes, it is possible to draw the best line through data points using human judg-
ment and using the “by eye” technique of judging the best line to draw with the data
points on either side of the line.
The optimal way to establish the best-fit line is to use the mathematical technique of
least-squares regression.
This calculate the optimum line where the sum of negative errors in data points on
one side of the line is balanced by the sum of positive errors in data points on the
other side of the line.
The table should have a title that explains what data are being presented within
the table.
Each column of figures in the table should refer to the measurements or calculations
associated with one quantity only.
Each column of figures should be headed by a title that identifies the data values
contained in the column.
The units in which quantities in each column are measured should be stated at the
top of the column.
All headings and columns should be separated by bold horizontal (and sometimes
vertical) lines.
The errors associated with each data value quoted in the table should be given. If the
error level is the same for all data values in a particular column, it is appropriate to
specify the error level in the heading at the top of the column. However, if the error
levels vary, then it is preferable to write the error boundaries alongside each entry in
the table.
9.21 The explanation should cover at least the following points.

Regression techniques consist of finding a least-squares mathematical relationship
between measurements of two variables y and x, such that the value of the variable y
can be predicted from a measurement of the other variable x.
Linear least-squares regression is the technique applied when a linear relationship is
thought to exist between the two variables y and x.
22 Chapter 9
Before applying regression techniques, checks should be made to determine whether

erroneous points exist in the data. Drawing a rough graph of the measured data points
is a good check. This will indicate erroneous data points caused by human mistakes
or instrument malfunctions.
Regression techniques cannot be successfully applied if the deviation of any
particular data point from the line to be fitted is greater than the maximum possible
error that is calculated for the measured variable (i.e., the predicted sum of all
systematic and random errors). The nature of some measurement data sets is such
that this criterion cannot be satisfied, and any attempt to apply regression tech-
niques is doomed to failure. In many cases, this problem of large errors in some
data points only becomes apparent during the process of attempting to fit a
relationship by regression.
A further check that must be made before attempting to fit a line or curve to
measurements of two variables x and y is to examine the data and look for any
evidence that both variables are subject to random errors. It is a clear condition for
the validity of regression techniques that only one of the measured variables is
subject to random errors, with no error in the other variable.
Linear least-squares regression estimates the optimal values for the constant
coefficients a and b of a linear relationship y ¼ a þ bx for a set of n measurements
y1/yn, x1/xn, such the relationship gives the best fit to the measurement data.
The deviation of each point (xi,yi) from the y ¼ a þ bx line can be expressed as di,
where di ¼ yi (a þ bxi).
The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared deviations, S, is a
minimum,
P P
i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi a bxi Þ2 is a minimum.
The minimum can be found by setting the partial derivatives vS/va and vS/vb to zero
and solving the resulting two simultaneous (normal) equations:
X
vS=va ¼ 2ðyi a bxi Þð1Þ ¼ 0 (1)
X
vS=vb ¼ 2ðyi a bxi Þðxi Þ ¼ 0 (2)
The values of the coefficients a and b at the minimum point can be represented by a^
^ which are known as the least-squares estimates of a and b. These can be
and b,
calculated as follows:
From Eqn (1),
X X X X P P
y ^ xi
b
a^ þ b^ a þ b^
i
yi ¼ xi ¼ n^ xi and thus; a^ ¼ (3)
n
From Eqn (2),
X X X
ðxi yi Þ ¼ a^ xi þ b^ x2i (4)
Now substitute for a^ in (4) using (3):

P P
X yi b^ xi X X
ðxi yi Þ ¼ xi þ b^ x2i
n
^
Collecting terms in b,
" P 2# X P P
X ð xi Þ xi yi
b^ xi
2
¼ ðxi yi Þ
n n
Rearranging gives:
hX nX . o2 i X X X
b^ x2i n xi n ¼ ðxi yi Þ n ðxi =nÞ ðyi =nÞ:
This can be expressed as:

hX i X
b^ x2i nx2m ¼ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym ;
where xm and ym are the mean values of x and y.

Thus:
P
ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
b^ ¼ P 2
xi nx2m
And, from Eqn (3):
P P
yi b^ xi ^m
a^ ¼ ¼ ym bx
n
Finally, a check should be made that the correct relationship between the variable x
and y is in fact a linear one. This is done by applying a confidence test. A simple
confidence test is to apply quadratic least-squares regression to the data and calculate
the sum of squares deviations for a quadratic relationship between the data. This
should be greater than the sum of squares deviations for a linear relationship between
the data as fitted by linear least-squares regression.
9.22 (a) Let the deviation of each point (xi,yi) from the line be expressed as di, where
di ¼ yi (a þ bxi). The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared
P P
deviations, S, is a minimum, i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi a bxi Þ2 is
a minimum.
The minimum can be found by setting the partial derivatives vS/va and vS/vb to
zero and solving the resulting two simultaneous (normal) equations:
X
X
24 Chapter 9
The values of the coefficients a and b at the minimum point can be represented
^ which are known as the least-squares estimates of a and b. These
by a^ and b,
can be calculated as follows:
From Eqn (1),
X X X X P P
^ ^ yi b^ xi
yi ¼ a^ þ b xi ¼ nâþb xi and thus; a^ ¼ (3)
n
From Eqn (2),
X X X

P P
X yi b^ xi X X
n
Collecting terms in b, ^
" P 2# X P P
X ð xi Þ xi yi
b^ xi 2
¼ ðxi yi Þ
n n
Rearranging gives:
hX nX . o2 i X X X

hX i X

Thus:
P
^ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
b¼ P 2 (5)
xi nxm 2
And, from Eqn (3):
P P
yi b^ xi ^m
a^ ¼ ¼ ym bx (6)
n
(b) Data given:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
xi 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
yi 13.8 22.7 33.6 42.9 53.5 63.3 75.0 82.8 94.1 103.4
Calculating the parameters required for Eqn (5):

X
n ¼ 10; xm ¼ 62:5; ym ¼ 58:51; ðxi yi Þ ¼ 40714:5; n xm ym ¼ 36568:75;
X
x2i ¼ 41125; n x2m ¼ 39062:5
Hence, from Eqn (5):

P
^ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym 40714:5 36568:75
b¼ P 2 ¼ ¼ 2:01
xi nx2m 41125 39062:5
and from Eqn (6):
^ m ¼ 58:51 ð2:01 62:5Þ ¼ 67:12

a^ ¼ ym bx
9.23 (a) Linear least-squares regression estimates the optimal values for the constant
coefficients a and b of a linear relationship y ¼ a þ bx for a set of n measure-
ments y1/yn, x1/xn, such the relationship gives the best fit to the measurement
data. Linear regression is useful for fitting a line to data whenever the relation-
ship between two sets of measurement variables is either known to be linear or
is suspected to be so.
(b) Let the deviation of each point (xi,yi) from the line be expressed as di, where
di ¼ yi (a þ bxi). The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared
P P
deviations, S, is a minimum, i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi a bxi Þ2 is
a minimum.
The minimum can be found by setting the partial derivatives vS/va and vS/vb to
zero and solving the resulting two simultaneous (normal) equations:
X
X
The values of the coefficients a and b at the minimum point can be represented
^ which are known as the least-squares estimates of a and b. These
by a^ and b,
can be calculated as follows:
From Eqn (1),
X X X X P P
^ ^ yi b^ xi
yi ¼ a^ þ b xi ¼ nâþb xi and thus; a^ ¼ (3)
n
From Eqn (2),
X X X
26 Chapter 9

P P
X y i ^
b xi X X
n
^
" P 2# X P P
X ð x Þ xi yi
b^
i
xi
2
¼ ðxi yi Þ
n n
Rearranging gives:
hX nX . o2 i X X X

hX i X

Thus:
P
ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
b^ ¼ P 2 (5)
xi nx2m
And, from Eqn (3):
P P
yi b^ xi ^m
a^ ¼ ¼ ym bx (6)
n
(c) Data given:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
xi (gram) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
yi (mm) 11.4 21.9 32.3 44.8 54.2 66.7 75.7 89.1 98.5 111.0 120.6 133.4
Calculating the parameters required for Eqn (5):

X
n ¼ 12; xm ¼ 32:5; ym ¼ 71:63; ðxi yi Þ ¼ 35845:5; n xm ym ¼ 27937;
X
x2i ¼ 16250; n x2m ¼ 12675
Hence, from Eqn (5):

P
^ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym 35845:5 27937
b¼ P 2 ¼ ¼ 2:212
xi nxm 2 16250 12675
and from Eqn (6):

^ m ¼ 71:63 ð2:212 32:5Þ ¼ 0:262
a^ ¼ ym bx
9.24 Quadratic least-squares regression:

Regression techniques consist of finding a mathematical relationship between mea-
surements of two variables y and x, such that the value of variable y can be predicted
from a measurement of the other variable x.
Quadratic least-squares regression is where the relationship fitted is a quadratic one
(second order).
Quadratic least-squares regression is used to estimate the parameters of a relationship
y ¼ a þ bx þ cx2 between two sets of measurements y1/yn, x1/xn. It is applied
when theory suggests that this is the appropriate form of relationship for the data.
The deviation of each point (xi,yi) from the line can be expressed as di, where
di ¼ yi ða þ bxi þ cx2i Þ:
minimum.
P P
i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi a bxi þ cx2i Þ2 is a minimum.
The minimum can be found by setting the partial derivatives vS/va, vS/vb, and vS/vc
to zero and solving the resulting simultaneous equations, as for the linear least-
squares regression procedure.
Students would not be expected to be able to write out the relevant equations by
hand.
However, they would be expected to say that standard computer packages to estimate
the parameters a, b, and c by numerical methods are widely available (for example,
Labview and Matlab).
Polynomial least-squares regression:
Polynomial least-squares regression is where the relationship fitted is a polynomial
one (third- or higher-order).
Polynomial least-squares regression is used to estimate the parameters of the
pth order relationship y ¼ a0 þ a1x þ a2x2 þ / þ apxp between two sets of
measurements y1/yn, x1/xn.
The deviation of each point (xi,yi) from the line can be expressed as di, where:
di ¼ yi a0 þ a1 xi þ a2 x2i þ / þ ap xpi
The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared deviations given by
P
S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ is a minimum.
The minimum can be found as before by setting the p partial derivatives vS/va0/vS/
vap to zero and solving the resulting simultaneous equations.
28 Chapter 9
Again, students would not be expected to be able to write out the relevant equations
by hand.
However, they would be expected to say that standard computer packages to estimate
the parameters a0/ap by numerical methods are widely available (for example,
Labview and Matlab).
Choice between:
A simple test to determine whether a particular relationship (e.g., linear, quadratic or
polynomial) fits the data best is to calculate the sum of squared deviations S for the
chosen y/x relationship and compare it with the value of S calculated for the next
higher-order regression curve that could be fitted to the data.
Thus if a straight-line relationship is chosen, the value of S calculated should be of a
similar magnitude or less than that obtained by fitting a quadratic relationship. If the
value of S were substantially lower for a quadratic relationship, this would indicate
that a quadratic relationship was a better fit to the data than a straight-line one and
further tests would be needed to examine whether a cubic or higher-order relationship
was a better fit still.
The stages of this simple confidence test can be summarized as follows:
P
1. Calculate S ¼ ðdi Þ2 for the relationship fitted (for example, a linear
relationship).
P
2. Calculate S0 ¼ ðdi Þ2 for the next higher-order relationship, for example, a
quadratic relationship.
If S0 is significantly less than S, then the first relationship fitted (in this example
the linear relationship) is incorrect.
3. Repeat steps (1) and (2) until S0 is greater than or equal to S.
Student should mention that curve fitting programs within packages such as
Labview and Matlab are able to assist this procedure by calculating the value of
S for each order of regression fit tried.
Student might also be reasonable expected to know that more sophisticated
confidence tests exist such as the F-ratio test.
9.25 Data given:
Resistance (U) 212.8 218.6 225.3 233.6 240.8 246.6
Temperature ( C) 300 320 340 360 380 400
Zero errors are assumed in the temperature measurements.

The resistance measurements have random errors but no systematic errors.
(a) The question requires linear least-squares regression to be carried out to fit the
best straight line to the data, i.e., to find the optimal coefficients a and b for a
straight-line equation of the form: y ¼ a þ bx
Let di represent the deviation of each data point yi from the value of y calcu-
lated from: y ¼ a þ bxi
Let S be the sum of squares of deviation:

X
n
S¼ ðdi Þ2
i¼1
S must be a minimum for the best-fit straight line.

Set vS vS
va and vb to zero and solve the pair of simultaneous equations that result.
The least-squares estimate of a and b can be written as:
P
^ ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ ^m
b¼ P ; a^ ¼ ym bx
ðxi xm Þ2
where xm and ym are mean values of x and y respectively.

Let y represent the resistance values and x represent the temperature values in
the data given.
The mean values calculated from the given data are: xm ¼ 350 and ym ¼ 229.62.
Now calculate the values in the following table:
xi ¡ xm yi ¡ ym (xi ¡ xm)(yi ¡ ym) (xi ¡ xm)2
50 16.82 840.8 2500
30 11.02 330.5 900
10 4.32 43.2 100
þ10 þ3.98 39.8 100
þ30 þ11.18 335.5 900
þ50 þ16.98 849.2 2500
Add up all elements in column 3:

X
ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ ¼ 2439

X
ðxi xm Þ2 ¼ 7000
P
ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ
^
Hence b ¼ P ¼ 2500
849 ¼ 0:3484
ðxi xm Þ 2
Thus, the best estimate of measurement sensitivity is 0.3484 U/ C.

(b) The sensitivity value is only valid for the range of temperatures that data is
provided for, i.e., temperatures between 300 C and 400 C.
P
(c) Calculate S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi Þ2 for the straight-line relationship fitted to the data.
P
Calculate S0 ¼ ni¼1 ðdi Þ2 for a quadratic relationship.
S must be greater than S0 if the straight-line relationship is the best from of
relationship to fit to the data.
30 Chapter 9
9.26 Let the deviation of each point (xi,yi) from the line be expressed as di, where di ¼ yi
(axi þ b). The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared deviations, S, is a
P P
minimum, i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi axi bÞ2 is a minimum.
X
vS=va ¼ 2ðyi axi bÞðxi Þ ¼ 0 (1)
X
vS=vb ¼ 2ðyi axi bÞð1Þ ¼ 0 (2)
The values of the coefficients a and b at the minimum point can be represented by a^
and b,
From Eqn (1),
X X X X P P
^ ^ ^ yi a^ xi
yi ¼ b þ a^ xi ¼ nb þ a^ xi and thus; b ¼ (3)
n
From Eqn (2),

X X X
ðxi yi Þ ¼ b^ xi þ a^ x2i (4)
Now substitute for b^ in (4) using (3):

P P
X yi a^ xi X X
ðxi yi Þ ¼ xi þ a^ x2i
n
Collecting terms in a^,
" P 2# X P P
X ð xi Þ xi yi
a^ xi
2
¼ ðxi yi Þ
n n
Rearranging gives:
hX nX . o2 i X X X
a^ x2i n xi n ¼ ðxi yi Þ n ðxi =nÞ ðyi =nÞ:

hX i X
a^ x2i nx2m ¼ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym ;

Thus:
P
ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
a^ ¼ P 2
xi nx2m
And, from Eqn (3):

P P
yi b^ xi
b^ ¼ ¼ ym a^xm
n
9.27 Given data:

Temp ( C) 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550
emf (mV) 21.0 23.2 25.0 26.9 28.6 31.3 32.8 35.0 37.2 38.5 40.7
Temp ( C) 575 600 625 650 675 700 725 750 775 800
emf (mV) 43.0 45.2 47.6 49.5 51.1 53.0 55.5 57.2 59.0 61.0
The question requires linear least-squares regression to be carried out to fit the best
straight line to the data, i.e., to find the optimal coefficients a and b for a straight-line
equation of the form: y ¼ a þ bx
See solution to question 8.11 to see analysis which shows that the least-squares
estimate of a and b can be written as:
P
b^ ¼ P ^m
; a^ ¼ ym bx
ðxi xm Þ2

Let y represent the temperature values and x represent the emf values in the data
given.
The mean values calculated from the given data are: xm ¼ 41.06 and ym ¼ 550.
xi ¡ xm yi ¡ ym (xi ¡ xm)( yi ¡ ym) (xi ¡ xm)2
20.06 250 5015.48 402.48
17.86 225 4018.93 319.05
16.06 200 3212.38 257.98
14.16 175 2478.33 200.56
12.46 150 1869.29 155.30
9.76 125 1220.24 95.29
8.26 100 826.19 68.26
6.06 75 454.64 36.75
3.86 50 193.10 14.91
2.56 25 64.05 6.56
0.36 0 0.00 0.13
1.94 25 48.45 3.76
4.14 50 206.90 17.12
6.54 75 490.36 42.75
8.44 100 843.81 71.20
10.04 125 1254.76 100.76
11.94 150 1790.71 142.52
14.44 175 2526.67 208.46
16.14 200 3227.62 260.44
17.94 225 4036.07 321.78
19.94 250 4984.52 397.53
32 Chapter 9

X
ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ ¼ 17814:64

X
ðxi xm Þ2 ¼ 1430:67
Hence
P
ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ 178:14
b^ ¼ P 2
¼ ¼ 12:45;
ðxi xm Þ 1430:67
^ m ¼ 550:0 ð12:45 41:06Þ ¼ 38:70
a^ ¼ ym bx
Thus, the best estimate of measurement sensitivity is 12.45 C/mV.
9.28 Data given:

I (amps) 1 2 3 4 5
V (volts) 10.8 20.4 30.7 40.5 50.0
Some initial analysis of the data is sensible to check whether an exact straight-line
relationship exists apart from the zero error. This determines whether least-squares
regression is necessary:
As I increases from 1 to 2, V increases by 9.6 V.
As I increases from 2 to 3, V increases by 10.3 V.
This shows that the data deviates from a straight-line relationship. Hence, there are
other measurement errors apart from the zero error, and it is necessary to perform
linear least-squares regression on the data. This involves finding the optimal
coefficients a and b for a straight-line equation of the form: y ¼ a þ bx
P
b^ ¼ P ^m
; a^ ¼ ym bx
ðxi xm Þ2

Let x represent the current values and y represent the voltage values in the data given.
The mean values calculated from the given data are: xm ¼ 3.0 and ym ¼ 30.48.
xi ¡ xm yi ¡ ym (xi ¡ xm)(yi ¡ ym) (xi ¡ xm)2
2 19.68 39.36 4
1 10.08 10.08 1
0 0.22 0.00 0
1 10.02 10.02 1
2 19.52 39.04 4

X

X
ðxi xm Þ2 ¼ 19
Hence
P
ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ 189:94
b^ ¼ P ¼ ¼ 9:9968;
ðxi xm Þ2 19
^ m ¼ 30:48 9:9968 3:0 ¼ 0:48947
a^ ¼ ym bx
Since R¼V/I, the best estimate of the resistance is the ratio of y/x. This is the
^ Thus, the resistance value
gradient of the straight line fitted to the data, i.e., b.
is 10.0 U.
9.29 Given data:

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0.9 9.2 33.4 72.5 130.1 200.8
Known theoretical relationship between y and x is: y ¼ a þ bx2
Linear least-squares regression involves fitting the best straight line to the data, i.e.,
to find the optimal coefficients a and b for a straight-line equation of the form:
y ¼ a þ bz, where z ¼ x2
P
^ ðzi zm Þðyi ym Þ ^m
b¼ P ; a^ ¼ ym bz
ðzi zm Þ2
where zm and ym are mean values of z and y respectively.

The mean values calculated from the given data are: zm ¼ 9.166667 and ym ¼ 74.48.
xi zi yi zi ¡ zm yi ¡ ym (zi ¡ zm)(yi¡ym) (zi¡zm)2
0 0 0.9 9.16667 73.58 674.51 84.02778
1 1 9.2 8.16667 65.28 533.15 66.69444
2 4 33.4 5.16667 41.08 212.26 26.69444
3 9 72.5 0.16667 1.98 0.33 0.027778
4 16 130.1 6.833333 55.62 380.05 46.69444
5 25 200.8 15.83333 126.32 2000.01 250.6944

X
ðzi zm Þðyi ym Þ ¼ 3800:32
34 Chapter 9

X
ðzi zm Þ2 ¼ 474:8333
Hence
P
ðzi zm Þðyi ym Þ 3800:32
b^ ¼ P 2
¼ ¼ 8:003475;
ðzi zm Þ 474:8333
^ m ¼ 74:48 8:003475 9:166667 ¼ 1:118147
a^ ¼ ym bz
9.30 Given data:

The mean-time-to-failure (MTTF) of an integrated circuit is known to obey a law
of the following form: MTTF ¼ CexpT0/T, where T is the operating temperature and
C and To are constants.
The following values of MTTF at various temperatures were obtained from
accelerated-life tests.
MTTF (h) 54 105 206 411 941 2145
Temperature ( K) 600 580 560 540 520 500
(a) The relationship MTTF ¼ CexpT0/T can be written as. loge(MTTF) ¼ loge(C) þ
T0/T
This can be represented by a relationship of the form y ¼ a þ bx (Eqn 1) where
y ¼ loge(MTTF), a ¼ loge(C), b ¼ T0 and x ¼ 1/T
See solution to question 8.11, which shows how linear least-squares regression
can be applied to a table of x and y values to find the values of a and b that fit
the data best. These are a^ and b^ given by:
P
b^ ¼ P ^m
; a^ ¼ ym bx
ðxi xm Þ2

The mean values calculated from the given data are: xm ¼ 0.001825 and
ym ¼ 5.751.
MTTF y [ loge(MTTF) x [ 1/T xi ¡ xm yi ¡ ym (xi ¡ xm)(yi ¡ ym) (xi ¡ xm)2
54 3.989 0.001667 0.00016 1.762 0.0002794 2.513E-08
105 4.654 0.001724 0.0001 1.097 0.0001111 1.024E-08
206 5.328 0.001786 4E-05 0.423 0.0000167 1.561E-09
411 6.019 0.001852 2.66E-05 0.268 0.0000071 7.069E-10
941 6.847 0.001923 9.79E-05 1.096 0.0001072 9.576E-09
2145 7.671 0.002 0.000175 1.920 0.0003355 3.055E-08

X

X
ðxi xm Þ2 ¼ 7:777 108
Hence
P
ðxi xm Þðyi ym Þ 8:570 104
b^ ¼ P ¼ ¼ 11021;
ðxi xm Þ2 7:777 108
^ m ¼ 5:751 11020 0:001825 ¼ 14:36346
a^ ¼ ym bx
T0 ¼ b^ ¼ 11021; loge ðCÞ ¼ a^ ¼ 14:36346;
hence, C ¼ 5.781 107

(b) 10 years ¼ 10 365 24 ¼ 87,600 h
For MTTF ¼ 87600, y ¼ loge(MTTF) ¼ 11.3805
From Eqn (1),
y a^ 11:3805 þ 14:3635
x¼ ¼ ¼ 0:001512
b^ 11021
1 b^ 11021
T¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 428 K:
x y a^ 11:3805 þ 14:3635
Thus, for MTTF of 10 years (87,000 h), maximum allowable temperature is 428 K.
9.31
As an alternative to requiring students to derive expressions to find the optimal values

for a, b, c, and d in relationships between the variables of the form y ¼ a þ bx and
x ¼ c þ dy as in Eqns (5)e(8) below, the expressions for a^, b,^ ^c , and d^ could be given
in the question in order to shorten the time need for solution of the question.
The optimal values for the constant coefficients a and b of a linear relationship
y ¼ a þ bx for a set of n measurements y1/yn, x1/xn, such the relationship
gives the best fit to the measurement data can be calculated by linear least-squares
regression as follows:
di ¼ yi (a þ bxi).
36 Chapter 9
minimum.
P P
i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi 2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi a bxi Þ2 is a minimum.
X
X
The values of the coefficients a and b at the minimum point can be represented by
a^ and b,
From Eqn (1),
X X X X P P
^ ^ yi b^ xi
yi ¼ a^ þ b xi ¼ n^
aþb xi and thus; a^ ¼ (3)
n
From Eqn (2),

X X X
Now substitute for a^ in (4) using Eqn (3):

P P
X ^
yi b xi X X
n
^
" P 2# X P P
X ð xi Þ xi yi
^
b xi
2
¼ ðxi yi Þ
n n
Rearranging gives:
hX nX . o2 i X X X

hX i X

Thus:
P
ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
b^ ¼ P 2 (5)
xi nx2m
And, from Eqn (7):
P P
yi b^ xi ^m
a^ ¼ ¼ ym bx (6)
n
Similar expressions for estimating the optimal values of c and d for a relationship
x ¼ c þ dy between the data can be found by an identical procedure of minimizing
the sum of squared deviations as used earlier for calculating a and b. However, these
expressions are found most simply by just interchanging x and y in Eqns (5) and (6):
P
ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
d^ ¼ P 2 (7)
yi ny2m
and
P P
xi d^ xi ^m
c^ ¼ ¼ xm dy (8)
n
The given height/weight data is as follows (y ¼ weight in kg and x ¼ height in
meters):
y 70.3 76.1 73.5 88.1 72.8 66.5 75.5 80.7 88.7 76.6 79.7 75.3 68.5 69.4 78.8
x 1.69 1.79 1.73 1.82 1.81 1.68 1.76 1.76 1.84 1.74 1.71 1.74 1.72 1.75 1.78
It is preferable if students have computational facilities such as a spreadsheet

^ c^ and d.
package to assist in calculating the least-squares estimates for a^, b, ^ The
following values should be obtained:
a^ ¼ 99:6; b^ ¼ 100:1; c^ ¼ 1:361; d^ ¼ 0:005175

Thus, the best-fit lines are
y ¼ 99:6 þ 100:1x (9)
and
x ¼ 1:361 þ 0:005175y (10)
Data points for these two best-fit lines can be calculated as follows:
Using Eqn (9), for x ¼ 1.68, y ¼ 68.57 and for x ¼ 1.84, y ¼ 84.58.
Using Eqn (10), for y ¼ 66, x ¼ 1.703 and for y ¼ 89, x ¼ 1.822.
38 Chapter 9
These two relationships are plotted as follows:
90
88
86
ine
84
idl
dy
m
fit-
c+
st
x=
Be
82
bx
+
a
=
80
78 y
76
74
72
70
68
66
1.68 1.70 1.72 1.74 1.76 1.78 1.80 1.82 1.84 x
A line that bisects these two relationships can then be estimated by eye as shown by
the dashed line drawn on the graph. This represents the best straight-line fit to the
height/weight data given. The gradient of this line can be calculated by selecting two
data points on it:
At y ¼ 68.0, x ¼ 1.695; at y ¼ 85.0, x ¼ 1.82.
Hence, the gradient of the line is y/x ¼ (85.0 68.0)/(1.82 1.695) ¼ 136.0 kg/m.
For two sets of measurements y1/yn, x1/xn with means xm and ym, the correlation
coefficient F is given by:
P
F ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
hP ih P iffi
2 2
ðxi xm Þ ðyi ym Þ
(see Eqn (9.11) in book)

By using any available spreadsheet package, this expression can be evaluated to give
F ¼ 0.720.
9.32
As an alternative to requiring students to derive expressions to find the optimal values

for a, b, c, and d in relationships between the variables of the form y ¼ a þ bx and
x ¼ c þ dy as in Eqns (5)e(8) below, the expressions for a^, b,^ ^c , and d^ could be given
in the question in order to shorten the time need for solution of the question.
The optimal values for the constant coefficients a and b of a linear relationship
y ¼ a þ bx for a set of n measurements y1/yn, x1/xn, such the relationship gives
the best fit to the measurement data can be calculated by linear least-squares
regression as follows:
di ¼ yi (a þ bxi).
minimum.
P P
i.e., when S ¼ ni¼1 ðdi2 Þ ¼ ni¼1 ðyi a bxi Þ2 is a minimum.
X
X
40 Chapter 9
The values of the coefficients a and b at the minimum point can be represented by
a^ and b,
From Eqn (1),
X X X X P P
^ ^ yi b^ xi
yi ¼ a^ þ b xi ¼ n^
aþb xi and thus; a^ ¼ (3)
n
From Eqn (2),
X X X

P P
X yi b^ xi X X
n
^
" P 2# X P P
X ð xi Þ xi yi
^
b xi 2
¼ ðxi yi Þ
n n
Rearranging gives:
hX nX . o2 i X X X

hX i X

Thus:
P
^ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
b¼ P 2 (5)
xi nx2m
And, from Eqn (7):
P P
yi b^ xi ^m
a^ ¼ ¼ ym bx (6)
n
Similar expressions for estimating the optimal values of c and d for a relationship
x ¼ c þ dy between the data can be found by an identical procedure of minimizing
the sum of squared deviations as used earlier for calculating a and b. However, these
expressions are found most simply by just interchanging x and y in Eqns (5) and (6):
P
^ ðxi yi Þ nxm ym
d¼ P 2 (7)
yi ny2m
and
P P
xi d^ xi ^m
c^ ¼ ¼ xm dy (8)
n
The given height/weight data is as follows (y ¼ weight in lbs and x ¼ height in
inches):
x 68.0 69.5 68.5 72.5 69.0 70.5 67.5 70.0 68.0 71.5 66.0 70.0 71.5 66.5 69.5
y 151 166 172 198 153 168 180 174 162 181 147 178 161 155 176
It is preferable if students have computational facilities such as a spreadsheet

^ c^, and d.
package to assist in calculating the least-squares estimates for a^, b, ^ The
following values should be obtained:
a^ ¼ 157:5; b^ ¼ 4:703; c^ ¼ 54:00; d^ ¼ 0:090673

Thus, the best-fit lines are
y ¼ 157:5 þ 4:703x (9)
and
x ¼ 54:0 þ 0:090673y (10)
Data points for these two best-fit lines can be calculated as follows:
Using Eqn (9), for x ¼ 66, y ¼ 152.9 and for x ¼ 72, y ¼ 181.1.
Using Eqn (10), for y ¼ 152, x ¼ 67.8 and for y ¼ 198, x ¼ 72.0.
42 Chapter 9
These two relationships are plotted as follows:
y
200
195
190
185
ne
- li
dy
d
c+
mi
fit
x=
st
180
Be
175
bx
+
a
=
y
170
165
160
155
150
65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 x
A line that bisects these two relationships can then be estimated by eye as shown by
the dashed line drawn on the graph. This represents the best straight-line fit to the
height/weight data given. The gradient of this line can be calculated by selecting two
data points on it:
At; x ¼ 67.0, y ¼ 152.6 at x ¼ 71.5, y ¼ 183.6.
Hence, the gradient of the line is y/x ¼ (183.6 152.6)/(71.5 67.0) ¼ 6.89 lbs/in.
For two sets of measurements y1/yn, x1/xn with means xm and ym, the correlation
coefficient F is given by:
P
F ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
hP ih P iffi
2 2
ðxi xm Þ ðyi ym Þ
(see Eqn (9.11) in book.)

By using any available spreadsheet package, this expression can be evaluated to give
F ¼ 0.653.
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Fig. 3.
The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or surface by placing

it across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece
to corresponding inch, or fractional marks shall be the same, Fig. 3,
the middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks
selected.
2. The Try-square.—The try-square may be made entirely of iron
or steel or it may have a head of wood called
the beam and a blade of steel. The blade is graduated into inches
and fractions of an inch. As all try-squares are liable to be injured by
rough usage, care should be taken not to let them drop on the bench
or floor, nor should they ever be used for prying or pounding. Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
The try-square is used for three purposes: First, to act as a guide

for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right
angles to an edge or surface; second, to test an edge or end to see
whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test a
piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness
thruout its entire length.
Fig. 5 shows the various positions assumed in lining across a
piece. The beam should be held firmly against either the face side or
the face edge.
The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made
true. The face edge is the first edge which is made square to the
face side and straight. These two surfaces are usually marked in
some way so that they may be distinguished from the other surfaces.
Their use is fully explained in Chapter III.
Fig. 5.
If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it should be

reversed. The knife should be inclined forward and away from the
blade of the try-square slightly. A light, firm line should be made the
first time across the piece.
Fig. 6.
In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam should be held,

as in lining, firmly either against the face side or the face edge. Fig.
6. Care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece. Also
test at a sufficient number of points to show fully the condition of the
edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not objectionable if the
blade be held lightly on the surface. Under no circumstances should
the try-square be used to scrape the wood.
Fig. 7.
In testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or

thickness thruout its entire length, place the blade across the surface
to be tested, holding the beam lightly against the face side or face
edge, slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the
graduations at the outer edge. Fig. 7.
3. The Framing Square.—Large squares of one piece of steel,
called framing squares, are used by
carpenters for large and rough work. The long arm is called the
blade and the short one the tongue. Fig. 8. In addition to the
divisions into inches and fractions of an inch, there is on the blade a
board measure table and on the tongue a brace or rafter measure
table. This square will be found convenient when “cutting up” stock,
also for testing corners of large pieces of furniture and for setting the
bevel to various angles.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
4. The Bevel.—The bevel differs from the try-square in having a

movable blade. Fig. 9. This blade may be set at any
desired angle from 0 to 180 degrees. The manner of using the bevel
is similar to that of the try-square. When adjusting, the blade should
be just loose enough to move upon the application of slight pressure.
There are various ways of setting the bevel to the required angle.
Should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available, angles
of 30 degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees are easily obtained by
adjusting the bevel to the sides of the required angle.
Fig. 10.
To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the framing square,

hold the beam against one of the arms, Fig. 10, and move the blade
so that it shall pass through corresponding points on both blade and
tongue. Fig. 11 illustrates a method in which no other tools are
needed. A line is squared across a board having a straight edge.
Equal distances are measured from the point at which the line cuts
the edge, the blade then being made to pass through these points
while the beam is held tightly against the edge.
Fig. 11.
For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife line at

right angles to an edge. Fig. 12. Measure from the edge, along this
line, or from this line along the edge any given distance. Take twice
this distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right
triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be
twice that of the shortest.
5. The Marking Gage.—The gage is used for laying out lines
along the grain of the wood. It consists of a
beam, Fig. 13, head, thumb screw, and marking point or spur. The
spur should be sharpened to a knife point with a file so that it may
make a fine smooth line. It should project far enough below the
beam so that the beam may be rolled forward in such a way as to
bring the spur into the board at a slight angle, when properly
marking. It should extend not less than an eighth of an inch and in
most cases three-sixteenths of an inch.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It is safer to set

the gage with the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the
gage block. This is done by holding the gage bottom side up in the
left hand. With the right place the end of the rule against the head.
Fig. 13. After the screw has been tightened, apply the rule again to
make sure of the correctness of the setting.
Fig. 14.
To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three fingers
grasping the beam, first encircling the head for narrow work, and the
thumb back, or nearly back, of the spur. Fig. 14. The head should be
kept against one or the other of the face sides. Begin at the end of
the piece which is towards you, hold the block firmly against the
piece, roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the surface
and make a very light line. Fig. 15 illustrates the manner of raising
the spur from the wood by raising the wrist during the backward
stroke. It will be found convenient to hold the piece against the
bench stop. This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see
how deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against the
face properly. Avoid deep lines. They are inaccurate even if straight
and always cause trouble in the making unless the grain of the wood
is perfectly straight.
Fig. 15.
6. The Pencil Gage.—There are occasions when a pencil-gage

marks with sufficient accuracy and is more
suitable because its point does not cut the wood, such as in gaging
for a bevel. A hole bored thru the beam near one end, just large
enough to receive a pencil snugly, will suffice. Fig. 16.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17 illustrates a method frequently used by carpenters. The
fingers act as a gage head.
7. Slitting Gage.—A slitting gage is one in which the spur is sharp
and strong, and will cut thru soft lumber as thick
as one-quarter of an inch. The boards are cut from each side and
considerable pressure is required. Sometimes a handle like that of
the plane is fastened to the beam near the knife or spur. Fig. 18.
Fig. 17.
Slitting Gage
Mortise Gage
Panel Gage For wide boards
Fig. 18.
8. The Mortise Gauge.—Fig. 18 also shows a mortise gage used

in advanced work. It has two spurs, one of
them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the beam at any
desired distance from the stationary one, so that the two sides of a
mortise or tenon can be marked at once.
9. The Dividers.—Dividers, Fig. 19, are used (1) in describing
circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a given
number of parts, and (3) in marking one member which is to be fitted
to another irregular member. Fig. 20 shows the manner of setting the
dividers. The thumb-screw should be released so that the legs may
be moved without much effort. When the approximate setting has
been secured, use the thumb-nut for adjusting to more accurate
measurement. In describing circles, the dividers should be held as in
Fig. 21 and swung to the right or left as is convenient. They should
be leaned forward slightly and an effort made to secure a sharp, light
line. For most work the two legs may be sharpened to points.
Sometimes one is sharpened like a knife point.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 20. Fig. 21.
10. Pencil and Knife.—Pencil lines may be used in getting out

stock from rough material and in laying out
work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not be visible.
Pencil lines should be carefully made, however. The pencil may be
used also in marking bevels, curves and in other places where the
knife or gage mark would be injurious. Otherwise, the knife and gage
should be used. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by
means of the eraser.
Fig. 22.
In laying out rough stock, if the first edge is sufficiently straight, it is

usual to thumb-gage for width. This is done by holding the pencil at
the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage
head, drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-
beam. Fig. 22.
Fig. 23.
A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often used in

marking out. Mark off the length of the piece of wood required. Mark
off the breadth at the end of the board, also mark it near what is to
be the other end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two
marks and draw the line. Fig. 23. The try-square should be used to
mark across the grain.
CHAPTER II.
Saws.
11. Saws.—Saws which are used in cutting across the grain are
called crosscut; those which are used in cutting parallel
to the grain are called ripsaws. Fig. 24. Upon the blade of a saw,
near the handle, will be found a number. This represents the number
of points to the inch. Points should not be confused with teeth, for
there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth.
Fig. 24.
To prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the saw, the teeth
are bent alternately from side to side, that the opening may be wider
than the blade is thick. The saw teeth are then said to have “set.” To
do good work, a saw should have no more set than is necessary to
allow a free movement. Fig. 25. Damp, spongy lumber will require
considerable set, while well seasoned lumber necessitates but little.

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Measurement and Instrumentation

Theory and Application 2nd Edition

Solutions for Chapter 9

9.2 The points expected in the explanation include:

Measurement and Instrumentation. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800884-3.00030-7

It is the simplest form of digital voltmeter (DVM) and is relatively cheap.

9.3 Discussion of the following applications is expected:

9.4 (a) Sketch the Meter

(b) The moving-coil meter measures mean current.

9.5 (a) Sketch the two forms of moving-iron meter:

(a) attraction type of meter and (b) repulsion type of meter.

9.6 (a) The moving-coil meter measures mean current.

In most oscilloscopes, the amplifier is direct-coupled, which means that it amplifies

9.8 The following points are expected in the explanation:

achieved by a series of attenuators and preamplifiers at the input to the oscilloscope

9.10 Diagram and mode of operation:

9.12 The following points are expected in the answer:

Computers are cheap and highly reliable.

Ink-jet and laser printers:

9.16 Discussion should cover at least the following points.

0.2e2.0 s, which means that electromechanical potentiometric recorders are only

A Videographic recorder is an enhanced form of paperless chart recorder that has

9.17 Discussion should cover at least the following points.

9.18 Discussion should cover at least the following points.

9.21 The explanation should cover at least the following points.

Before applying regression techniques, checks should be made to determine whether

Now substitute for a^ in (4) using (3):

This can be expressed as:

where xm and ym are the mean values of x and y.

Now substitute for a^ in (4) using (3):

This can be expressed as:

where xm and ym are the mean values of x and y.

Calculating the parameters required for Eqn (5):

Hence, from Eqn (5):

and from Eqn (6):

^ m ¼ 58:51 ð2:01  62:5Þ ¼ 67:12

Now substitute for a^ in (4) using (3):

This can be expressed as:

where xm and ym are the mean values of x and y.

Calculating the parameters required for Eqn (5):

Hence, from Eqn (5):

and from Eqn (6):

9.24 Quadratic least-squares regression:

Zero errors are assumed in the temperature measurements.

Let S be the sum of squares of deviation:

S must be a minimum for the best-fit straight line.

where xm and ym are mean values of x and y respectively.

Add up all elements in column 3:

Add up all elements in column 4:

Thus, the best estimate of measurement sensitivity is 0.3484 U/ C.

From Eqn (2),

Now substitute for b^ in (4) using (3):

This can be expressed as:

where xm and ym are the mean values of x and y.

And, from Eqn (3):

9.27 Given data:

where xm and ym are mean values of x and y respectively.

Add up all elements in column 3:

Add up all elements in column 4:

9.28 Data given:

where xm and ym are mean values of x and y respectively.

Add up all elements in column 3:

Add up all elements in column 4:

^ m ¼ 58:51 ð2:01 62:5Þ ¼ 67:12

Thus, the best estimate of measurement sensitivity is 0.3484 U/ C.

hence, C ¼ 5.781 107