GENERAL BIOLOGY II

1ST QUARTER – 2ND SEMESTER

GENETIC ENGINEERING

History of Genetic Modification in Crops

10,000 years ago - Humans begin crop
domestication using selective breeding.
1700s – Farmers and scientists begin crop
breeding plants within species.
1940s and 1950s – Breeders and
researchers seek out additional means to
introduce genetic variation into the gene
pool of plants.
1980s – Researchers develop the more
precise and controllable methods of genetic
engineering to create plants with desirable
traits. Processes:
1990s – The first GMOs are introduce to the
marketplace. 1. Cutting or cleavage of DNA

Genetic Engineering
- Use of molecular techniques modify the
traits of a target organism.
- increasing the expression of the desired
gene or by disrupting the inhibition of the
desired genes’ expression

1. Classical breeding ( involves mating 2

members – each of whom possesses one or - Restriction enzymes “molecular scissors”
more different and desirable traits – in
order to create a hybrid individual 2. Selection of an appropriate
possessing both traits.) vector/vehicle which would propagate
the recombinant DNA
2. Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA)
- is a technology that uses enzymes to cut
and paste together DNA sequences of
interest. The recombined DNA sequences
can be placed into vehicles called vectors
that ferry the DNA into a suitable host cell -Bacterial plasmid- contains ‘special’ genes
where it can be copied or expressed that are not related to basic life functions
(National Human Genome Research and Example: Antibiotic resistance
Institute. -It can also be transferred from one
-Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) bacterial cell to another.
have been produced through the rDNA -toxin production; mating
technology technique. Plasmid Vector
Examples: Definition A double A small DNA
stranded molecule that
‘Bt corn’ , “golden rice”, rice and potato, circular small carries foreign
soybean (plants) DNA molecule DNA into another
Insulin, human growth hormones, tissue which is a extra host cell
plasminogen (humans) chromosomal (bacteria).
DNA molecule.
- If larger quantities of these protein is Nature Naturally Can be naturally
required, an option is to insert the gene in occurring. or artificially
animals- “pharm animal”. synthesized.
Presence Found in Can be
bacteria, yeast, bacteriophages,
archaea and plasmids,
protozoans. cosmids and
artificial
chromosomes.

6. Sequencing of the gene to find out the

primary structure of the protein. Once a
segment of DNA has been cloned, its
nucleotide sequence can be determined.

* Can She Leave The Supermarket Sale

Plasmids may be introduced into host

3. Ligation (join together) of the gene of
interest (eg. from animal) with the vector
(cut bacterial plasmid).
DNA Ligase- used to join/stick together the
gene of interest and vector
4. Transfer of the recombinant plasmid
into a host cell (that would carry out
replication to make huge copies of the
recombined plasmid).
organisms:
1. Biolistic- a method for the delivery of
nucleic acid to cells by high-speed particle
bombardment. The technique uses nucleic
acid-coated particles propelled by a
pressurized gun (gene gun) to transfect
cells or organelles.
Example: Biolistic bombardment with a
gene encoding an antigen of Bacillus
anthracis, which causes the deadly disease
anthrax, into chloroplasts of tobacco-
produced transgenic tobacco leaves.

5. Selection process to screen which cells

actually contain the gene of interest.

2. Plasmid insertion by Heat Shock

Treatment- Heat shock transformation
uses a calcium rich environment provided
by calcium chloride to counteract the
electrostatic repulsion between the plasmid
DNA and bacterial cellular membrane. A
sudden increase in temperature creates increased
pores in the plasma membrane of the resistance to
corn boxer
bacteria and allows for plasmid DNA to Delayed Disruptio Tomato (Agriculture)
enter the bacterial cell. ripening n of a plant Production
gene for of plants
ripening with fruits
enzyme that have
(e.g. delayed
polygakac ripening
turonase) fruits. These
fruits will
survive
longer
transport
time,
allowing
3. Electroporation/ their
electropermeabilization - Using the delivery to
electrical current any biological molecules further
locations (i.e.
such as nucleic acid, drug, chemical or viral export
DNA can be inserted into a live cell by deliveries)
creating temporary pores in the cell
membrane.
For example, it is used in the process of
producing knockout mice, as well as in
tumor treatment, gene therapy, and cell-
based therapy.

Gene Trait Gene Recipient Application

Modifica Organism (field)
tion
Insulin Insertion bacteria (Medicine)
production of human Production
Insulin of human
gene Insulin in
bacteria
Pest Insertion Corn/ (Agriculture)
resistance of Bt- maize Production
toxin of corn
gene plants with
 GMO
Pros: Cons:
Less pesticides used More pesticides
resistance
More nutritious foods Decreased antibiotic
efficancy
Increased food supply Gene transfer into the
wild
Drought tolerance No studies on long term
effects
Longer shelf life Bio-tech’s poor tract
record
Disease fighting foods Increased herbicide used
Proterozoic  Rodinia (was
supercontinent that precede the more
EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF DIVERSITY famous Pangaea, which existed between
320 million and 170 million years ago.) 
Evolution and Diversity Gondwana and Laurasia.

Earth’s History spans 4.6 billion years. ERAS

Scientists have divided this large time span
into smaller units called eras and periods.
Eons are divided into eras, which are in turn
divided into periods, epochs , and ages.
Evolution- change in the characteristics of a
species over several generations and relies
on the process of natural selection.
Evolution and diversity result from the
interactions between organisms and their
environments and the consequences of
these interactions over long periods of time.
Geologic Time Scale
The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for
events in Earth history. It subdivides all
time into named units of abstract time
called eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages
in descending order of duration.
Precambrian Time:
-Earliest era in history of Earth
-Covers first 4 billion years
-4.6 billion to 544 million years ago
-Few fossils during this time span
-Early bacteria, algae, jellyfish-like animal,
and sea pen.
Coronacollina acula, dating back as far as
560 million years were recently discovered
in South Australia. A sponge-like fossils that
show the existence of hard body parts and
spicules that extended 20-40 cm from the
main body (estimated about 5-cm long). It
was found by a team from the University of
California (by Mary Droser) in South
Australia.
Paleozoic Era

-Spans from 544-245 million years ago.

Includes the following periods:
-Cambrian – 544-505 million years ago
-Invertebrate sea animals.
-Pikaia, sponges, trilobite, clam,
dinomischus
-Trilobite- became the world's dominant
species

>Cambrian Period
-Occurred between about 570-530 million
years ago
-Appearance of the lineages of almost all
animals living today.
-Unique - only time when such a large
variety of body types appeared in the fossil
record.
Pangaea
-Toward the end of the Paleozoic Era
Pangaea formed.
-Pangaea means “all lands”
-Result of the movement of tectonic plates
on the convection currents in the mantle.
-Pacific plate is moving about 8.3 cm per
year.
- During the Permian continents form a
great supercontinent.

Mesozoic Era - spans from 245-66 million

>Ordovician – 505-438 million years ago years ago
-Earliest fishes appear in fossil record
-Brachiopod, jawless fish, crinoid

>Silurian – 438-408 million years ago

-Land plants and animals
-Jawed fish, arachnid, eurypterid, land plant
- Eurypterid = “sea scorpion” Largest were
>Triassic – 245-208 million years ago
8’2”
-First dinosaurs, first turtles and crocodiles,
>Devonian – 408-360 million years ago mammals first appear, cone-bearing and
-Many types of fishes, early amphibians, palm-like trees dominate forests.
ferns and cone bearing plants -Cycad, early mammal, coelophysis
-Devonian forest, shark, lung fish, bony fish
>Jurassic- 208-144 million years ago
>Carboniferous – 360-286 million years -Large dinosaurs, first birds, mammals
ago more common.
-Tropical forests, insects and amphibians, -Morganucodon (mammal), diplodocus,
earliest reptiles archaeopteryx
-Cockroach, dragonfly, coal forest,
>Cretaceous – 144-66 million years ago
amphibian
-First flowering plants, end of the period
Mississippian = early carboniferous period
mass extinction of dinosaurs and many
Pennsylvanian = late carboniferous period
other organisms
Dragonfly with 25.6 in. wingspan
-Triceratops, magnolia, tyrannosaurus rex,
>Permian – 286-245 million years ago creodont (mammal)
-Seed plants, insects, reptiles, most sea Site of asteroid impact that killed dinosaurs
animals and amphibians become extinct.
-Largest mass extinction in geologic history
- took 30 million years into the Mesozoic to
recover.
- The Permian extinction marks the end of
Diameter (150m) Depth (70-80m)
the Paleozonic.
Cenozoic Era -Spans from 66 million years reproduce more than those less adapted to
ago to the present their environment.

Natural selection occurs when one allele (or

combination of alleles of different genes)
makes an organism more or less fit, that is,
able to survive and reproduce in a given
environment.
>Tertiary – 66-1.8 million years ago
-First monkeys and apes, flowering plants If an allele reduces fitness, its frequency will
most common, grasses. tend to drop from one generation to the
-Uintatherium, plesiadapis, heracotherium next.
(mammals)
Example: Origin of giraffes' long neck &
>Quaternary – 1.8 million years ago – Galapagos finches
present day
-Mammals, flowering plants, insects,
humans appear, large mammals become
extinct
-Saber-toothed cat, megatherium, Homo
sapiens

Today we are in the:

Holocene Epoch of the
Quaternary Period of the
Cenozoic Era
Gradualism – proposes that evolution
occurs slowly but steadily.
Darwin’s theory of gradualism included the
observation that evolutionary changes take
place slowly. In many cases, the fossil
record shows that a species changed
gradually over time
Punctuated Equilibrium – proposes that
species evolve quickly during relatively
short periods. (periods of rapid change
separated by long periods of little or no
change.) It was first proposed by Stephen
Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge in 1972.
2. Artificial selection is a process in which
man selects a particular desired trait for
breeding to generate new plants/ animals
with improved characteristics.
Artificial selection has long been used in
agriculture to produce animals and crops
with desirable traits. The meats sold today
are the result of the selective breeding of
chickens, cattle, sheep, and pigs. Many fruits
and vegetables have been improved or even
created through artificial selection.
Example: Maize cobs became larger over
time, with more rows of kernels, eventually
taking on the form of modern maize.

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION

1. Natural selection- is the process in

nature by which organisms better adapted
to their environment tend to survive and
 4. Genetic Drift- occurs when the alleles
that make it into the next generation in a
population are a random sample of the
alleles in a population in the current
generation.

By random chance, not every allele will

3. Mutation- is a source of new alleles in a
population. Mutation is a change in the DNA
sequence of the gene. A mutation can
change one allele into another, but the net
effect is a change in frequency.
make it through, and some will be
overrepresented while others decline in
frequency regardless of how well those
alleles encode for phenotypic suitability to
the environment.
Sometimes drift reduces the average fitness
of a population for its environment.

It refers to any change in the nucleotide

sequence as a result of a failure of the
system to revert the change.

Addition, deletion, invertion, insertion

The change in frequency resulting from

mutation is small, so its effect on evolution
is small unless it interacts with one of the
other factors, such as selection. A mutation
may produce an allele that is selected
against, selected for, or selectively neutral.

Harmful mutations are removed from the

population by selection and will generally
only be found in very low frequencies equal
to the mutation rate.

Beneficial mutations will spread through the

population through selection, although that
initial spread is slow.

5. Gene flow- occurs when two different

populations are often subject to different
selective pressures and genetic drift, so they
would be expected to have different allele
frequencies.
Examples:
Bees pollinate flowers and move genetic
material between populations.
Humans move between populations
through migration.
Captive salmon escape and breed with wild
salmon.
When individuals from one population
migrate into a different population, they
bring those different allele frequencies with
them.
If enough migration and mating occurs
between two populations, then the two
populations will experience changes in
allele frequencies such that their allele
frequencies become similar to each other.
5. Recombination- the process by which
DNA strands are broken and repaired,
producing new combinations of alleles,
occurs in nearly all multicellular organisms
and has important implications for many
evolutionary processes.
The effects of recombination can be good, as
it can facilitate adaptation, but
also bad when it breaks apart beneficial
combinations of alleles, and recombination
is highly variable between taxa, species,
individuals, and across the genome.
Transgenic organisms have also been
developed for commercial purposes.
Perhaps the most famous examples are food
crops like soy and corn which have been
genetically modified for pest and herbicide
resistance.
These crops are widely known as “GMOs”
(genetically modified organisms).
PATTERNS OF DESCENT WITH
MODIFICATION
Descent with Modification
-means that all organisms are descended
from a common ancestor.
-many generations must pass on traits with
slight modifications to create new species.
Cladograms –branching diagrams that
represent the phylogeny (evolutionary
history) of a species or groups.
Reproductive Isolating Mechanism
-Factors that prevent gene exchange among
populations are called isolating
mechanisms.
-Theodosius Dobzhansky introduced the
term ‘isolating mechanism’ to define any
agents that hinders interbreeding of group
of individuals.
-Mayr restricted this term to sympatric
populations & defined it as ‘biological
properties of individuals which prevent
interbreeding of populations that are
actually or potentially sympatric’
-Species are groups of interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated
from other such groups.”
-A closely related organism that are very
similar and capable of producing fertile
offspring.
Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms
-Isolating mechanisms which operate
before fertilization.
-Obstacle to mating or to fertilzation if
mating occurs
1. Geographic/ ecological/ habitat
isolation
-Potential mates do not meet because they
flourish in different habitats
-The two species live in different habitats
and will not encounter one another: each is
isolated from the other species.
2. Temporal or seasonal isolation
-Differences in breeding season prevent
meeting of potential individuals of different
species.
-For example, two populations of plants
may produce flowers in different seasons,
making mating between the populations
impossible.
3. Behavioral isolation
-Differences in courtship behaviour prevent
mating between individuals of different
species
4. Mechanical isolation
-Body parts of a species may not physically
match with those of other species that could
otherwise be mates or pollinators
-Mechanical isolation occurs when mating is
physically impossible.
5. Gametic isolation
-Incompatibilities between egg and sperm
prevent fertilization. Often this occurs
because the female immune system
recognizes sperm as foreign and attacks it.
-Sperm of one species may not be able to
fertilize eggs of another species.
-Example: 2 different species of sea urchin
have differing gametes will only fuse with
those of the same species.
Post-Zygotic Isolation Mechanisms
-Isolating mechanisms which operate after
fertilization
-Prevents the formation of fertile offspring.
1. Hybrid inviability
-Reduces a hybrid's capacity to mature into
a healthy, fit adult. The relatively low health
of these hybrids relative to pure-breed
individuals prevents gene flow between
species.
-A hybrid individual develops but either
dies before birth or if born alive, cannot
survive maturity.
-Example: when tigers and leopards are
crossed, the zygote begins to develop but
the pregnancy ends in miscarriage or
stillborn.
-If sheep and goats mate then hybrid
zygotes die before birth
-the creation of an unsuccessful hybrid is
also a form of post-zygotic barrier.
-a hybrid is produced, but often does not
make it to reproductive age because it is
weak, irregular, etc.
-Example: When tobacco hybrids are
successful, they often form tumors. These
rumors are located in their vegetative parts.
Often no flowering occurs, thus no
reproduction occurs.
2. Hybrid sterility
-Inhibition or suppression of the
reproductive. capacity of F1 or later
generation hybrids between genetically
different strains or. populations, usually
belonging to different species.
-Example: horse x donkey = mule
Mule is the hybrid of the 2 species(sterile)
3. Hybrid breakdown
- Type of reproductive failure that appears
after the F2 generation of crosses between
different species or subspecies.
-It is caused by incompatibility between
interacting genes.
Microevolution –survival through the
inheritance of favourable characteristics
-changes occur in gene pools due to
mutation, natural selection, genetic drift,
etc.
-gene pool changes cause more variation in
individuals in the population
-e.g. antibiotic resistant
Macroevolution –progression of
biodiversity through geological time.
-e.g. speciation, extinction
Speciation occurs when a group within a
species separates from other members of its
species and develops its own unique
characteristics.
1. Allopatric speciation
- allo – other, patric – place; ‘other place’
-occurs when some members of a
population become geographically
separated from the other members thereby
preventing gene flow.
Peripatric speciation – special case of
allopatric speciation.
-happens when one of the isolated
populations has very few individuals.
-potential peripatric speciation triggered by
partial isolation in a Bolivian natural forest
island isolated 3000 years from the larger
contiuous forest habitat during a dry period.
-divergence in song and certain alleles
frequencies between the 2 populations
(reproductive isolation) suggest that
incipient speciation is under way (Southern
Chesnut-Tailed Antbird, Myrmeciza
castanca)
Founder effect, or peripatric speciation
-new species arise as populations become
isolated on the periphery of a wide-ranging
species.
-small group of individuals move away from
the main population. E.g. a group of insects
blown by wind to a small island.
Bottleneck effect –catastrophic events
wipe out many individuals. E.g. avalance,
volcanic eruption
2. Sympatric Speciation
sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place’
-Occurs when two groups of the same
species live in the same geographic location,
but they evolve differently until they can no
longer interbreed and are considered
different species.
3. Parapatric Speciation
para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each
other’
-Occurs when new species evolve in
contiguous, yet spatially segregated
habitats.
-Maintain a zone of contact (hybrid zone)
and do not cease the exchange of genes
completely.
-Instead of being separated by a physical
barrier, the species are separated by
differences in the same environment.
-Example: pollution from mines has led to
contamination of the soil in part of the
range of a species of grass.
Plants growing on contaminated soil have
evolved a tolerance for heavy metals and
also flower at a different time to plants
growing on uncontaminated soil.
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Concrete Evidence of Evolution and How
To Infer Using Its Evolutionary
Relationship
A. Fossils
-Fossils are preserved remnants of once
living organisms trapped in rocks, tar pits,
frozen in ice or embedded in amber. The
most common fossils are bones, shells and
seeds or pollen grains. Most fossils are
formed in sedimentary rock. Paleontologists
(a specialist in the study of the forms of life
existing in prehistoric or geologic times),
use the fossils found in rocks to track the
evolutionary history of many organisms.
-By identifying the age of rocks in which
fossils appear, we can obtain an accurate
idea of how old the fossils are. Geologists
use Relative dating rocks were dated by
their position with respect to one another;
rocks in deeper strata are generally older.
On the other hand, in absolute dating rocks
are dated by measuring the degree of decay
of certain radioisotopes contained in the
rock; the older the rock, the more its
isotopes have decayed. Since radioactive
isotopes decay at a constant rate unchanged
by temperature or pressure, the isotopes in
a rock act as an internal clock, determining
the time after the rock was formed. Hence,
the records found in the rocks show a
gradual evolutionary descent from simpler
to more complex life forms. Furthermore,
the fossil record provides a clear record of
the major evolutionary transitions that have
occurred through time.

B. Embryology
-An embryo is an organism in its initial
phases of development. While embryology
is the study of the development of the
anatomy of an organism to its adult form
also gives evidence of relatedness between
now widely different groups of organisms.
Scientists observed that at some point
during the development process, embryos
of many different animals appeared so
similar that it was difficult to tell them
apart. During development, at some time all
vertebrates have a supporting dorsal rod,
called a notochord, and demonstrate paired
pharyngeal pouches. This could indicate
that an organism passes through some of
the embryonic stages that its ancestors
passed through. Then numerous variations
occur in ways appropriate to an organism’s
final form.
-However, the similarities in the early
stages of embryo development are further
evidence that living organisms have evolved
from earlier living things and that they do
share a common ancestry.
C. Anatomical Evidence
-In comparing the anatomy and the
development of organisms, it shows a unity
of plan among those that are closely related.
The more body structures that two species
have in common, the more closely they are
related. It adopts the idea of “descent from
a common ancestor”.
-Similar structures in different species
irrespective of their functions are called
homologous structures. Homology seems
to indicate descent from common ancestor.
The limb skeletons of vertebrates are
homologous structures.
-Analogous structures are structures
which are different in appearance but have
the similar function. Analogy does not
indicate common ancestry. Examples of are
the limbs of insects and mammals, and
wings of butterflies and birds.
-Vestigial structures seem like to give
more evidence for evolutionary change.
Vestigial structures are anatomical features
that are usually reduced and have no
function in many organisms. These are
organs that were previously functional in
the ancestors of the species but are only
remnants in the present-day species. For
example, skeletal extremities discovered in
certain snakes have no known use to these
animals. In humans, appendix is thought to
have no use, but in other mammals it aids in
the digestion of cellulose. (Example:
Coccyx/tail bone, Appendix, Ear muscles for
wiggling and Wisdom teeth)
D. Biochemical
-Living organisms shared numerous related
biochemical molecules, such as DNA, ATP,
amino acids, and enzymes. This finding
supports descent from a common ancestor.
The more closely linked organisms are the
more related is their biochemical genetic
makeup.
1. DNA/Nucleic acids - Genes are located in
the chromosomes, which are made of DNA
or deoxyribonucleic acid. The more closely
related two living organisms are, the more
similar the sequence of their DNA molecules
will be.
2. Proteins - are molecules that are used to
build up and repair body parts. Scientists
believe that the more similar the structure
of protein molecules of different organisms
is, the more related they are and the more
recent the existence of their common
ancestor. Unrelated species have different
amino acids.
E. Biogeography
-Biogeography is the study of the
geographic distributions of organisms.
Darwin’s trip around South America
allowed him to observe the diversity of
organisms in different areas and the
resemblance of such species of birds and
tortoises in an island to nearby mainland.
Darwin believed that the group of
organisms in each island is adapted to a
distinct way of life. The common ancestors
of these organisms had come from one
place, expanding out into other accessible
regions.
DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY
THOUGHTS
Taxonomy and Systematics
1749 Georges-Louis Leclerc publishes
Historie Naturalle
1758 Carl Linnaeus publishes definitive
10th edition of classification system
1800 Georges Cuvier argues that fossils
represent extinct species
1809 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck publishes
Philosophie Zoologique
1844 Vestiges of the Natural History of
Creation published
1858 Wallace publishes theory of natural
selection
1859 Darwin publishes On the Origin of
Species
Scientific Contributions to the Theory of
Evolution
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
(1707-1788)
- French naturalist
- challenged the idea that life forms are
unchanging
- wrote a 44 volume set called Histoire
Naturelle
- noted similarities between humans and
apes and suggested common ancestor.
- suggested that species changed over time
- he speculated that Earth was more than
6000 years
Carolus Linnaeus
- Developed a classification system for the
huge variety of living things he found
- Wrote book Systema Naturae in 1735 to
reveal his classification system
- There are currently 1.9 million species
that have been identified using his method
- Linnaeus's system of classification reflects
evolutionary relationships
B. Modern classification system is based
on morphological similarities.
Hierarchy of eight groups (Taxa)
Domains- include all six kingdoms
Kingdom- a taxon of similar phyla or
divisions
Phylum-(phyla-plural)- taxon of similar
classes
Class- taxon of similar orders
Order-taxon of similar families
Family-group of similar genera
Genus-group of similar species
Species- most exclusive, specific group.
Members of this grouping can mate,
produce viable offspring
(varieties)- same species but with slight
differences
(subspecies) - same species, different
location
Influences
Thomas Malthus (1766 - 1834)
- The population had the potential to grow
at a rate faster than food could be supplied.
If the population kept growing at this rate,
overpopulation was imminent unless
reproduction and/or survival was stopped.
- Struggle for Existence
- Malthus argued that population was
growing faster than the amount of
resources we could produce.
- This suggested that at some point
population would outgrow resources (food)
- A catastrophe such as war, famine or
disease would then cut the population
which would return to balance again
 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
- First scientist to propose a mechanism for
how organisms change (1809)
- Theory of change through use and disuse
Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) (Through time, a generation would use an
- the,,father" of zoology, palaeontology, and organ more than previously, and would
comparative anatomy pass those traits on to their offspring)
- criticised Lamarck's views on evolution
-proposed theory of catastrophism:
- series of violent and sudden
catastrophes
- all of creatures were destroyed
during the catastrophe
- after things settled down, areas
were restocked with new organisms
Galápagos Islands
different from those previously
Charles Darwin went on a voyage
living there)
hypothesized that the Galapagos Islanda
had been colonized by aboard The Beagle
James Hutton - Scottish geologist
from December 1831 to 2 October 1836. He
- Described the geological forces that have
had plants and animals from the mainland
changed life on Earth over millions of years
and had diversified afterward on the
(erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain
different islands.
building)
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
- Changes in Earth's crust due to slow
- Charles Darwin was a naturalist and the
continuous processes
founder of modern evolutionary science.
- Idea known as Gradualism
- He went on a 5-year voyage on The
- These changes caused certain species of
Beagle" and discovered a wide variety of
life to become extinct.
species on the Galápagos Islands.
Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Lyell
Three requirements for Natural selection to
- Lyell published a book called Principles of
occur
Geology in 1830 that explained the theory
- organism must provide more offspring
of uniformitarianism- that the geological
than can survive.
processes we see today shaped the Earth
-The variations found in the population
long ago, as well.
must be heritable.
- Individuals must vary in fitness
Hutton & Lyell
("Survival of the fittest")
Concluded that the Earth is extremely old
- The crux of Darwin's Theory of Evolution
and that the processes that changed the
focuses on the elimination of inferior
Earth in the past are the same SLOW
species gradually over time, through a
processes that operate in the present.
process called 'Natural Selection'.

Lamarck vs. Darwin

Theory of Use and Theory of Natural
Disuse - Environment Selection
Acquired Variations
Transmission
Increasing Complexity Extinction (or Species - Convergent evolution (traits arise
Creation) independently due to adaptations to similar
No Extinction Heritability environments) can cause problems
Heritability-Passed Selective Pressure
down. Homology
Selective Pressure - Similarities among various species that
occur because they are derived from a
Ecological Theories of Evolution of common ancestor
Species - Bat wing, human arm and cat front leg
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) - Genes can also be homologous if they are
-animal organs and behaviour can change derived from the same ancestral gene
according to the way they are used
-those characteristics can transmit from one
generation to the next to reach a greater
level of perfection
Example: giraffe's necks have become
longer while trying to reach the upper Analogous structures
leaves of a tree - Structures that have similar functions
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) (jobs) but were NOT inherited from a
- all species of life have descended over time common ancestor.
from common ancestors
- this branching pattern resulted from
natural selection
- evolution history is represented by a
phylogenetic tree
Example: 13 types of Galapagos finches,
same habits and characteristics, but
Molecular systematics
different beaks - Analysis of genetic data, such as DNA and
amino acid sequences, to identify and study
genetic homologies and propose
phylogenetic trees
- DNA and amino acid sequences from
closely related species are more similar to
each other than to sequences from more
distantly related species

Taxonomy and systematics

Taxonomy
-Science of describing, naming, and
classifying living and extinct organisms and
viruses
Systematics
- Study of biological diversity and the
TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS evolutionary relationships among
organisms, both extinct and modern
Morphological analysis
- First systematic studies focused on
- Taxonomic groups are now based on
morphological features of extinct and
hypotheses regarding evolutionary
modern species
relationships derived from systematics
Taxonomy classification. Features are used as bases for
- Hierarchical system involving successive classification.
levels
- Each group at any level is called a taxon
- Domain:
-Highest level
-AIl of life belongs to one of 3
domains
-Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Phylogenetic trees
Phylogeny - evolutionary history of a
species or group of species
- To propose a phylogeny, biologists use the
tools of systematics
- Trees are usually based on morphological
or genetic data
- Diagram that describes phylogeny
- A hypothesis of evolutionary relationships
among various species
- Based on available information
- New species can be formed by:
Anagenesis-single species evolves into a
different species
Cladogenesis-a species diverges into 2 or
more species

Binomial nomenclature
- Genus name and species epithet
- Genus name always capitalized
- Species epithet never capitalized
- Both names either italicized or underlined
- Rules for naming established and
regulated by international associations

The following table shows four species that

are classified using the Linnaean system of

Monophyletic group includes all
descendants of that most common recent
ancestor.
Paraphyletic group is a taxon that consists
of a most recent common ancestor and
some of its descendants.
Polyphyletic group is a taxon that consists
of unrelated organisms who are from a
different recent common ancestor. This
group lacks a most recent common
ancestor.
- Over time, taxonomic groups will be
reorganized so only monophyletic groups
are recognized
- Reptiles were a paraphyletic groups
because birds were excluded
Cladistics
- Study and classification of species based
on evolutionary relationships
- Cladistic approach discriminates among
possible phylogenetic trees by considering
the various possible pathways of
evolutionary changes and then choosing the
tree that requires the least complex
explanation for all of the available data
- Phylogenetic trees or cladograms
- Cladistic approach compares homologous
traits, also called characters, which may
exist in two or more character states
- Shared primitive character or
symplesiomorphy
Shared by two or more different taxa and
inherited from ancestors older than their
last common ancestor
- Shared derived character or
synapomorphy
Shared by two or more species or taxa and
has originated in their most recent common
ancestor
- In the 1950’s, a scientist named Willi
Hennig established cladistics. It became
very popular over the next few decades and Many more species and their shared
is still used widely today. ancestors may be found in the larger clades
- A clade is a relative concept.
- Cladistics relationships are shown in a
diagram known as cladogram.

Branch point - 2 species differ in shared

derived characters
Ingroup - group we are interested in
Outgroup - species or group of species that
is assumed to have diverged before the
species in the ingroup
- An outgroup will lack one or more shared
derived characters that are found in the
ingroup
-Cladogram can also be constructed with
gene sequences
-7 species called A-G
- A mutation that changes the DNA
sequence is analogous to a modification of a
characteristic

Cladistic Analysis
Ingroup vs. Outgroup
An Outgroup helps identify shared ancestral
and shared derived characters (unique to a
clade)
Constructing a cladogram
1. Choose species
2. Choose characters
3. Determine polarity of character states
- Primitive or derived?
A. Using morphological/ structural
characters
Step 1: Determine the defined characters to
be used.
4. Analyze cladogram based on
- All species (or higher taxa) are placed on
tips in the phylogenetic tree, not at branch
points
- Each cladogram branch point should have
a list of one or more shared derived
characters that are common to all species
above the branch point unless the character
is later modified
- All shared derived characters appear
together only once in a cladogram unless
they arose independently during evolution
more than once
5. Choose the most likely cladogram among
possible options
6. Choose a noncontroversial outgroup as
root
-Venn diagram can be ušed to make models
of a classification Scheme.
-lt shows also hierarchy and grouping
relationships of organisms.
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
1. Fossil Evidence
- Fossils allow scientists to show how
species have changed over time.
- Fossils help us connect species over time
so we can see how they changed
Relative dating is a method used to
determine the age of the rocks by
comparing them with the rocks in the other
layers. The younger rock is found on the top
layer and the older rock is found in the
bottom.
Absolute dating is a method used in
analysing the age of rocks where fossils are
found using radioactive elements or
radioisotopes to determine the rate of decay
of certain radioactive isotopes
What type of rocks would most likely have
fossils in it?
 - the evolution of homologous structures Is
always an example of divergent evolution.

Convergent Evolution – when 2 species or

2. Anatomy
- Matching or extra/left over body parts
support the idea of common ancestors
- Focuses on similarities and differences in
the body structures of different species
-Homologous structures
Body parts that are the same or similar in
different species but different function
“Patterns with descent modification”
populations evolve to become more similar
to each other.
- Evolution of analogous structures is
always an example of convergent evolution.
3. Embryology
- Many organisms have similar embryos,
supporting the idea of common ancestors.
- Notochord-defining structure of the
chordates, and has essential roles in
vertebrate development.

- Analogous structures
Structures which are different in
appearance but have the similar function.
It does not indicate common ancestry.
Embryo is the early stage of development
of a multicellular organism.

- Vestigial structures
Body parts that are useless or left over from
a previous ancestor in which they were
useful
Example: Appendix, tailbones, goose bumps
and wisdom teeth.

Divergent Evolution – when 2 species or

populations evolve to become more 4. Biochemical - Many organisms contain
different from each other similar sequences (sections) of DNA.
- Small mutations or changes in the DNA
eventually lead to the evolution of new
species.

5. Biogeography - The study of geography

provides evidence of evolution.
– island species most closely resemble
nearest mainland species
– populations can show variation from one
island to another.