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9.1
(a)
ii jj
Figure 9.1a
[k] = 2 π r A [ B ] T [D] [ B ]
ri = 0, zi = 0, rj = 2, zj = 0, rm = 0, zm = 2
αi = rj zm – zj rm = 2.2 – 0 = 4 cm2
αj = rm zi – zm ri = 0.0 – 2.0 = 0 cm2
αm = ri zj – zi rj = 0.0 – 0.2 = 0 cm2
βi = zj – zm = 0 – 2 = – 2 cm
βj = zm – zi = 2 – 0 = 2 cm
1 2
βm = zi – zj = 0 – 0 = 0 cm r = (2) = cm
3 3
1 2
γ i = rm – rj = 0 – 2 = – 2 cm z = (2) = cm
3 3
1
γ j = ri – rm = 0 – 0 = 0 cm A= (2) (2) = 2 cm
2
γ m = rj – ri = 2 – 0 = 2 cm
−2 0 2 0 0 0
10 0 −22
0 0 0
2
[B] =
4 2 0 2 0 2 0
−2 −2 0 2 2 0
355
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–1 0 1 – 0.5
– 0.5 –1.5 – 0.5 – 0.5
210 × 10 11 2 1 2 0
[ B ]T [D] =
2.5 0 0 0 0.5
0.5 0.5 1.5 0.5
0.5 1.5 0.5 0
5 1 0 −1 1 0
1 4 −2 −1 −2 −3
0 −2 8 0 4 2
[k] = 175.84 × 107
−1 −1 0 1 1 0
1 −2 4 1 4 1
0 −3 2 0 1 3
(b)
i j
Figure 9.1b
ri = 0, zi = 0, rj = 2, zj = 0, rm = 2, zm = 2
αi = 4, αj = 0, αm = 0
βi = – 2, βj = 2, βm = 0
γ i = 0, γ j = – 2, γ m = 2
2 2
r = 2× = 1.333 cm, z = cm, A = 2 cm2
3 3
−2 0 2 0 0 0
10 0 0 0 −2
2
0 2
[B] =
4 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 −2 −2 2 2 0
356
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–1.25 – 0.25 0.25 0
0 0 0 – 0.5
210 × 1011 1.75 0.75 1.25 – 0.5
[ B ] T [D] =
2.5 – 0.5 –1.5 – 0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25 0.75 0.5
0.5 1.5 0.5 0
βi 0 βj 0
γi γj
1 0 1 0
[ Bi ] = [ Bj ] =
αi γ z
2 A r + βi + ri bar 0 αj γ z
2 A r + β j + rj bar 0
bar bar
bar bar
γi βi γj β
j
βm 0
0 γm
1
[Bm] = αm γ z
2 A r + βm + mr bar 0
bar bar
γm βm
357
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B = augment( Bi , B j , Bm )
Gradient matrix at centroid of element
−0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0
0 −0.25 0 −0.25 0 0.5 1
[ B] = (10) 2 ×
0.3333 0 0.3333 0 0.3333 0 m
−0.25 −0.5 −0.25 0.5 0.5 0
1 − v v v 0
v Axisymmetric
E 1− v v 0
[D] = stress
(1 + v )(1 − 2v ) v v 1− v 0
1 − 2 v constitutive matrix
0 0 0 2
i j
r
(0, 0) (b, 0)
N1 0
N1
p 0
{fs} = ∫ [ N s ]T r ds = ∫s N 2 0 h0
p z
s p2 2π rdz
0 N2 0
N3 0 Evaluated
@ r=b
0 N3 z = z
358
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1 1
Now Ni = (αi + βir + γ iz), Nj = (αj + βjr + γ jz)
2A 2A
1
Nm = (αm + βmr + γ mz)
2A
ri = 0, rj = b, rm = b, zi = 0, zj = 0, zm = h
αi = rj zm – zj rm = bh – 0b = bh, αj = rm zi – zm ri = 0
βi = zj – zm = 0 – h = – h, βj = zm – zi = h – 0 = h
γ i = rm – rj = b – b = 0, γ j = ri – γ m = 0 – b = – b
αm = ri zj – zi rj = 0, βm = zi – zj = 0 – 0 = 0
γm = rj – ri = b – 0 = b
So the shape functions evaluated at r = b and z = z
1
Ni = (bh + (– h) b + 0 z) = 0
bh
1 1
Nj = (0 + h b + (– b)z) = (hb – bz)
bh bh
1 1
Nm = (0 + 0 b + bz) = (bz)
bh bh
0 0
0 0
( hb − bz )
1
0 p0 z
h bh
{fs} = ∫ h 2π dz
0 1 ( hb − bz )
0
0
bh
1
bh (bz ) 0
1
0 bh
(bz )
0 0
0 0
p bz – p0bz 2 p0bz 2 − p0bz 3
2π b h 0 h 2π 2 3h
bh ∫0
= dz =
0 h 0
p0bz 2 p0bz 3
h 3h
0 0
0 0
f s1x
0 f s1 y 0
p0 bh
2 p0 h
2π 6 f s 2 x 6
= ⇒ f = 2π b
h 0 s2 y 0
p0 bh 2 f s 3 x p0 h
3 3
f s3 y 0
0
359
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9.3
RB
Z
B
2π rA RB
Equation to be evaluated is {fB} =
3 Z B
RB
Z B
2
r = 4+2× ⇒ r = 5.333 × 10−2 m
3
N
ZB = 288 × 103
m3
2π × 20 2 288 × 103
RB = w2ρ r =
−2
(5.33 × 10 )
60 9.81
N
RB = 6863.44
m3
2π rA 2
= π (5.333 ×10−2) (2 × 10−4) = 2.232 × 105 m3
3 3
So
fb1r = (2.232 × 10−5)6863.44 = 0.153 N
fb1z = (–2.232 × 10−5) (288 × 103) = – 6.428 N
fb2r = (2.232 × 10−5) (6863.44) = 0.153 N
fb3z = (– 2.232 × 10−5) (288 ×103) = – 6.428 N
fb3r = (2.232 × 10−5)6863.44 = 0.153 N
fb3z = (– 2.232 × 10−5) (288 × 103) = – 6.428 N
9.4
(a) Element Figure 9.4 a
The equation to be evaluated is {σ} = [D] [B} {d}
ri = 0, zi = 0, rj = 2, zj = 0, rm = 1, zm = 3
αi = 6, αj = 0, αm = 0, βi = – 3, βj = 3, βm = – 3,
γ i = – 1, γ j = – 1, γm = 2
1
r = 1, z = 1, A = (3) (2) = 3 cm2 Figure 9.4a
2
360
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−3 0 3 0 −3 0
2
[ B ] = 10 0 −1 0 −1 0 2
6 2 0 2 0 −1 0
−1 −3 −1 3 2 −3
1
−3 0 3 0 −3 0 2
0 −1 0 −1 0 2 5
× × 2.5 × 10
–6
2 0 2 0 −1 0 6
−1 −3 −1 3 2 −3 0
0
σ r 140.0
σ
z 0.0
= MPa
σ θ 140.0
τ rz 21.0
(3, 0)
(b) Element Figure 9.4b
ri = 1, zi = 0, rj = 3, zj = 0, rm = 3, zm = 3
αi = 9, αj = – 3, αm = 0, βi = – 3, βj = 3, βm = 0
γi = 0, γ j = – 2, γm = 2 (2, 0)
2
r = 2.333, zm = 0.666, A = 3 cm Figure 9.4 b
−3 0 3 0 0 0
2
[ B ] = 10 0 0 0 −2 0 2
6 0.858 0 1.14 0 0.512 0
0 −3 −2 3 2 0
361
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{σ} = [D] [ B ] {d}
σ r 106.95
σ
z −61.04
= MPa
σ θ 68.85
τ rz 7.00
3 (0, 2)
(c) u1 = 0.00025 cm w1 = 0.0005 cm
u2 = 0.00125 cm w2 = 0.0015 cm
u3 = 0.0 cm w3 = 0.0 cm 1 2
(0, 0) (2, 0)
Figure 9.4c
u1
w
1 σr 164.49 × 103
u σ
z = [D] [B] {d} = 38.49
d= 2 MPa
w2 σθ 199.47
u3
τ rz 31.5
w3
9.5 By Equation (9.1.35)
zm 1 α j + β j r j + γ j z 0 pr
{fsi} = ∫z
2A
2π r j dz
α j + β j r j + γ j z pz
j
0
Now
αj = rm zi – ri zm = rj zj – ri zm Since rj = rm
βj = zm – zj γj = ri – rj zi = zm
1
A= (rj – ri) (zm – zj)
2
zm 2π r j pr [rj z j − ri zm + ( zm − z j )r j + (ri − r j ) z
∴ {fsj} = ∫z j
2 A pz [r j z j − ri zm + ( zm − z j )rj + (ri − rj ) z
dz
Integrating, we obtain
P (r z − r z ) ( z − z ) + r ( z − z )2 + (r − r ) ( zm − z j )
2 2
2π r j r j j i m m j j m j i j 2
{fsj} =
2A
Pz (rj z j − ri zm ) ( zm − z j ) + rj ( zm − z j ) 2 + (ri − rj ) m 2 j
2 2
(z − z )
362
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1
2π rj ( zm − z j )
pr [ 2 ( zm − z j )( rj − ri )
=
2A 1
pz [ 2 ( zm − z j )( rj − ri )
2π r j ( zm − z j ) pr A
=
2A pz A
2π r j ( zm − z j )
{fsj} =
2
9.6 (a)
E = 210 GPa
u = 0.25
A = 1 (50)(50)
2
A = 1250 mm2
r = 16.67 mm
z = 16.67 mm
−50 0 50 0 0 0
1
[ B] = 0 −50 0 0 0 50 1
2(1250) 50 0 50 0 50 0 mm
−50 −50 0 50 50 0
[k] = 2π r A [ B ] T [D] [ B ]
363
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Multiplying [ B ] T times [D] [ B ] , we obtain
A = 1800 mm2
βi = – 60 mm, βj = 60 mm, βm = 0
γ i = 0, γ j = – 60 mm, γ m = 60 mm
[k] = 2π r A [ B ] T
[D] [ B ]
−60 0 60 0 0 0
1
[ B] = 0 0 0 −60 0 60 1
2(1800) 30 0 30 0 30 0 mm
0 −60 −60 60 60 0
364
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2475 0 −2025 450 225 −450
900 900 −900 −900 0
5175 −2250 225 1350
[k] = 11.73 × 106
3600 450 −2700
1575 450
Symmetry 2700
(c)
i j
ri = 0 zi = 0
rj = 0.002 zj = 0
rm = 0.001 zm = 0.002
1 1 0.002
A= (rj – ri) (zm – zi), E = 210 × 109, z = × 0.002, r = , v = 0.25
2 3 2
αi = rj zm – zj rm αj = rm zi – zm ri αm = ri zj – zi rj
βi = zj – zm βj = zm – zi βm = zi – zj
γ i = rm – rj γ j = ri – rm γm = rj – ri
βi 0 βj 0 βm 0
γi 0 γ 0 γ m
1 0 j
[B] =
2A α i γ z
+ βi + ri 0
αj
+ βj +
γjz
0
αm
+ βm +
γm z
0
r r r r r
γi βi γ βj γm β
j m
1 − v v v 0
v 1 − v v 0
E
[D] =
(1 + v) (1 − 2v) v v 1− v 0
1 − 2v
0 0 0 2
365
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8.577 × 108 1.759 × 108 −3.738 × 108 −8.796 × 107 4.398 × 107 −8.796 × 107
8
1.759 × 10 4.618 × 108 −8.796 × 107 −6.597 × 107 −3.519 × 108 −3.958 × 108
−3.738 × 108 −8.796 × 107 1.561 × 109 −3.519 × 108 3.958 × 108 4.398 × 108
[k] =
−8.796 × 107 −6.597 × 107 −3.519 × 108 4.618 × 108 1.759 × 108 −3.958 × 108
4.398 × 107 −3.519 × 108 3.958 × 108 1.759 × 108 6.158 × 108 1.759 × 108
−8.796 × 107 −3.958 × 108 4.398 × 108 −3.958 × 108 1.759 × 108 7.917 × 108
9.7 (a)
0.05
σ r
−25 −12.5 50 0 12.5 12.5 0.03
σ
z 210 × 10 3
MPa −37.5 25 0 37.5 0.02
= 0 12.5
σ θ (1250)(1.25) 25 −12.5 50 0 37.5 12.5 0.02
τ rz
−12.5 −12.5 0 12.5 12.5 0 0
0
−84
= −84 MPa
252
−101
(b)
366
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From Problem 9.6 (b), we have [D] [ B ]
0.05
σr
−37.5 0 52.5 −15 7.5 15 0.03 −103
σ 3
z −45 7.5 45 0.02 = −103 MPa
∴ = 210 × 10 −7.5 0 22.5
σθ (1500)(1.25) 7.5 0 37.5 −15 22.5 15 0.02 112
τrz
0 −15 −15 15 15 0 0 −73
0
(c) ui = 0.00005 wi = 0.00003
uj = 0.00002 wj = 0.00002
um = 0 wm = 0
ui
wi
uj
{d} =
wj
u
m
wm
σr
σz
= [D] [B] {d}
σθ
τ
rz
σr = – 2.87 × 109 Pa
σz = – 2.45 × 109 Pa
σθ = 3.57 × 109 Pa
9.9 No, the element circumferential strain is a function of r and z (see Equation (9.1.15).
a1 a z
εθ = + a2 + 3 (1)
r r
εr = a 2 (2)
367
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Also from text Equation (9.1.1e)
u
εθ = (3)
r
∂u
εr = (4)
∂r
∴ u = εθ r (5)
a a z
⇒ u = 1 + a2 + 3 r = a1 + a2r + a3z (6)
r r
∂u
⇒ = a2 Compare to (2) (7)
∂r
E a2 a6 a2
σr = || || ||
(1 + v )(1 − 2v ) ε (1 − v ) + ε z (v ) + εθ ( v )
r
E
= (az − a2 v + a6 v + a2 v )
(1 + v)(1 − 2v)
E
σr = (a2 + a6 v)
(1 + v)(1 − 2v)
E a2 a6 a2
∴ σθ =
(1 + v)(1 − 2v) ε ( v ) + ε z (v ) + εθ (1 − v )
r
E
= ( a2 v + a6 v + a2 – a2 v )
(1 + v)(1 − 2v)
E
σθ = (a2 + a6 v)
(1 + v)(1 − 2v)
∴ at r = 0, σθ = σr
368
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9.14 von Mises stresses (with filleted corners)
Load Case: 1 of 1
Maximum Value: 6773.52 lbf/(in^2)
Minimum Value: 18.6077 lbf (in^2)
33 cm
7.5 cm
19 cm
0.4 m
1.25 m
5 cm 0.6 m
0.75 mm
The largest von Mises stress of 2079 MPa occurs at the inside corners of the pressure vessel.
9.15
369
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Concrete
Steel liner
400 mm 1250 mm
p
325 mm
750 mm
Note: Without the arc (inside radius), we have a 90° re-entrant corner where stress is approaching
infinity. We have a singularity in the linear-elastic solution based on linear theory of elasticity.
Therefore, we need the arc as in good practice or elastic-plastic model where an upper bound on the
corner stress is the yield strength of the material.
9.18
The largest von Mises stress of 200 MPa occurs near the top of the hole. This number is
suspect due to the location being under a concentrated load.
370
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9.19
qb 2 a 2 + r 2
σθ =
r2 a 2 – b2
σθ = 1.594 × 108 Pa
The Algor results for hoop stress and the theoretical solution for hoop stress are very close
which proves that the Algor model is correct. The pipe has a very minimum internal and
external deflection, less than 1 mm on the inner radius. The stresses are also manageable at
159 MPa.
371
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9.20 A steel cylindrical pressure vessel with flat plate end caps is shown in the figure with
vertical axis of symmetry. Addition of thickened sections helps to reduce stress
concentrations in the corners. Analyze the design and identify the most critically stressed
regions. Note that inside sharp re-entrant corners produce infinite stress concentration zones,
so refining the mesh in these regions will not help you get a better answer unless you use an
inelastic theory or place small fillet radii there. Recommend any design changes in your
report. Let the pressure inside be 1000 kPa.
503 elements and 645 nodes. Stresses are highest at sharp corners and the middle of the top
and bottom of the pressure vessel. The design is acceptable as the von Mises stresses do not
reach the yield strength of the material.
9.22
372
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The largest von Mises stress of 242 MPa occurs at the juncture of the elliptical and cylindrical
location. This model was built using brick elements instead of the axisymmetric element due
to difficulties exactly modeling the elliptical shape.
The recommended head shape of the hemispherical ends versus the ellipsoidal ends would be
the hemispherical ends due to a lower stress concentration at the transition between the head
and the cylindrical body.
9.23 According to the von Mises stress analysis, the average stress through the glass is around 15
of the tensile strength of the glass. If the maximum force used with this syringe is 45 N, the
design should be fine. However, if 45 N is the normal operating force which may increase,
then it is recommended to analyze this again with a safety factor of 4 (180 N force) to make
sure it will still be under 5 MPa. As for the maximum principal stresses, they are well below
the tensile strength of the glass and do not appear to be an issue.
N
Another analysis with a safety factor of 4 (28.64789 radian ) reveals that this syringe is still
within the tensile strength of glass in all areas. With this information, it can be concluded
that the syringe design is indeed safe with this material specification.
373
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permanently ductile, by mechanical treatment while in the heated
state. In this process pure tungsten powder is pressed into rods and
then made coherent by heating. While still hot it is hammered, and
finally drawn out into fine wires through diamond dies. The wire is no
thicker than a fine hair, and it varies in size from about 0·012 mm. to
about 0·375 mm., according to the amount of current it is intended to
take. It is mounted by winding it continuously zigzag shape round a
glass carrier, which has at the top and the bottom a number of metal
supports arranged in the form of a star, and insulated by a central
rod of glass. One star is made of strong, stiff material, and the other
consists of fine wires of some refractory metal, molybdenum being
used in the Osram lamps. These supports act as springs, and keep
the wire securely in its original shape, no matter in what position the
lamp is used. The whole is placed in a glass bulb, which is
exhausted of air and sealed up.
For some purposes lamps with specially small bulbs are
required, and in these the tungsten wire is made in the shape of fine
spirals, instead of in straight pieces, so that it takes up much less
room. In the “Axial” lamp the spiral is mounted in such a position that
most of the light is sent out in one particular direction.
The latest development in electric incandescent lamps is the
“half-watt” lamp. The watt is the standard of electrical energy, and it
is the rate of work represented by a current of one ampere at a
pressure of 1 volt. With continuous currents the watts are found very
simply by multiplying together the volts and the amperes. For
instance, a dynamo giving a current of 20 amperes at a pressure of
50 volts would be called a 1000-watt dynamo. With alternating
currents the calculation is more complicated, but the final result is
the same. The ordinary form of tungsten lamp gives about one
candle-power for every watt, and is known as a one-watt lamp. As its
name suggests, the half-watt lamp requires only half this amount of
energy to give the same candle-power, so that it is very much more
economical in current. In this lamp the tungsten filament is wound in
a spiral, but instead of being placed in the usual exhausted bulb, it is
sealed into a bulb containing nitrogen gas. The increased efficiency
is obtained by running the filament at a temperature from 400° to
600° C. higher than that at which the filament in the ordinary lamp is
used.
In spite of the great advances in artificial lighting made during
recent years, no one has yet succeeded in producing light without
heat. This heat is not wanted, and it represents so much waste
energy. It has often been said that the glow-worm is the most expert
of all illuminating engineers, for it has the power of producing at will a
light which is absolutely without heat. Perhaps the nearest approach
to light without heat is the so-called “cold light” invented by M.
Dussaud, a French scientist. His device consists of a revolving ring
of exactly similar tungsten lamps. Each of these lamps has current
passed through it in turn, and the duration of the current in each is so
short, being only a fraction of a second, that the lamp has not
sufficient time to develop any appreciable amount of heat. The light
from the ring of lamps is brought to a focus, and passed through a
lens to wherever it is required. Electric incandescent lamps are made
in a variety of sizes, each one being intended for a certain definite
voltage. If a lamp designed for, say, 8 volts, is used on a circuit of 32
volts, its candle-power is greatly increased, while the amount of
current consumed is not increased in proportion. In this way the lamp
becomes a more efficient source of light, but the “over-running,” as it
is called, has a destructive effect on the filament, so that the life of
the lamp is greatly shortened. In the Dussaud system however the
time during which each lamp has current passing through it is so
short, followed by a period of rest, that the destructive effect of over-
running is reduced to the minimum; so that by using very high
voltages an extremely brilliant light is safely obtained with a
comparatively small consumption of current. It might be thought that
the constant interchange of lamps would result in an unsteady effect,
but the substitution of one lamp for another is carried out so rapidly
that the eye gets the impression of perfect steadiness. The Dussaud
system is of little use for ordinary lighting purposes, but for
lighthouse illumination, photographic studio work, and the projection
of lantern slides and cinematograph films, it appears to be of
considerable value.
Electric light has many advantages over all other illuminants. It
gives off very little heat, and does not use up the oxygen in the air of
a room as gas does; while by means of flexible wires the lamps can
be put practically anywhere, so that the light may be had just where
it is wanted. Another great advantage is that the light may be
switched on without any trouble about matches, and there is none of
the danger from fire which always exists with a flame.
The current for electric lamps is generally taken from the public
mains, but in isolated country houses a dynamo has to be installed
on the premises. This is usually driven by a small engine running on
petrol or paraffin. In order to avoid having to run the engine and
dynamo continually, the current is not taken directly from the
dynamo, but from a battery of accumulators. During the day the
dynamo is used to charge the accumulators, and these supply the
current at night without requiring any attention.
Electric lighting from primary cells is out of the question if a good
light is wanted continuously for long periods, for the process is far
too costly and troublesome. If a light of small candle-power is
required for periods of from a few minutes to about an hour, with
fairly long intervals of rest, primary cells may be made a success.
Large dry cells are useful for this purpose, but probably the most
satisfactory cell is the sack Leclanché. This is similar in working to
the ordinary Leclanché cell used for bells, but the carbon mixture is
placed in a canvas bag or sack, instead of in a porous pot, and the
zinc rod is replaced by a sheet of zinc surrounding the sack. These
cells give about 1½ volt each, so that four, connected in series, are
required to light a 6-volt lamp. The lamps must take only a very small
current, or the cells will fail quickly. Small metal filament lamps taking
from a third to half an ampere are made specially for this purpose,
and these always should be used. A battery of sack Leclanché cells
with a miniature lamp of this kind forms a convenient outfit for use as
a night-light, or for lighting a dark cupboard, passage or staircase.
Lamps with ruby glass, or with a ruby cap to slip over the bulb, may
be obtained for photographic purposes. If the outfit is wanted for use
as a reading-lamp it is better to have two separate batteries, and to
use them alternately for short periods. With this arrangement each
battery has a short spell of work followed by a rest, and the light may
be kept on for longer periods without overworking the cells.
CHAPTER XIII
ELECTRIC HEATING