Gen. Bio. - W1 1.

Introduction of new traits into an organism,

DNA 2. Enhancement of a present trait by
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid increasing the expression of the desired
- carries the genetic information in all living organisms. gene, or
RNA 3. Enhancement of a present trait by
- a single strand type of nucleic acids that is mostly disrupting the inhibition of the desired
involved in protein synthesis. gene’s expression.
Enzyme
- is a protein molecule that catalyzes biochemical
reactions.
Genetic Engineering
- Artificial manipulation, modification and
reconstruction of DNA
Types of Genetic Engineering
1. Classical Breeding
- practice of mating or breeding
related organisms with desirable
traits.
- Sexual and Asexual
Ex: fruits, vegetables, animals
Steps:

2. Recombinant DNA
- form of artificial DNA created by
combining 2 or more sequences that
would not normally occur together
through splicing
- Deletion of nitrogenous bases
STEPS:
Recombinant DNA Technology
1. Isolate
- allows DNA to be produced via artificial means.
- Isolate DNA from 2 sources (Gene of interest
May involve the ff:
and plasmid)
2. Cut
- Cut both DNAs by the “Restriction Enzyme”
3. Combine
- Combine the DNAs and Seal using “DNA
ligase”
4. Transfer
- Transfer the recombinant DNA plasmid into
the bacterial cell
5. Isolation & Insertion
- Isolation and Insertion to other organisms to
confer the desired trait
Application of rDNA
1. Food
2. Agriculture .
3. Environmental
4. Medicine
5. Research
 6. Biotechnology
Other Applications of rDNA
1. Analysis of Gene Structure and Expression
- Using specialized recombinant DNA
techniques, researchers have determined
vast amounts of DNA sequence including the
entire genomic sequence of humans and
many key experimental organisms.
This enormous volume of data, which is growing at a rapid
pace, has been stored and organized in two primary data Fossils
banks: - Remnant, impression, or trace of an animal or plant
- Gen Bank at the National Institutes of Health, of a past geological age that has been preserved in
Bethesda, Maryland, and the EMBL Earth’s crust.
Sequence - The complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide –
- Data Base at the European Molecular known as the fossils record – is the primary source of
Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany. information about the history of life on Earth.
2. Pharmaceutical Products – Drugs – Vaccines Ex: Trilobites Fossils and Ammonites Fossils
- Some pharmaceutical applications of DNA Dating Fossils
technology: Large-scale production of human 1. Relative Dating
hormones and other proteins with - Based upon the study of layer of rocks
therapeutic uses Production of safer - Does not tell the exact age: only compare
vaccines A number of therapeutic gene fossils as older or younger, depends on their
products — insulin, the interleukins, position in rock layer
interferons, growth hormones, 2. Absolute Dating
erythropoietin, and coagulation factor - Determines the actual age of the fossil
VIII—are now produced commercially from - Through radiometric dating, using
cloned genes radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and
3. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) potassium-40
- Transgenic plants – Transgenic animal Use of - Considers the half-life or the time it takes for
recombinant plasmids in agriculture – plants half of the atoms of the radioactive element
with genetically desirable traits to decay
Examples of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): - The decay products of radioactive isotopes
1. Bt Corn are stable atoms.
- Bacillus thuringiensis Paleontology
- Resistant ro corn borer - is the scientific study of the existence of life,
2. Golden Rice including the origin and eventual destruction or
- B-carotene extinction of different groups of organisms.
- Precursor Vitamin A Paleontologists
3. Bt Eggplant - specialize in studying the ecologies of the past and
- Bacillus thuringiensis the evolution of organisms that thrived in these
- Eggplant Fruit and Skirt Borer. ecologies through careful observation and
4. Sugar Beet documentation of fossils.
- Beta vulgarisr Geology
5. Pink Pineapple - is the study of life on Earth based on the evidence
- Ananas comosus ‘Pink Pineapple’ found in rocks.
- manipulating the lycopene and beta- Geologists
carotene content in the fruit - are scientists who carefully study different
GMOs have played an important role in developing materials that make up earth. They work to
vaccines for; understand the history of earth by focusing on the
● Zika Virus changes of earth over time in relation to changes in
● Ebola Virus climate and land formation.
● Flu Eon
● Hepatitis B - The largest division of geologic time scale; half
● Insulin billion- nearly 2 billions of years.
Gen. Bio. - W2 Two Major Divisions:
Geologic Time Scale Precambrian
- A record of life forms and geological events in Earth’s - 4.5 million years; about 88% of the Earth’s
history History
 Hadean Eon
- from 4.6 to 3.9 billion years agO,
- is characterized by Earth’s formation of dust
and gasses
Archaean Eon
- from 3.9 to 2.5 billion years ago
- where the first life-forms represented by single-
celled organisms appeared.
Proterozoic Eon
- from 2.5 billion years ago to 540 million
years ago
- where the first multicellular organisms arose
and where mass extinction occurred.
Phanerozoic
- The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three
eras, namely, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic eras.
- The boundaries of the era have been
determined based on the different organisms
that were present during a certain period in
the geologic timescale.
ERA
- Division that span time periods of tens to hundreds
of million years
Paleozoic Era
- began about 540 million years ago and lasted for
about 300 million years.
- Many kinds of organisms lived during this era,
particularly the;
- INVERTEBRATES, animals that lack of vertebrae or
backbone
- This is when fossils records become rich with
evidence of many marine organisms.
Periods
- A division of geologic history with spans of
no more than 100 million years
Cambrian Period
- organisms were noted to have hard body
parts such as shells and outer skeletons.
- The first known representatives of most
animal phyla evolved during this period,
which include jelly fishes, worms, and
sponges.
- Also common during this period were the
brachiopods, which were small animals with
two shells.
- And trilobites were the most dominant
macroscopic life-forms in this period
Ordovician and the Silurian periods
- early forms of cephalopods (which include
octopi and squads) appeared.
- The first vertebrates, animals with
backbones, to appear in this period were
jawless fishes which had sucker like mouths.
They become common in the seas.
- Among the invertebrates, animals without
backbones, that first appeared in this period
were insects. The first forms of land plants
also appeared.
Corals and Fish
Cooksonia
- A vascular plant
contains the xylem
and phloem, for
transport food
Devonian Period
- Devonian period, many plants, including
ferns, adapted to drier areas, which allowed
them to invade other kinds of habitats
- Aquatic areas, on the other hand, were
mostly populated with both invertebrates
and vertebrates.
- This period is referred to as the Age of Fishes
because many groups of fishes have evolved
during this period.
- Most of the fishes had jaws, bony skeletons,
and scales. Sharks also appeared
Carboniferous Period
- Widespread forest of huge plants left
massive deposits of carbon that eventually
turned to coal.
- The first amphibians evolved to colonize
land, but they have to return to the water to
reproduce.
- Soon after amphibians arose, the first
reptiles evolved. They were the first animals
that could reproduce on dry land.
 Permian Period
- All the major land masses collided to form a
supercontinent called Pangaea.
- Temperatures were extreme, and the climate
was dry.
- Plants and animals evolved adaptions to
dryness, such as waxy leaves or leathery skin
to prevent water loss.
- The permian ended with a mass extinction.
Mesozoic Era
- “Middle Life”; “Age of Reptiles”
- started more than 280 million years ago.
Triassic Period
- The first dinosaurs branched off from the
reptiles and colonized the land, air, and
water.
- Huge seed ferns and conifers dominated the
forest, and modern corals, fish, and insects
evolved.
- The Supercontinent Pangae started to
separate into Laurasia and Gondwanaland
Jurassic Period
- “The Golden Age of Dinosaurs” earliest birds
evolved from reptile ancestors.
- “All the major groups of mammals evolved,
though individual mammals were still small
in size.
- The continents continued to move apart, and
volcanic activity was especially intense.
Cretaceous Period
- Dinosaurs reached their peak in size and
distribution.
- Earth’s overall climate was warm; even the
poles lacked ice.
Cenozoic Era
- “Recent Life”; “Age of Mammals”
- started 65 million years ago and continues up to
present
Tertiary Period (Neogene & Paleogene)
- 65-1.8 million years ago
- Earth’s Climate was generally warm and
Humid
- Mammals evolved to fill virtually all niches
vacated in size
- Mammals called primates, evolved, including
human ancestors.
- Modern rain forests and grasslands
appeared.
- Flowering plants and insects were numerous
and widespread.
Quaternary Period
- Earth’s climate cooled, leading to a series of
ice ages. Sea levels fell because so much
water was frozen in glaciers. This created
land bridges between continents, allowing
land animals to move to new eras.
- Some mammals, like the wooly mammoths
shown here, adapted to the cold by evolving
very large size and thick fur.
- Other animals moved closer to the equator
or went extinct, along with many plants.
Cretaceous Period
- Dinosaurs reached their peak in size and
distribution.
- Earth’s overall climate was warm; even the
poles lacked ice.
Epoch
- Smallest division of the geologic time scale.
Gen. Bio. - W3
Mechanisms of Evolution
Evolution
- Process
- Biological Population
- Inheritable Characteristics
- Successive Generations
- Develops in a long perod of time
- Adapt to the changes in her environment
Development of Evolutionary Thought
Aristotle (350 B.C.)
- He believed that animals emerged from different
elements and an animating force called vital heat, or
soul.
Carolus Linnaeus (1758)
- He developed a system of classification for all
identified organisms during his time, and was able to
show an evolutionary pattern among species.
George-Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1949-1988)
- He hypothesized that species come from the same
ancestors instead of emerging separately from one
another.
Charles Darwin
- Species evolved from one common ancestor.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- Species evolved from an existing species through
environmental forces. Traits can be passed to the
next generation
Alfred Russel Wallce
- Species evolved from the process of natural selection
which caused variation within the population.
Theories of Evolution
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Theory of Acquired Characteristics
- or “soft inheritance,”
- Holds that an organism experiencing such a
modification can transmit such a character to its
offspring.
Theory of Use & Disuse
- Explains that the limbs, organs, and behavior of
organisms are enhanced when utilized more
frequently for their survival. Oppositely, when these
physical and behavioral characteristics fall into
disuse, they either reduce in size, decrease function
or stop evolving.
Ex: Flightless Birds, Aquatic Birds with webbed feet,
Extinction of limbs in snakes
Charles Darwin
“Survival of the Fittest”
- Organisms adapt to its environment and survive,
which means that external factors cause small
changes in their traits.
- The changes in their traits of a species can result in
the evolution of species, the emergence of new
species and the possibility of tracing the ancestry of
organisms.
Descent with Modification
- Descent with modification is the process that is used
by natural selection. As traits are passed through
generations, there is modification.
- These modifications are the differences that natural
selection will either get rid of, or will increase, based
on the environment.
Theory of Natural Selection
- Natural Selection – a process through which
populations of living organisms adapt and change.
Theory of Artificial Selection
- Artificial Selection – identification of desirable traits
by humans to perpetuate it to future generations
Mechanisms of Evolution
Gene Flow
- Introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding)
from one population of a species to another.
- can take place between two populations of the same
species through migration, and is mediated by
reproduction and vertical gene transfer from parent
to offspring.
Genetic Drift
- Genetic drift is an evolutionary change in allelic
frequencies of a population as a matter of chance.
- It occurs in very small populations, but its effects are
strong. It occurs due to an error in selecting the
alleles for the next generation from the gene pool of
the current generation. It does not occur due to any
environmental influences.
Types of Genetic Drift
Bottleneck Effect
- The bottleneck effect happens when the population
number is dramatically decreased as a result of
natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and
other natural disasters.
- The new population is made up of the organisms that
were able to survive the disasters.
Founder Effect
- The phenomenon, which occurs when a small group
of individuals becomes isolated from a large
population.
- Produces a population with a non-random sample of
genes of the original population.
Mutation
- The DNA sequence is specific to each organism. It can
sometimes undergo changes in its base-pairs
sequence. It is termed as a mutation.
- A mutation may lead to changes in proteins
translated by the DNA. Usually, the cells can
recognize any damage caused by mutation and repair
it before it becomes permanent.
Substitution
- During replication, one base is inserted incorrectly,
replacing the pair at the appropriate location on the
complementary strand.
Insertion
- The addition of one or more nucleobases can cause
this type of mutation. It can cause frameshift
mutation or sometimes even alterations in the
mRNA. Both will eventually affect the final gene
product.
Deletion
- During replication, one or more nucleotides may be
“skipped” or removed, which usually causes a
frameshift.