DATE:
COURSE SUBJECT: GENETICS
STUDENT: BENJAMIN ABELLA
TOPIC: GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS, AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
I. RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
• GENOMICS
According to National Cancer
Institute, Genomics studies a
person or other organism's
complete set of DNA (including all
of its genes). This field deals with
the DNA sequence, organization,
function, and evolution of
genomes. Almost every cell in a
person’s body contains a complete
copy of the genome, which
contains all the information needed
for a person to develop and grow.
Studying the genome may help
researchers understand how genes
interact with each other and the
environment and how certain
diseases, such as cancer, diabetes,
and heart disease, form. This may
lead to new ways to diagnose,
treat, and prevent disease.
• PROTEOMICS
The complete evaluation of the
function and structure of proteins
to understand an organism’s
nature. Aims to identify all the
proteins in a cell or organism, as
well as their cellular localization,
functions, and interactions. Mass
spectrometry is an essential tool
that is used to profile proteins in
the cell. However, biomarker
discovery remains the major
challenge of proteomics because of
its complexity and dynamicity
• GENETIC ENGINEERING
A process that uses laboratory-
based technologies to alter the
DNA makeup of an organism. This
may involve changing a single base
pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region
of DNA, or adding a new segment
of DNA. Manipulation of genes and
the creation of genetically
engineered organisms with novel
genotypes and phenotypes. Used
in research and industry, genetic
engineering has been applied to
INSTRUCTOR: SHARINA FIDEL
the production of cancer therapies,
brewing yeasts, genetically
modified plants and livestock, and
more.
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
Recombinant DNA technology involves using
enzymes and various laboratory techniques to
manipulate and isolate DNA segments of interest.
This method can be used to combine (or splice) DNA
from different species or to create genes with new
functions. The resulting copies are often referred to
as recombinant DNA. Such work typically involves
propagating the recombinant DNA in a bacterial or
yeast cell, whose cellular machinery copies the
engineered DNA along with its own.
Invention of Recombinant DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA technology was invented largely
through the work of American biochemists Stanley N.
Cohen, Herbert W. Boyer, and Paul Berg. In the early
1970s, Berg carried out the first successful
genesplicing experiment, in which he combined DNA
from two different viruses to form a recombinant DNA
molecule.
Boyer and Cohen then took the next step of inserting
recombinant DNA molecules into bacteria, which
replicated, creating many copies of the recombinant
molecule. Boyer and Cohen subsequently developed
methods for the generation of recombinant plasmids.
In 1976, with Robert A. Swanson, Boyer founded the
company Genentech, which commercialized Boyer
and Cohen’s recombinant DNA technology.
How is Recombinant DNA Technology Useful?
Through recombinant DNA techniques, bacteria have
been created that are capable of synthesizing human
insulin, human growth hormone, alpha interferon,
hepatitis B vaccine, and other medically useful
substances. Recombinant DNA technology also can
be used for gene therapy, in which a normal gene is
introduced into an individual’s genome in order to
repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease.
Process of Recombinant DNA Technology
- Step-1. Isolation of Genetic Material. -
The first and initial step in Recombinant DNA
technology is to isolate the desired DNA in
its pure form i.e. free from other
macromolecules.
- Step 2. Cutting the gene at the
recognition sites. - Restriction enzymes
play a major role in determining the location
at which the desired gene is inserted into
the vector genome. These reactions are
called ‘restriction enzyme digestions’ 3.
- Step 3. Amplifying the gene copies
through Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR). - It is a process to amplify a single
copy of DNA into thousands to millions of
copies once the proper gene of interest has
been cut using restriction enzymes.
- Step 4. Ligation of DNA Molecules. - In
this step of Ligation, the joining of the two
pieces – a cut fragment of DNA and the
vector together with the help of the enzyme
DNA ligase. 5.
- Step 5. Insertion of Recombinant DNA
Into Host. - In this step, the recombinant
DNA is introduced into a recipient host cell.
This process is termed Transformation.
Once the recombinant DNA is inserted into
the host cell, it gets multiplied and is
expressed in the form of the manufactured
protein under optimal conditions.
Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
- The enzymes which include the restriction
enzymes help to cut, the polymerases- help
to synthesize, and the ligases- help to bind.
The restriction enzymes used in
recombinant DNA technology play a major
role in determining the location at which the
desired gene is inserted into the vector
genome. They are two types, namely
Endonucleases and Exonucleases.
- The vectors – help in carrying and
integrating the desired gene. These form a
very important part of the tools of
recombinant DNA technology as they are
the ultimate vehicles that carry forward the
desired gene into the host organism.
Plasmids and bacteriophages are the most
common vectors in recombinant DNA
technology that are used as they have a very
high copy number
II. APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC
ENGINEERING
Medicine, research, industry, and agriculture
are a few sectors where genetic engineering
applies. It can be used on various plants,
animals, and microorganisms. The first
microorganism to be genetically modified is
bacteria.
MEDICINE
Genetic engineering can be applied to:
• Manufacturing of drugs
• Creation of model animals that
mimic human
• conditions
• Gene therapy
• Human growth hormones
• Follicle-stimulating hormones
• Human albumin
• Monoclonal antibodies
• Antihemophilic factors
• Vaccines
RESEARCH
Genes and other genetic information from a
wide range of organisms can be inserted
into bacteria for storage and modification,
creating genetically modified bacteria in the
process. Organisms are genetically
engineered to discover the functions of
certain genes.
INDUSTRY
Industrial applications include transforming
microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast,
or insect mammalian cells with a gene
coding for a useful protein. Mass quantities
of the protein can be produced by growing
the transformed organism in bioreactors
using fermentation, then purifying the
protein.
AGRICULTURE
Genetically modified crops are produced
using genetic engineering in agriculture.
Such crops are produced that provide
protection from insect pests. It is used or
can be used in the creation of fungal and
virus-resistant crops.
Benefits of Genetic Engineering
- The production of genetically modified crops
is a boon to agriculture.
- Crops that are drought-resistant, disease-
resistant can be grown with it.
- As described earlier, genetic disorders can
be treated. The diseases such as malaria,
dengue can be eliminated by sterilizing the
mosquitoes using genetic engineering.
- Therapeutic cloning
Challenges of Genetic Engineering
- The production of genetically-engineered entities
may result in an adverse manner and produce
undesired results which are unforeseen.
- The introduction of a genetically-engineered
entity into one ecosystem for a desirable result
may lead to distortion of the existing biodiversity.
- Genetically-engineered crops can also produce
adverse health effects.
- The concept of genetic engineering is debated
for its bioethics and the community against it
argues over the right to distort or mold nature as
per our needs.
III. THE RELEASE OF GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISMS
GENTICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
A GMO, or genetically modified organism, is a plant,
animal, microorganism or other organism whose
genetic makeup has been modified in a laboratory
using genetic engineering or transgenic technology.
This creates combinations of plant, animal, bacterial
and virus genes that do not occur in nature or
through traditional crossbreeding methods.
BIOETHICS
It is defined as the application of medical and
biological sciences in appropriate, humane and
responsible ways.
Ethical Concerns on GMO’s
- Violation on organisms’ intrinsic values
- Tampering with nature by mixing genes among
species
- Objections to consuming animal genes in plants
and vice versa
- Stress for animals
- Potential harm to human health
- Potential damage to the environment
- Negative Impact to traditional farming
BIOSAFETY
It is the term used to describe efforts to reduce and
eliminate the potential risks from biotechnology
products, including GMO’s and their production
THREE BIOSAFETY ON GMO
• Codex Alimentarius Commission
(CODEX)
o The Codex Alimentarius, or "Food
Code" is a collection of standards,
guidelines and codes of practice
adopted by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission.
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
o The Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety to the Convention on
Biological Diversity is an
international agreement which
aims to ensure the safe handling,
transport and use of living modified
organisms (LMOs) resulting from
modern biotechnology that may
have adverse effects on biological
diversity, taking also into account
risks to human health.
• International Trade Agreement on
Labelling GM food and food products
o Labelling of GM foods is only
required when the food is
significantly different from its
conventional counterpart in terms
of composition, nutrition and
allergenicity. However, the trade
may label other GM foods on a
voluntary basis.
GENOMICS
Interdisciplinary branch of Biology that deals with the
study of structure and function of the genome
TYPES OF GENOMICS
Structural Genomics- Aims to determine the
structure of every protein encoded by the genome
Functional Genomics- Aims to collect and use data
from sequencing for describing gene and protein
functions
Comparative Genomics- Aims to compare
genomic features between different species
Mutation Genomics- Studies the genome in terms
of mutation that occur in the DNA.
PROTEOMICS
Branch of science that deals with the study of
Proteomes
TYPES OF PROTEOMICS
Expression Proteomics- Used to study protein
expressions in different cells
Structural Proteomics- Determine the three-
dimensional structure and structural complexities of
functional proteins
Functional Proteomics- Studies protein functions
and molecular mechanisms in the cell
BIOINFORMATICS
Bioinformatics is defined as the application of tools of
computation and analysis to the capture and
interpretation of biological data. It is an
interdisciplinary field, which harnesses computer
science, mathematics, physics, and biology.

BIONFORMATICS PROJECT
• Human Genome Project
o The Human Genome Project was a
landmark global scientific effort
whose signature goal was to
generate the first sequence of the
human genome. In 2003, the
Human Genome Project produced
a genome sequence that
accounted for over 90% of the
human genome.

• Human Microbiome Project

o What is the purpose of the Human
Microbiome Project?
o The goal of the Human Microbiome
Project is to characterize the
human microbiome and analyze its
role in human health and disease.
The human microbiome is defined
as the collection of microbes -
bacteria, viruses, and single-cell
eukaryotes - that inhabits the
human body.