General Biology 2

Quarter 3 (Week 1-4)

Learners Packet
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General Biology 2
PIVOT IV-A Learner’s
Material Quarter 2,
Version1.0
First Edition, 2021

General Biology 2
Genetics and
Evolution
Grade 11
Quarter 3
Module 1: (Weeks 1-4)

Published by: Department of Education SDO-Rizal

Schools Division Superintendent: Cherrylou D. Repia
Assistant Schools Division Superintendent: Gloria C. Roque and Babylyn M. Pambid
WEEK
WEEK
1
1-2
Genetic Engineering
Lesson 1
I
Emphasizing on the steps of genetic engineering, the different techniques
for the intentional manipulation of genetic material primarily DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) to alter, repair or enhance form or function from different
biological species. All for the benefit of different fields including medicine,
agriculture, biotechnology and other industry.
Comparing the classical breeding with the innovative technology of cloning
being practiced in the different field today. Likewise, in this lesson you are
expected to be knowledgeable for today’s timely approach of science in the field
of medicine and health particularly the Antigen test and PCR (Polymerase Chain
Reaction test)
In this learning materials you should be able to outline the steps involved
in genetic engineering. Activities are provided for better understanding of the
concept.
At the end of the lesson, you will be comparing the difference between
classical breeding with modern genetic engineering techniques enumerating
the steps in molecular cloning, describing some methods to introduce DNA
into cells, explaining the selection and screening of transformants / genetically
modified organisms (GMO).

D I
Genetic engineering includes multiple techniques for deliberate
manipulation of genetic makeup like to alter, to repair or enhance genes or
phenotype of organism. Technologies such as chemical splicing of different
strands of DNA using either bacteria or virus is just one of the many ways science
could offer.
But this highly invasive approach of genetic science raises several ethical
issue in different fields like agriculture, food industry, medicine and others. In
some countries, their reactions are neither uniformly accepting nor resistant;
instead, public reactions vary depending on the mechanisms and intended
purpose of the technology, particularly the extent to which it would bring health
benefits to humans.
At the end of the lesson you will be comparing the difference between
classical breeding with modern genetic engineering techniques enumerating
the steps in molecular cloning, describing some methods to introduce DNA
into cells, explaining the selection and screening of transformants / genetically
modified organisms (GMO).
Try activating your prior knowledge on Biotechnology, Gene, Plasmid,
Cloning, Biotechnology, Polymerase Chain Reaction and vector.

5
 Credits to: https://www.pharmatutor.org/articles/pharmaceutical-products-of-
recombinant-dna-technology-an-overview

Biosynthetic "human" insulin is now manufactured for widespread clinical use

using genetic engineering.

Learning Task 1: Below lists the gene donor and the effect of genetic
engineering to the recipient. Make a gene donor and recipient pairing by choosing
the organisms list from the box below

Potato Sheep Maize Goat Cotton

Gene Donor Recipient Organism Effect

Bacillus thuringensis insect resistant crop
Agrobacterium sp. C4 herbicide resistant crop
Bacillus subtilis drought resistant crop
Bacillus thuringensis insect resistant crop
Agrobacterium sp. C4 herbicide resistant crop
Giant leaf frog disease resistant crop
Hepatitis B virus vaccine production

Golden orb weaver spider strong silk fibers for medical and
military uses
Human pharming of anti-thrombin III

pharming of factor IX for

Human haemophilia B sufferers

6
 Learning Task 2: Define the terms in column B using the meanings in column
A.
Column A Column B
1. is the process of using recombinant DNA A. Restriction enzyme
(rDNA) technology to alter the genetic
makeup of an organism
B. Cloning
2. Is a vehicle often a virus or a plasmid that
is used to ferry a desired DNA sequence into
a host cell as part of a molecular cloning C. Plasmid
procedure.
3. Is a small, often circular DNA molecule
found in bacteria and other cells. D. PCR
4. Is the basic physical unit of inheritance.
5. Is the process of making identical copies of E. Genetic engineering
an organism, cell, or DNA sequence.
6. Is an enzyme isolated from bacteria that F. GMO
cuts DNA molecules at specific sequences.
7. Is a laboratory technique used to amplify
DNA sequences. G. Vector
8. Is a device used to transfect cells with
foreign DNA by bombarding the target cells H. Biotechnology
with DNA-coated microparticles.
9. an organism generated through genetic
engineering is considered to be a genetically I. Genes
modified organism
10. the use of biology to solve problems and J. Gene gun
make useful products

Genetic Engineering
➢ The process of modifying an organism’s DNA to introduce new, desirable traits.
➢ Genetic engineering is the artificial manipulation, modification, and
recombination of DNA (i.e. the carrier of genetic information which achieves its
effects by directing the synthesis of proteins) or other nucleic acid molecules in
order to modify an organism or population of organisms. An organism generated
through genetic engineering is considered to be a genetically modified organism
(GMO).
The technology was invented in the 1970s and flourished rapidly in the past 3
decades in various fields, including agriculture and food industry, medicine,
research, and entertainment etc.

7
➢ Genetic engineering is the direct altering of an organism's genome. This is
achieved through manipulation of the DNA. Doing this is possible because DNA
is like a universal language; all DNA for all organisms is made up of the same
nucleotide building blocks. Thus, it is possible for genes from one organism to be
read by another organism.
➢ Classical breeding involves mating two members of a species (plant,
yeast, or animal)—each of whom possesses one or more different and desirable
traits—in order to create a hybrid individual possessing both traits. Importantly,
classical breeding does not involve any direct manipulation of genetic material;
therefore, classically bred organisms are classified as non-genetically modified
(non-GMO). Instead, classical breeding only requires the ability to identify traits
of interest in an organism, successfully mate individuals expressing said traits,
and then isolate hybrid offspring.
Developing plant varieties expressing good agronomic characteristics is
the ultimate goal of plant breeders. With conventional plant breeding, however,
there is little or no guarantee of obtaining any particular gene combination from
the millions of crosses generated. Undesirable genes can be transferred along
with desirable genes; or, while one desirable gene is gained, another is lost
because the genes of both parents are mixed together and re-assorted more or
less randomly in the offspring. These problems limit the improvements that plant
breeders can achieve.
In contrast, genetic engineering allows the direct transfer of one or just a
few genes of interest, between either closely or distantly related organisms to
obtain the desired agronomic trait (Figure 1). Not all genetic engineering
techniques involve inserting DNA from other organisms. Plants may also be
modified by removing or switching off their own particular genes.

Source: http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/agricultural_biotechnology/download/

8
 Conventional Breeding
• 1. Limited to exchanges between the•
• same or very closely related
• species
2. Little or no guarantee of any
particular gene combination from
the millions of crosses generated
3. Undesirable genes can be
transferred along with desirable
genes
4. Takes a long time to achieve
desired results
Genetic Engineering
1. Allows the direct transfer of one or
• just a few genes, between either
• closely or distantly related
• organisms.
2. Crop improvement can be achieved
in a shorter time compared to
conventional breeding
3. Allows plants to be modified by
removing or switching off
particular
genes

Figure above shows comparison of conventional breeding and genetic

engineering.
Process of Genetic Engineering
1. A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid is extracted from the bacteria or
yeast cell.
2. A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction
enzymes, ‘molecular scissors’.
3. The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid. This plasmid
is now genetically modified.
4. The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a new bacteria or yeast cell.
5. This cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.
6. To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or yeast are
grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they need. The
more the cells divide, the more insulin is produced.
7. When fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release the insulin
8. The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for
distribution to patients with diabetes.

9
 Ways in which these DNA (plasmid) may be introduced into host organisms:
1. Biolistics. In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire DNA-coated pellets on
plant tissues. Cells that survive the bombardment, and are able to take up the
expression plasmid coated pellets and acquire the ability to express the designed
protein. What’s is it 15
2. Plasmid insertion by Heat Shock Treatment. Heat Shock Treatment is a process
used to transfer plasmid DNA into bacteria. The target cells are pre-treated before
the procedure to increase the pore sizes of their plasma membranes. This
pretreatment (usually with CaCl2) is said to make the cells “competent” for
accepting the plasmid DNA. After the cells are made competent, they are
incubated with the desired plasmid at about 4°C for about 30min. The plasmids
concentrate near the cells during this time. Afterwards, a “Heat Shock” is done
on the plasmid-cell solution by incubating it at 42°C for 1 minute then back to
4°C for 2 minutes. The rapid rise and drop of temperature is believed to increase
and decrease the pore sizes in the membrane. The plasmid DNA near the
membrane surface are taken into the cells by this process. The cells that took up
the plasmids acquire new traits and are said to be “transformed”.
3. Electroporation. This technique follows a similar methodology as Heat Shock
Treatment, but, the expansion of the membrane pores is done through an electric
“shock”. This method is commonly used for insertion of genes into mammalian
cells.
Some methods are:
• Selection of plasmid DNA containing cells
• Selection of transformed cells with the desired gene
• PCR detection of plasmid DNA
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Molecular Cloning
Molecular cloning is an essential technique to create DNA-based
experimental tools for expression in bacterial or mammalian cells. Examples of
such DNA constructs include a promoter element fused to a reporter gene or a
cDNA sequence under the control of a ubiquitous promoter. Molecular cloning
entails the preparation of the vector and insert DNAs, ligation of the insert into
the vector, transformation of competent E. coli, and identification of positive
clones.
Traditionally, molecular cloning is defined as the isolation and
amplification of a specific DNA fragment. Most of these fragments are created
either by digesting an existing piece of DNA with restriction enzymes or by
targeting it via PCR. Short inserts of ~ 100 bp can also be commercially
synthesized as complementary single-stranded oligos, which are subsequently
annealed to form a double-stranded fragment.

10
 After successful isolation, the DNA of interest is ligated into a vector
plasmid, a double-stranded circular piece of DNA that can be propagated in E.
coli. Vectors used in the laboratory represent a smaller version of naturally
occurring plasmids that include several basic features: a replication origin, a
drug-resistance gene, and unique restriction sites to facilitate the insertion of
DNA fragments. Often, several different restriction sites are clustered together in
so-called ‘polylinker regions’ or ‘multiple cloning sites,’ making it easier to choose
convenient and unique restriction enzyme combinations for a variety of inserts.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-
biology/molecular-cloning

Molecular cloning strategy overview. The four basic steps of molecular

cloning are outlined.
The choice of restriction enzymes is critical when designing a cloning
strategy. While some sever the double-stranded DNA in one place, creating ‘blunt’
ends, others leave an overhang of a few bases at the cut site. These
complementary ‘sticky’ ends find one another easily, increasing the efficiency of
the ligation reaction and thus the chances for a successful cloning event.
Thoughtful combination of restriction enzymes can also help to control the
directionality of the insert, which is critical to many applications.

11
 E
E
Learning Task 3: Answer the following questions based from what you have
learned.
1. What does ‘GMO’ stand for?
G____________________________________
M____________________________________
O____________________________________
2. What does “modify” mean? ______________________________________________
3. What has been “modified? How? _______________________________________
4. Why do you think it is being used today? ____________________________________
5. Give at least 2 examples of GMO.

Learning Task 4: If you will be asked which do you prefer in planting, classical
/conventional breeding of plant or genetic engineering? Why?

Learning Task 5: Label the diagram of genetic engineering technique by dragging

the correct label

12
Learning Task 6: Using the Venn diagram below compare and differentiate the
three types of methods in DNA insertion. Use the word bank for your reference.

Word bank

Heat shock treatment DNA transfer Gene gun

Plant tissue Pre-heating of cell Incubation of cell
Electric shock mammalian cells uses DNA coated pellet

13
 A

Learning Task 7: In which of the following fields do you think it is worthwhile to

develop genetic engineering? Why or why not? Explain your answer

Worthiness of
development

Field Reason
5= Very worthy
1= Not worthy
at all

1. Agriculture 5 4 3 2 1
and industry

Medicine 5 4 3 2 1

Research 5 4 3 2 1

Entertainment 5 4 3 2 1

Sports 5 4 3 2 1

14
 References

Husnik, John, “About Classical Breeding, 2013.

https://renaissanceyeast.com/en/about/classical-breeding
Rogers, Kara, Genetic engineering: Additional Information. March 20,
2017. https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-engineering
ISAA Publication, “Pocket K No. 17: Genetic Engineering and GM Crops”. March
2020 https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/17/default.asp
yourgenome, (2017). Copyright information. [online] Available at:
https://www.yourgenome.org/copyright [Accessed 19 Jan. 2017].

Bustamante, Marvin, Lesson 6 Genetic Engineering December 4. 2019

https://www.slideshare.net/marvinnbustamante1/lesson-6-genetic-
engineering

6
WEEK

1
WEEK
1-2
Recombinant DNA
Lesson 2
I
Focusing on the different purposes in research, medicine, agriculture and
other industry. Explaining the used of database in proving functional information
about the genes of interest
Likewise the timely approach of utilizing PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
in the number of laboratory and clinical techniques, detection of bacteria and
viruses(Ex. COVID 19) and diagnosis of genetic disorder is also given stress.
In this lesson, you are expected to outline the steps involved in genetic
engineering. In particular you’re tasked to give examples from DNA recombinant
technology, illustrate the use of databases to search genes for desired traits,
identify the parts of an expression vector, and explain how genes may be cloned
and expressed.
D

DI Recombinant DNA has many use in the society of today from research to
biotechnology to the medicine stocked on the shelves of pharmacy the ability to
manipulate the creation of DNA with technology has been proven to be useful in
various applications.
You are also expected to attain the following objectives: giving examples of
product from recombinant DNA technology, illustrating the used of databases to
search gene for desired traits describing steps in PCR to amplify and detect the
gene of interest, identifying the parts of expression vector, and explaining how
genes maybe cloned and expressed.
Try activating your prior knowledge on Biotechnology, Gene, Plasmid,
Cloning, Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA, Biotechnology, Polymerase
Chain Reaction and vector

Designer Baby!
In 2018, Chinese scientist He Jiankui announced that he had helped create
the world's first genetically engineered babies. Using the gene-editing tool
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) on
embryos. He Jiankui modified a gene called CCR5, which enables HIV to enter
and infect immune system cells. His goal was to engineer children that were
immune to the virus.
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/12/chinese-scientist-who-produced-genetically-
altered-babies-sentenced-3-years-jail

Learning Task 1: If you are to design a gene of your favorite fruit, how would it

7
 be?

Make a gene design of your favorite fruit using the following:

A. Unique trait
B. Donor fruit
C. Target fruit
D. Unique trait
E. Modified/added trait

Example: Mango>Papaya>Big size> Sweet>Extra big size sweet Mango

Learning Task 2: Choose the term that corresponds to the meaning below.

DNA REPLICATION CLONE DENATURE ANNEALING

TARGET GENE CATALYZE HOST CELL PRIMER
CRISPR ALTER GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

1. ______________________ a living cell invaded by or capable of being invaded

2. ______________________
3. ______________________
4. ______________________
5. ______________________
6. ______________________
7. ______________________
8. ______________________
by an infection agent ( such as bacterium or a virus)
to make a chemical happen or happens quickly).
is the process by which a molecule of DNA is
duplicated
process wherein molecules such as protein and
nucleic acids) migrate through a gel and especially a
polyacrylamide gel and separate into bands
according to size.
the particular gene being studied or manipulated in
an experiment..
an individual grown from single somatic cell or cell
nucleus and genetically identical
to change the characteristics of a substance for
example by the action of heat or acid
to make different without changing into something
else.

8
9. ______________________ a short single stranded DNA used in the
hybridization, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
10. _____________________ to heat and then cool a material (such as steel or
glass (usually for softening and making less brittle)

Recombinant DNA Technology

Recombinant DNA technology comprises altering genetic material outside an
organism to obtain enhanced and desired characteristics in living organisms or
as their products. A broad range of applications of recombinant DNA technology
has been summarized in Figure below.

When you hear the word “cloning,” you may think of the cloning of whole
organisms, such as Dolly the sheep. However, all it means to clone something is
to make a genetically exact copy of it. In a molecular biology lab, what’s most
often cloned is a gene or other small piece of DNA.
DNA cloning is the process of making multiple, identical copies of a
particular piece of DNA. In a typical DNA cloning procedure, the gene or other
DNA fragment of interest (perhaps a gene for a medically important human
protein) is first inserted into a circular piece of DNA called a plasmid. The
insertion is done using enzymes that “cut and paste” DNA, and it produces a
molecule of recombinant DNA, or DNA assembled out of fragments from multiple
sources. Once the recombinant DNA is ready to transfer to the host cell,
expression vector will function.

9
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/expression-vector

Expression vector

Elements of expression vector

An expression vector must have elements necessary for protein expression
1. A strong promoter, (lacUV) which drives a very high level of transcription, but
only under induced condition.
2. Cloning site –where cloned gene is inserted.
3. lacUV – drives a very high level of transcription, but only under induced
condition. It has the following elements: a binding site for RNA polymerase, a
binding site for the LacI repressor protein, and a transcription start site.
4. LacI gene so that high levels of repressor protein are made, thus keeping the
cloned genes repressed.
5. Transcription terminators- It enhances plasmid stability by preventing
transcription through the replication region and through other promoters located
on the plasmid.
6. This plasmid carries two useful genes, ampR, conferring resistance to the
antibiotic ampicillin and lacZ, encoding the enzyme beta-galactosidase which
catalyzes the hydrolysis of sugar

What is PCR?
➢ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a common laboratory technique used to
make many copies (millions or billions!) of a particular region of DNA. This DNA
region can be anything the experimenter is interested in.
➢ PCR is a simple, yet elegant, enzymatic assay that enables amplification of a
specific DNA fragment from a complex pool of DNA.
➢ Detecting and amplifying a gene of interest.

10
 For example, it might be a gene whose function a researcher wants to
understand, or a genetic marker used by forensic scientists to match DNA from
hair left by suspect in a crime scene. The task is to examine a particular genetic
marker and see whether any of the suspects matches the hair DNA for this
marker.
Typically, the goal of PCR is to make enough of the target DNA region that it can
be analyzed or used in some other way. For instance, DNA amplified by PCR may
be sent for sequencing, visualized by gel electrophoresis, or cloned into a plasmid
for further experiments.
PCR is used in many areas of biology and medicine, including molecular
biology research, medical diagnostics, and even some branches of ecology.

Taq polymerase
Like DNA replication in an organism, PCR requires a DNA polymerase enzyme
that makes new strands of DNA, using existing strands as templates. The DNA
polymerase typically used in PCR is called Taq polymerase, after the heat-
tolerant bacterium from which it was isolated (Thermus aquaticus).
T. aquaticus lives in hot springs and hydrothermal vents. Its DNA
polymerase is very heat-stable and is most active around 70 °\text C70°C70, °,
start text, C, end text (a temperature at which a human or E. coli DNA polymerase
would be nonfunctional). This heat-stability makes Taq polymerase ideal for PCR.
As we'll see, high temperature is used repeatedly in PCR to denature the
template DNA, or separate its strands.
PCR primers
Like other DNA polymerases, Taq polymerase can only make DNA if it's given
a primer, a short sequence of nucleotides that provides a starting point for DNA
synthesis. In a PCR reaction, the experimenter determines the region of DNA that
will be copied, or amplified, by the primers she or he chooses.
PCR primers are short pieces of single-stranded DNA, usually
around 20 nucleotides in length. Two primers are used in each PCR reaction, and
they are designed so that they flank the target region (region that should be
copied). That is, they are given sequences that will make them bind to opposite
strands of the template DNA, just at the edges of the region to be copied. The
primers bind to the template by complementary base pairing.
Steps in PCR Amplification
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a common laboratory technique used to
make many copies (millions or billions!) of a particular region of DNA. Typically,
the goal of PCR is to make enough of the target DNA region that it can be analyzed
or used in some other way. For instance, DNA amplified by PCR may be sent
for sequencing, visualized by gel electrophoresis, or cloned into a plasmid for
further experiments.

The basic steps are:

11
 1. Denaturation (96 ° C): Heat the reaction strongly to separate, or denature,
the DNA strands. This provides single-stranded template for the next step.
2. Annealing (55-65°C): Cool the reaction so the primers can bind to their
complementary sequences on the single stranded template DNA.
3. Extension (72°C): Raise the reaction temperatures so Taq polymerase (The
DNA polymerase typically used) extends the primers, synthesizing new srands of
DNA.
This cycle repeats 25 - 35 times in a typical PCR reaction, which generally
takes 2 - 4 hours, depending on the length of the DNA region being copied. If the
reaction is efficient (works well), the target region can go from just one or a few
copies to billions. That’s because it’s not just the original DNA that’s used as a
template each time. Instead, the new DNA that’s made in one round can serve as
a template in the next round of DNA synthesis. There are many copies of the
primers and many molecules of Taq polymerase floating around in the reaction,
so the number of DNA molecules can roughly double in each round of cycling.

➢ PCR Applications
What PCR does ?
• PCR is a very sensitive technique that allows rapid amplification of a specific
segment of DNA.
• PCR makes billions of copies of a specific DNA fragment or gene, which allows
detection and identification of gene sequences using visual techniques based on
size and charge.
• Modified versions of PCR have allowed quantitative measurements of gene
expression with techniques called real-time PCR.
➢ Limitations
• The DNA polymerase used in the PCR reaction is prone to errors and can lead
to mutations in the fragment generated.
• The specificity of the generated PCR product may be altered by nonspecific
binding of the primers to other similar sequences on the template DNA.
• To design primers to generate a PCR product, some prior sequence information
is usually necessary.

PCR Process
1. Primers bind to the target DNA sequences and initiate polymerisation. This can
only occur once the temperature of the solution has been lowered.
One primer binds to each strand.

2. New strands of DNA are made using the original strands as templates. A DNA
polymerase enzyme joins free DNA nucleotides together. This enzyme is often Taq

12
 polymerase, an enzyme originally isolated from a thermophilic bacteria called
Thermus aquaticus. The order in which the free nucleotides are added is
determined by the sequence of nucleotides in the original (template) DNA strand.
3. This cause melting of double stranded DNA template by breaking the hydrogen
bonds between complementary bases, yielding two single-stranded molecule
PCR Illustrations

Source: https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2347-what-is-pcr

Learning Task 4: Arrange the PCR technique using the process (1-3) and
illustration (A-C) above. Use the table below to write your answers.

13
 PCR step Process Illustration

Denaturation

Annealing

Extension

E
E
Learning Task 5: Trace the path of recombinant DNA from the cloning vector to
the expression vector by numbering the steps (1-8) in order.

14
 A

Learning Task 6:
1. Compare COVID-19 rapid test (Antigen test) and PCR test using a Venn diagram.
2. Why do you think PCR test is considered “gold standard” in SARS-CoV-2
detection?

15
 References

Suliman Khan, Muhammad Wajid Ullah, and Ghulam Nabi, Role of

Recombinant DNA to Improve Life, December 8, 2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5178364/#idm13979450
5149744title

Clark, David P., Pasdernik, Nanette J., in Biotechnology (Second Edition),

2016,. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-
professions/expression-vector

Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., and
Jackson, . B. (2011). Forensic evidence and genetic profiles. (10th ed., pp.
430-431). San Francisco, CA: Pearson. Same source
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-
regulation/biotechnology/a/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr

Lilit Garibyan1 and Nidhi Avashia2,Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2013

https://cbm.msoe.edu/markMyweb/ggpmResources/documents/pcrReview
.pdf

16
WEEK
WEEK
2
1-2
History of Life on Earth
Lesson 3
I
It’s good thing to know the facts about geological time — how long it is,
how we measure it, how we divide it up, and what we call the various periods and
epochs.
Scientists have made several attempts to date the planet over the past 400
years. Geological time scale covers a vast area of science like: biology, evolution,
paleontology, archaeology and many more. Geological time scale is indeed a
powerful tool to portray the origin and history of Earth.
This learning material will help learners in describing general features of
the history of life on Earth. Including generally accepted dates and sequence of
the geologic time scale and characteristics of major groups of organisms present
during these time periods.

D
I
D Historical geologists are scientists who study the Earth’s past. They study
clues left on the Earth to learn two main things: the order in which events
happened on Earth, and how long it took for those events to happen.
This lesson will bring us to the events that took place in our planet for the
last 4 ½ billion years. The geologic time scale is what gave us the progression of
animal and plant life on our little planet.
In particular this learning packet aims will help you in: identifying the
dates and sequence of the periods in the geologic time scale, identifying the major
events in each major period, describing the characteristics of the major groups of
organisms presents during a time period, identifying types of fossils and
describing causes of mass extinctions
Learning Task 1: A. Arrange the time scale in order and write a description of
each time scale in the table
ERA PERIOD EPOCH EON

Division of time Description

1.
2.
3.
4.
Learning task 2: Group the following time scales to their respective divisions

17
below

Precambrian Silurian
Paleozoic Permian
Mesozoic Oligocene
Cenozoic Triassic
Cambrian Devonian
Miocene Paleozoic
Carboniferous Ordovician
Cretaceous Tertiary
Jurassic Phanerozoic
Pliocene Carboniferous

EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH

1. ________________ ________________ _________________ ________________
2. ________________ ________________ _________________ ________________
3. ________________ ________________ _________________ ________________
4. ________________ ________________ _________________ ________________
5. ________________ ________________ _________________ ________________

Learning Task 3: Go Over Your Personal Timeline

Make your own personal timeline starting from your birth until the present time.
You can choose your own style of writing your timeline. Once you’re done, you
may answer the questions below.

➢ What were some events you included in your timeline?

➢ What events do you remember best?
➢ Why did you choose to include those events?
➢ What evidence do you have that an event happened when it did?
➢ What kind of information did you need to get in order to put the events in
your life in a sequence?
➢ Were there some events you weren’t sure about where to place?

18
 Chronology:
An arrangement or sequence of events over time.

Source:https://www.svsd410.org/cms/lib05/WA01919490/Centricity/Domain/1355/W
eek%206-%20Geological%20Time%20Scale.pdf

How are you going to explain the evolution of automobile design?

The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in Earth history. It
subdivides all time into named units of abstract time called—in descending order
of duration—eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages. The enumeration of those
geologic time units is based on stratigraphy, which is the correlation and
classification of rock strata. The fossil forms that occur in the rocks, however,
provide the chief means of establishing a geologic time scale, with the timing of
the emergence and disappearance of widespread species from the fossil
record being used to delineate the beginnings and endings of ages, epochs,
periods, and other intervals. One of the most widely used standard charts
showing the relationships between the various intervals of geologic time is
the International Chronostratigraphic Chart, which is maintained by
the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).
Living things play critical roles in the development of geologic time scales,
because they have undergone evolutionary changes over geologic time. Moreover,
particular kinds of organisms are characteristic of particular parts of the geologic
record. By correlating the strata in which certain types of fossils are found, the
geologic history of various regions—and of Earth as a whole—can be
reconstructed. The relative geologic time scale developed from the fossil
record has been numerically quantified by means of absolute dates obtained with
radiometric dating methods.

Biological Events Timeline: (MY = Million years before present)

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• First bacteria - 3500 MY
• Early eukaryotes - 1900-1700 MY
• Trace animal fossils - 1000 MY
• Abundant soft-bodied animals - 700 MY
• First fish - 505 MY
• Early land plants - 438 MY
• First amphibians - 370 MY
• First reptiles - 310 MY
• End Permian mass extinction event (destroyed 82% of all genera) - 245 MY
• Dinosaurs appear - 240 MY
• First mammals - 225 MY
• First birds - 200 MY
• Flowering plants appear - 140 MY
• End Cretaceous mass extinction event (including last dinosaurs); age of
mammals begins - 66 to 65 MY
• Early horses and other familiar animals - 37 MY
• Earliest humans - 2 MY
• Humans dominant - 0 MY (now)
Geological Events Timeline:
• Formation of Earth - 4600 MY
• Oldest rocks yet discovered - 3950 MY
• Significant oxygen in atmosphere - 1500 MY
• Start of formation of Appalachian Mountains - 450 MY
• Start of supercontinent Pangaea (all continents pushed together) - 360 MY
• Abundant coal-forming swamps - 320 MY
• Break-up of Pangaea begins 225 MY
• Massive volcanic activity marking opening of north Atlantic Ocean - 60 MY
• Formation of Rocky Mountains - 60 MY
• Major deformation of Alps and Himalayas - 50 MY
• Ice Age which covered much of Ohio - 1.6 MY to 10,000 years
• Hawaii (big island) eruptions start - 0.7 MY
• Eruption of Mount St. Helens - 0 MY (May 1980)
Geological Eras Information:
• Archaean Era 3600-4600 MY (origin of life, beginning of photosynthesis,
increased abundance of oxygen in atmosphere, diversification of prokaryotes)

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• Proterozoic Era 2500-3600 MY(earliest eukaryotes, trace animal fossils, first
multicellular fossils)
• Paleozoic Era 290-2500 MY
o Cambrian Period 543-2500 MY(marine animals diversify, diverse algae)
o Ordovician Period 500-543 MY(diversification of invertebrates, mass extinction at
the end of this period)
o Silurian Period 439-500 MY (earliest terrestrial vascular plants)
o Devonian Period 409-439 MY(diversification of boney fishes, mass extinction at
the end of this period)
o Carboniferous Period 354-409 MY(Gondwanaland and small northern continents
form, early winged insects, first reptiles)
o Permian Period 290-354 MY(Pangaea, glaciations, major mass extinction of
marine life at end of this period)
• Mesozoic Era 144-290 MY
o Triassic Period 251-290 MY(continents begin to separate, first dinosaurs, first
mammals)
o Jurassic Period 206-251 MY(first birds, gymnosperms dominate, evolution of
angiosperms)
o Cretaceous Period 144-206 MY(most continents separated, mass extinction at
end of period including dinosaurs)
• Cenozoic Era 0.01-144 MY
o Tertiary Period 5.2-144 MY (continents near modern positions, climate cools,
radiation of mammals, birds, snakes, pollinating insects, angiosperms)
▪ Paleocene Epoch 65-144 MY
▪ Eocene Epoch 55.6-65 MY
▪ Oligocene Epoch 33.5-55.6 MY
▪ Miocene Epoch 23.8-33.5 MY
▪ Pliocene Epoch 5.2-23.8 MY
o Quaternary Period 0.01-5.2 MY (continents in modern positions, repeated
glaciations, lowering of sea level, extinctions of large mammals, evolution of Homo
erectus and Homo sapiens, rise of agriculture)
▪ Pleistocene Epoch 1.8-5.2 MY
▪ Recent (Holocene) Epoch 0.01-1.8 MY

Defining 'Mass Extinction'

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Source:https://www.thoughtco.com/the-5-major-mass-extinctions-4018102

A “mass extinction” can be defined as a time period in which a large percentage

of all known living species go extinct. There are several causes for mass
extinctions, such as climate change, geologic catastrophes (e.g. numerous
volcanic eruptions), or even meteor strikes onto Earth’s surface. There is even
evidence to suggest that microbes may have sped up or contributed to some of
the mass extinctions known throughout the Geologic Time Scale..
Cambrian Explosion
Is the belief that there was a sudden, apparent explosion of diversity in life forms
about 545 million years ago. The explosion created the complexity of multi-celled
organisms in a relatively short time frame of 5 to 10 million years. This explosion
also created most of the major extant animal groups today.

Fossils

The coelacanths are an

ancient group of lobe-finned
fishes, with weird
appendages that take the
form of bony, fleshy,
muscular stalks. They’re
well-represented in the fossil
record all the way back to the
Devonian period!
Credits to:https://aeon.co/ideas/the-missing-fossils-matter-as-much-as-the-ones-we-have-found

22
Credits to:https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/fossil.htm
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/cyanofr.html

Pictured above (left) is a cycad leaf impression from Carlsbad, California.

It was discovered in the 75 million-year-old Point Loma Formation of coastal San
Diego County. Above (right) is cyanobacteriaum from the Bitter Springs chert of
central Australia, a site dating to the Late Proterozoic, about 850 million years
old. On the left is a colonial chroococcalean form, and on the right is the
filamentous Palaeolyngbya.

What are fossils?

Fossils are the preserved remains, or traces of remains, of ancient organisms.

Fossils are not the remains of the organism itself! They are rocks. A fossil can
preserve an entire organism or just part of one. Bones, shells, feathers, and
leaves can all become fossils.
Fossils can be very large or very small. Microfossils are only visible with a
microscope. Bacteria and pollen are microfossils. Macrofossils can be several
meters long and weigh several tons. Macrofossils can be petrified trees or
dinosaur bones.
Preserved remains become fossils if they reach an age of about 10,000 years.
Fossils can come from the Archaeaean Eon (which began almost 4 billion years
ago) all the way up to the Holocene Epoch (which continues today). The fossilized
teeth of wooly mammoths are some of our most "recent" fossils. Some of the oldest
fossils are those of ancient algae that lived in the ocean more than 3 billion years
ago.

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 Fossilization can occur in many ways. Most fossils are preserved in one of five
processes .
1. Preserved Remains
The rarest form of fossilization is the preservation of original skeletal material
and even soft tissue. For example, insects have been preserved perfectly
in amber, which is ancient tree sap. Several mammoths and even a Neanderthal
hunter have been discovered frozen in glaciers. These preserved remains allow
scientists the rare opportunity to examine the skin, hair, and organs of ancient
creatures. Scientists have collected DNA from these remains and compared the
DNA sequences to those of modern creatures.
2. Permineralization
The most common method of fossilization is permineralization. After a bone,
wood fragment, or shell is buried in sediment, it may be exposed to mineral-rich
water that moves through the sediment. This water will deposit minerals into
empty spaces, producing a fossil. Fossil dinosaur bones, petrified wood, and
many marine fossils were formed by permineralization.
3. Molds and Casts
In some cases, the original bone or shell dissolves away, leaving behind an empty
space in the shape of the shell or bone. This depression is called a mold. Later
the space may be filled with other sediments to form a matching cast in the shape
of the original organism. Many mollusks (clams, snails, octopi and squid) are
commonly found as molds and casts because their shells dissolve easily.

24
4. Replacement
In some cases, the original shell or bone dissolves away and is replaced by a
different mineral. For example, shells that were originally calcite may be replaced
by dolomite, quartz, or pyrite. If quartz fossils are surrounded by a calcite matrix,
the calcite can be dissolved away by acid, leaving behind an exquisitely preserved
quartz fossil.
5. Compression
Some fossils form when their remains are compressed by high pressure. This can
leave behind a dark imprint of the fossil. Compression is most common for fossils
of leaves and ferns, but can occur with other organisms, as well.

DATING FOSSILS
Knowing the age of a fossil can help a scientist establish its position in the
geologic time scale and find its relationship with the other fossils. There are two
ways to measure the age of a fossil: relative dating and absolute dating.
Relative Dating
➢ Based upon the study of layer of rocks
➢ Does not tell the exact age: only compare fossils as older or younger, depends on
their position in rock layer 25
➢ Fossils in the uppermost rock layer/ strata are younger while those in the
lowermost deposition are oldest How Relative Age is Determined
➢ Law of Superposition: if a layer of rock is undisturbed, the fossils found on upper
layers are younger than those found in lower layers of rocks
• However, because the Earth is active, rocks move and may disturb the layer
making this process not highly accurate

Rules of Relative Dating

1. LAW OF SUPERPOSITION: Sedimentary layers are deposited in a specific time-
youngest rocks on top, oldest rocks at the bottom
2. LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY: Deposition of rocks happen horizontally-
tilting, folding or breaking happened recently
3. C. LAW OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS: If an igneous intrusion or a fault
cuts through existing rocks, the intrusion/fault is YOUNGER than the rock it
cuts through INDEX FOSSILS (guide fossils/ indicator fossils/ zone fossils):
fossils from short-lived organisms that lived in many places; used to define and
identify geologic periods

25
 Absolute Dating
➢ Determines the actual age of the fossil
➢ Through radiometric dating, using radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and
potassium-40
➢ Considers the half-life or the time it takes for half of the atoms of the radioactive
element to decay
➢ The decay products of radioactive isotopes is stable atoms.

E
E
E
Learning Task 4: Trace the time of occurrence of different organisms millions of
years ago by reading and analyzing the picture of geological time scale below
Answer the following guide question.

Geologic Time scale (GTS)

Source: http://www.ias4sure.com/wikiias/prelims/geological-time-scale/

26
Guide questions:

1. During which eon did the first life forms exist and what were they like?
2. What period did the first vertebrate appear?
3. Were mammals and dinosaurs ever on Earth at the same time?
4. What is a “mass extinction”?
5. Who were the possible organisms greatly affected during this mass extinction?
6. What relationship do you see between the appearance of first fish and first
amphibians?.
7. Did the mass extinction 66 Mya kill off all of the bacteria, fish, amphibians,
birds, mammals, and flowering plants? How do you know?
8 If trees appeared later in the time scale, what kind of vascular plants were
present during the Devonian period?
9. How long have humans been on Earth relative to all of Earth time?
10. Why do you think first appear first before amphibians?.

Learning Task 5: Time span of Earth’s past is so great that geologists use the
geologic time scale to show Earth’s history. The geologic time scale is a record of
the geologic events and the evolution of life forms
A. Compute for the number of years each lasted using the percentage. Fill in the
table with data based from your computation.

The Divisions of Geologic Time Percent Millions of years

(mya)

The age of the Earth 100%

Cenozoic Era 1.5%

Mesozoic Era 4%

Paleozoic Era 6.5%

Precambrian Time 88%

.B. Create a pie chart to show the percentage of time each Era of geologic time

27
 represents. Use the data in the table above.

A. Guide questions:
1. Which of the era has the longest period?
2. Which has the shortest?
3. Explain the relationship of length of the era to the organisms that lived during
those times?
4. What helps the scientist determine the actual age of a fossil?
5. What does not tell the exact age of the fossil but can only compare which is older
or younger?

Learning Task 6: Match the types of fossilization each fossil underwent

28
in column A to its illustrations in column B. Write the letters only

Column A ColumnB

29
 A
Learning Task 7:Give at least 2 causes of mass extinction and explain each.

A. What are the causes of Mass Extinction during the early years of
Earth? Why?

1. ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

B. Do you think it will happen again particularly in your generation?

Why do you think so?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

30
 References

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, Geological time. June 2020

https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time

Futuyma, Douglas J. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. Evolutionary

Biology , Timeline Information, 1998
https://acad.carleton.edu/curricular/BIOL/classes/bio302/Pages/TimelineBa
ck.html

National Geographic Society. Fossils 1996-2021

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/fossil/#:~:text=Fossils%20a
re%20not%20the%20remains,leaves%20can%20all%20become%20fossils.

Provided by: Wikipedia. Located

at: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/High_School_Earth_Science/Fossils. License:
CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/earthscience/chapter/fossils/#:~:text=Mos
t%20fossils%20are%20preserved%20in,casts%2C%20replacement%2C%20and
%20compression.

31
WEEK
WEEK
3
1-2
Mechanisms of
Evolutions
Lesson 4
I
Evolution helps us understand the connection of the past to the present.
It also helps us to predict, prepare and organize the future. Just like any other
subject we study evolution to satisfy our thirst for knowledge.
Through this learning material you are expected to understand the nature
of variation of species, migration of a population, survival of a species over a
period of time and many more.
Particularly, you are expected to explain the mechanisms that produce
change in populations from generation to generation (e.g., artificial selection,
natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and recombination)

D
D
I
According to evolutionary theory, every organism from humans to beetles
to plants to bacteria share a common ancestor. Millions of years of evolutionary
pressure caused some organisms to die while others survived, leaving earth with
the diverse life forms we have today. And within this diversity is unity.
The purpose of this learning materials is to master your skills like understanding
that variation is the prerequisite and should therefore be present for any genetic
process to cause change in populations from generation to generation, stating
the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, enumerating the conditions that should be
present for a gene or in a larger scale, a population, to attain Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium, and calculating gene and genotype frequencies and derive the
Hardy-Weinberg equation.

Genetic variation is a key ingredient of evolution. Natural selection acts on

the genetic variation present in a population to remove those variants that fail to
produce offspring in a particular situation and spread those variants that are
particularly good at producing offspring. A population with no genetic variation
(in which every individual is genetically identical) cannot evolve in response to
environmental or situational changes. If, for example, a genetically uniform
population were exposed to a new pathogen and did not carry the gene versions
necessary to fend off the disease, the population could face complete extinction.
On the other hand, a population with high levels of genetic variation is much
more likely to include at least a few individuals carrying the gene versions that
provide protection from the pathogen — and, hence, to evolve in response to the
new situation instead of going extinct. A population with low genetic variation is
something of a sitting duck — vulnerable to all sorts of environmental changes
that a more variable population could persist through.

32
Learning Task 1: Scenario 1 a female cheetah mates with multiple male.
Scenario 2 a female cheetah mates with one male. Predict and fill in the boxes
with your answers

Source: https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/070701_cheetah

Vulnerability of the cubs of female Cheetah of acquiring pathogen when mate

with multiple male cheetahs or with one male cheetah.

Learning Task 2: Search for the meaning of the following terms.

1. Natural Selection 6. Genetic Variation

2. Gene Pool 7. DNA Sequence
3. Mutation 8. Genetic Drift
4. Genotype 9. Alleles
5. Variability 10. Random mating

33
 Learning Task 3: Look and analyze the picture below. What makes these dogs
different from other breed of dogs like Bull dogs, English mastiff, German
shepherd etc.? Explain your answer. infer

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/262264378278396251/

Evolution
In nature, populations are usually evolving. The grass in an open meadow, the
wolves in a forest, and even the bacteria in a person's body are all natural
populations

In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several

generations and relies on the process of natural selection.

34
 ➢ The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species? are related and
gradually change over time.
➢ Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which
organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or
behavioral traits
➢ Evolution relies on there being genetic variation in a population which affects the
physical characteristics (phenotype) of an organism.
➢ Some of these characteristics may give the individual an advantage over other
individuals which they can then pass on to their offspring.

What are the five mechanisms of Evolution?

➢ Genetic Drift
➢ Non-Random Mating
➢ Mutations
➢ Gene flow
➢ Natural Selection

Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow are the mechanisms that cause
changes in allele frequencies over time. When one or more of these forces are
acting in a population, the population violates the HardyWeinberg assumptions,
and evolution occurs
Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow, mutation, and non random mating
are the mechanisms that cause changes in allele frequencies over time. When
one or more of these forces are acting in a population, the population violates the
Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, and evolution occurs.
▪ Natural selection occurs when individuals with certain genotypes are more likely
than individuals with other genotypes to survive and reproduce, and thus to pass
on their alleles to the next generation. 0As Charles Darwin (1859) argued in On
the Origin of Species, if the following conditions are met, natural selection must
occur:
There is variation among individuals within a population in some trait.
This
variation is heritable (i.e., there is a genetic basis to the variation, such that
offspring tend to resemble their parents in this trait).
Variation in this trait is associated with variation in fitness (the average net
reproduction of individuals with a given genotype relative to that of individuals
with other genotypes).

35
 Imagine that green beetles are easier for birds to spot (and hence, eat). Brown beetles are a little more likely to
survive to produce offspring. They pass their genes for brown coloration on to their offspring. So in the next
generation, brown beetles are more common than in the previous generation.

Source:https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/search/imagedetail.php?id=315&topic_id=&ke
ywords=

▪ Mutation. Although mutation is the original source of all genetic variation,

mutation rate for most organisms is pretty low. So, the impact of brand-new
mutations on allele frequencies from one generation to the next is usually not
large. (However, natural selection acting on the results of a mutation can be a
powerful mechanism of evolution.

▪ Gene Flow
➢ Is the movement of alleles into or out of a population (immigration
or emigration).
Gene flow can introduce new alleles into a gene pool or can change allele
frequencies.
➢ The overall effect of gene flow is to counteract natural selection by
creating less differences between populations.
Example:
Plant pollen being blown into a new area

36
 Gene flow is what happens when two or more populations interbreed. This
generally increases genetic diversity. Imagine two populations of squirrels on
opposite sides of a river. The squirrels on the west side have bushier tails than
those on the east side as a result of three different genes that code for tail
bushiness. If a tree falls over the river and the squirrels are able to scamper
across it to mate with the other population, gene flow occurs. The next generation
of squirrels on the east side may have more bushy tails than those in the previous
generation, and west side squirrels might have fewer bushy tails.

Source:https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/search/imagedetail.php?id=315&topic_id=&ke
ywords

Some individuals from a population of brown beetles might have joined a

population of green beetles. That would make the genes for brown beetles more
frequent in the green beetle population.

▪ Gene Drift
➢ The change in allele frequencies as a result of chance processes.
➢ These changes are much more pronounced in small populations.
➢ Directly related to the population numbers.
➢ Smaller population sizes are more susceptible to genetic drift than larger
populations because there is a greater chance that a rare allele will be lost.
Example:
Imagine that in one generation, two brown beetles happened to have four
offspring survive to reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone
stepped on them and had no offspring. The next generation would have a few
more brown beetles than the previous generation—but just by chance. These
chance changes from generation to generation are known as genetic drift.

Source:https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/search/imagedetail.php?id=315&topic_id=&ke
ywords

1. A population of rabbits can have brown fur and white fur with brown fur being

37
 the dominant allele. By random chance, the offspring may all be brown and this
could reduce or eliminate the allele for white fur
2. A bird may have an allele for two different beak sizes. Depending on which alleles
show up in the offspring, genetic drift could cause one of the beak sizes to
disappear from the population thus reducing the genetic variation of the birds
gene pool

▪ Non-random mating
The mate selection is influenced by phenotypic differences based on underlying
genotype differences
➢ Only certain individuals can mate
➢ Gene pool is small due to this organisms

The Hardy-Weinberg principle

- states that a population’s allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant in
the absence of evolutionary mechanisms. Ultimately, the Hardy-Weinberg
principle models a population without evolution under the following conditions:
1. no mutations
2. no immigration/emigration
3. no natural selection
4. no sexual selection
5. a large population

38
 The Hardy-Weinberg equation is a mathematical equation that can be used to
calculate the genetic variation of a population at equilibrium. he equation is an
expression of the principle known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which states
that the amount of genetic variation in a population will remain constant from
one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors.
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

where p is the frequency of the "A" allele and q is the frequency of the "a" allele in
the population. In the equation, p2 represents the frequency of the homozygous
genotype AA, q2 represents the frequency of the homozygous genotype aa, and
2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype Aa. In addition, the
sum of the allele frequencies for all the alleles at the locus must be 1, so p + q =
1. If the p and q allele frequencies are known, then the frequencies of the three
genotypes may be calculated using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.

Example:
Imagine a hypothetical populations of penguins and examine one
particular phenotype … the color of their feet
Y= yellow foot allele (dominant)
y = blue foot allele (recessive)

Yellow foot (YY and Yy) and Blue foot (yy)

Calculate the frequencies of the yellow and blue in the population
Frequency (Y)
Frequency (y)
Calculate the frequencies of the three phenotypes in the population
Frequency (YY)
Frequency (Yy)
Frequency (yy)

Sample problem:
In a populations of 1000 penguins, 12 have blue feet. Find the frequency
of the blue allele, yellow allele and the frequencies of the three possible genotypes
in this population.
▪ Assign the alleles
• Frequency of the dominant allele is p
• Frequency of the recessive allele is q

39
▪ Calculate q by taking the square root of the number of homozygous recessive
individuals.
Using this formula:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

▪ Calculate p (the allele frequencies must be equal to 1, so p = (1 – q )

▪ Use p and q to calculate the other genotype frequencies:
• Frequency of homozygous dominant individuals = p2
• Frequency of heterozygous dominant individuals = 2pq
• Frequency of homozygous recessive individuals = q2

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Calculate q by taking the square root of the number of homozygous recessive

individuals. (Take note: The number of penguin with blue feet is q2 not q)

40
 E
Learning Task 4: Solve the problem using the Hardy-Weinberg principle. Show
your complete answer below.

I. A population of cats can be either black or white; the black allele (B) has complete
dominance over the white allele (b). Given a population of 1,000 cats, 840 black
and 160 white, determine the following.

1. The frequency of the dominant alleles: 𝑝

2. The frequency of the recessive alleles: 𝑞
3. The frequency of individuals with the dominant genotype: 𝑝²
4. The frequency of individuals with the heterozygous genotype: 2𝑝𝑞
5.The frequency of individuals with the recessive genotype: q2

II. The beak color of finches has a complete dominance relationship where black
beaks are dominant over yellow beaks. There are 210 individuals with the
genotype DD, 245 individuals with the genotype Dd and 45 individuals with the
genotype dd. Find: the frequency of the dominant and recessive alleles and the
frequency of individuals with dominant, heterozygous, and recessive traits. (5 pts)

Learning Task 5: Identify the following terms by arranging the jumbled letters.

1. A ____________________ is a group of individuals that can all interbreed, often

distinguished as a species. UPPIOLTANO
2. A __________________ is an individual’s collection of genes. PNGTEEOY
3. A ______ ______ is the collection of different genetic materials within an
interbreeding population. E E G N OOLP
4. The relative ___________ _____________ show the distribution of genetic variation
in a population. TGNCEEI RFQNCYEEU
5. Gene frequency________ ________________ can be defined as the fraction or
percentage of a population that carries allele (i.e., one type of a gene variant) at
a particular locus. NEEG NREUFCQYE

41
 A

Learning Task 6: Identify the mechanism of change described by each statement

below . Choose from the mechanisms inside the box.
.

Mutation Gene drift Gene pool

Natural selection Non- random mating

1. Of the two pink monkeys in the world — one male, one female — the male monkey
mates with a white female monkey. Since white is the dominant allele. Four of
their five offspring are white. Slowly through genetic drift, the instances of pink
monkeys will be eliminated.
2. A fish, the same as the reef is harder to spot. So it’s less likely to get eaten. It
has a better chance of living long enough.
3. Pollinators from a population of flowers on one side of a river transport pollen to
the flowers on the other side of the river, producing floral offspring.
4. GloFish are the only transgenic animal that has been approved for human "use"
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
5. Overtime, the fipopulation may be the same color as the reef. This is called
Natural Selection.
6. When the ends of chromosomes break and reattach, usually on their
homologous chromosome. This crossing-over process results in an unlinking and
reunion of parental genes
7. A first trimester-pregnant female underwent X-ray without notifying the
radiologist.
8. Green eyes are a recessive gene. The last green-eyed person in a small town dies,
leaving only brown-eyed and blue-eyed people. With the green eye gene gone,
people only have brown or blue eyes in the town, with brown being more
dominant.
9. Blue-eyed people from Sweden move to a small town in Mexico where people all
have brown eyes. When they mate, some of their children now have blue eyes.
10. Gray Treefrogs blend well in dark wooded areas on tree bark and Green Treefrogs
blend in well with green vegetation found in marshes

42
 References

Suliman Khan, Muhammad Wajid Ullah, and Ghulam Nabi, Role of Recombinant
DNA to Improve Life, December 8,
2016https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-
selection/hardy-weinberg-equilibrium/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-
evolution#:~:text=The%20grass%20in%20an%20open,least%20some%20of%20t
heir%20genes.&text=Sometimes%2C%20this%20type%20of%20change%20is%
20due%20to%20natural%20selection.

Suliman Khan, Muhammad Wajid Ullah, and Ghulam Nabi, Role of Recombinant
DNA to Improve Life, December 8, 2016
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/hardy-
weinberg-equilibrium/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution

Mechanisms of evolutionMechanisms of evolution (article) | Khan Academy

https//www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-
genetics/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution

Suliman Khan, Muhammad Wajid Ullah, and Ghulam Nabi, Role of Recombinant
DNA to Improve Life, December 8, 2016

https//www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-
genetics/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution

The Penguin Prof. The Hardy-Weinberg Principle: Watch your Ps and Qs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oG7ob-MtO8c&t=30

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WEEK
WEEK
4
1-2
Theories of Evolution
Lesson 5
I
Centering on study of different patterns of transmission and evolution this
learning material is developed to facilitate understanding of lifetime gradual
pattern of changes
The understanding of evolutionary science contributes to our well-being.
This also includes the cause of populations of organisms to evolve. It also focuses
the mechanisms that isolate the species to fuse.
Learners after studying this learning material will be able to show patterns
of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the organismal
diversity observed today and Trace the development of evolutionary thought.
D

D
You are expected to master the following skills : identifying or giving an
organism which can be an animal or a plant species, identify the different kind
or variants of the species.
Likewise you will be describing Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s hypothesis on
evolutionary change, discussing Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection and explaining the Modern Synthesis as the unified theory of evolution.
Freshen your prior knowledge about the terms in evolution like: allopatric,
classification, species, interbreeding sympatric, parapatric zygote, species,
isolation, inviable After you finish this material compare it with your ‘new’
knowledge.

Learning Task 1: Familiarize yourself with the needed terms in this lesson. Read
the definitions below and loop the word/answer in the puzzle.

1. occupying the same geographical range without loss of identity from

interbreeding
2. fertilized egg cell
3. used to describe the relationship between organisms whose ranges do not
significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each other;
4. represents one of several measures that can be taken to implement in infection
control: the prevention of communicable diseases from being transmitted from
a
patient to other patients,

44
5. incapable of surviving especially because of a deleterious genetic constitution
6. a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a
common
name
7. to breed within a closed population
8. incapable of surviving especially because of a deleterious genetic
constitution
9. a group of individuals tracing descent from a common ancestor
10. occurring in different geographic areas or in isolation

Isolating mechanisms
The reproductive characteristics which prevent species from fusing. Isolating
mechanisms are particularly important in the biological species concept, in
which species of sexual organisms are defined by reproductive isolation, i.e. a
lack of gene mixture. Two broad kinds of isolating mechanisms between species
are typically distinguished, together with a number of sub-types (modified from
Mayr 1970):

1) Pre-mating isolating mechanisms. Factors which cause species to mate with

their own kind (assortative mating).
a) Temporal isolation. Individuals of different species do not mate because they
are active at different times of day or in different seasons.
b) Ecological isolation. Individuals mate in their preferred habitat, and therefore

45
do not meet individuals of other species with different ecological preferences.
c) Behavioral isolation. Potential mates meet, but choose members of their own
species.
d) Mechanical isolation. Copulation is attempted, but transfer of sperm does not
take place.
2) Post-mating isolating mechanisms. Genomic incompatibility, hybrid inviability
or sterility.
a) Gametic incompatibility. Sperm transfer takes place, but egg is not fertilized.
b) Zygotic mortality. Egg is fertilized, but zygote does not develop.
c) Hybrid inviability. Hybrid embryo forms, but of reduced viability.
d) Hybrid sterility. Hybrid is viable, but resulting adult is sterile.
e) Hybrid breakdown. First generation (F1) hybrids are viable and fertile, but
further hybrid generations (F2 and backcrosses) may be inviable or sterile.
Speciation,
The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. Speciation
involves the splitting of a single evolutionary lineage into two or more genetically
independent lineages.
The biological definition of species, which works for sexually reproducing
organisms, is a group of actual or potential interbreeding individuals.
The Modes of Speciation:
A. Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation (allo – other, patric – place;
‘other place’) - occurs when some members of a population become geographically
separated from the other members thereby preventing gene flow. Examples of
geographic barriers are bodies of water and mountain ranges.

Source:https://www.slideserve.com/vanna/speciation

46
 B. Sympatric speciation (sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place
occurs when members of a population that initially occupy the same
habitat within the same range diverge into two or more different species.
It involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the reproductive
isolation of a group of individuals. Example is change in chromosome
number (polyploidization)

A diagram of the ecological speciation example given above. Note that

ecological divergence occurs first, with some birds of the original species shifting to
the new food source (‘ecological niche’) which then leads to speciation. An
important requirement for this is that gene flow is somehow (even if not totally)
impeded by the ecological divergence: this could be due to birds preferring to mate
exclusively with other birds that share the same food type; different breeding
seasons associated with food resources; or other isolating.mechanisms

C. Parapatric speciation (para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each other’) – occurs
when the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic neighbors.
Gene flow occurs but with great distances is reduced. There is also abrupt change
in the environment over a geographic border and strong disruptive selection must
also happen.

47
 The two main ways peripatric species can form. Left: The dispersal method. In
this example, there is a central ‘source’ population (orange birds on the main
island), which holds most of the distribution. However, occasionally (more
frequently than in the allopatric example above) birds can disperse over to the
smaller island, forming a (mostly) independent secondary population. If the gene
flow between this population and the central population doesn’t overwhelm the
divergence between the two populations (due to selection and drift), then a new
species (blue birds) can form despite the gene flow. Right: The range contraction
method. In this example, we start with a single widespread population (blue
lizards) which has a rapid reduction in its range. However, during this contraction
one population is separated from the main body (i.e. as a refugia), which may also
be a precursor of peripatric speciation.
Source: https://theg-cat.com/2018/11/01/the-space-for-species-how-
spatial-aspects-influence-speciation/

The Theories of Evolution

Lamarck is best known for his Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics, first presented in 1801 (Darwin's first book dealing with
natural selection was published in 1859): If an organism changes during life
in order to adapt to its environment, those changes are passed on to its
offspring. He said that change is made by what the organisms want or need.
For example, Lamarck believed that elephants all used to have short trunks.
When there was no food or water that they could reach with their short
trunks, they stretched their trunks to reach the water and branches, and
their offspring inherited long trunks. Lamarck also said that body parts that
are not being used, such as the human appendix and little toes are gradually
disappearing. Eventually, people will be born without these parts. Lamarck
also believed that evolution happens according to a predetermined plan and
that the results have already been decided.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck argued for a very different view of evolution than
Darwin's. Lamarck believed that simple life forms continually came into existence
from dead matter and continually became more complex -- and more "perfect" --

48
 as they transformed into new species. Though his views were eventually eclipsed
by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, modern scientists have
found some surprising examples of quasi-Lamarckian evolution
According to Lamarck, organisms altered their behavior in response to
environmental change. Their changed behavior, in turn, modified their organs,
and their offspring inherited those "improved" structures. For example, giraffes
developed their elongated necks and front legs by generations of browsing on high
tree leaves. The exercise of stretching up to the leaves altered the neck and legs,
and their offspring inherited these acquired characteristics.
Source: https://necsi.edu/what-lamarck-believed

Lamarck’s View
1. Internal forces of life tend to increase the size of the organism:
New structures appear because of an “inner want” of the organism, i.e., the
internal forces of life tend to increase continuously the size of an organism and
its component parts.
2. Direct environmental effect over living organisms:
The organs of an animal became modified in appropriate fashion in direct
response to a changing environment.
3. Use of disuse
4. Inheritance of acquired characteristics:
Such bodily modifications, in some manner, could be transferred and impressed
on the germ cells to affect future generation. Thus, inheritance was viewed by
Lamarck simply as the direct transmission of those superficial bodily changes
that arose within the life time of the individual owing to use or disuse (Volpe,
1985).

The theory of evolution describes what happens as the characteristics of some

individuals of a species become predominant and natural selection describes
how this predominance comes about.
The concept of natural selection was first proposed formally at a biology
conference of the Linnean Society. On July 1, 1858, a joint paper on the subject
was presented and subsequently published. It included contributions from
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
Both men wrote about the idea that natural selection contributed to earth's
evolution through the survival of organisms most suited to their environment.
Scientists at the time realized that evolution took place but did not know how
species evolved.
After this introduction of natural selection, Darwin elaborated on the subject
with his theory of evolution and his book, On the Origin of Species, published in
1859. His work with Darwin's finches and his ideas on survival of the

49
 fittest explained the mechanism of natural selection and how it could lead to a
proliferation of many different kinds of organisms.
To be an active characteristic or trait causing natural selection to take place,
the trait has to have the following features:
➢ Heritability. A trait can only influence evolution through natural selection if it
is passed on from parents to descendants.
➢ Functionality. The trait must have a function. Traits must do something
for natural selection to take place.
➢ Advantage. To be selected for passing on to descendants, the trait must confer
an advantage on the organism that has it, or make the organism more fit for
survival in its environment.
➢ Origin. The trait must have caused the organisms to evolve because it made the
organisms that had it more fit for survival. If the organisms changed due to
another mechanism, such as genetic mutation, it was not due to natural
selection.
Modern Synthesis
The Modern Synthesis describes the fusion (merger) of
Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution that resulted in a unified theory of
evolution. It is sometimes referred to as the Neo-Darwinian theory. The Modern
Synthesis was developed by a number of now-legendary evolutionary biologists
in the 1930s and 1940s.
The Modern Synthesis introduced several changes in how evolution and
evolutionary processes were conceived. It proposed a new definition of evolution
as "changes in allele frequencies within populations , " thus emphasizing the
genetic basis of evolution. (Alleles are alternate forms of the same gene,
characterized by differences in DNA sequence that result in the construction of
proteins that differ in amino acid composition.) Four forces of evolution were
identified as contributing to changes in allele frequencies. These are
a. random
b. genetic drift, gene flow,
c. mutation pressure, and
d. natural selection .
Of these, natural selection—by which the best-adapted organisms have
the highest survival rate—is the only evolutionary force that makes organisms
better adapted to their environments. Genetic drift describes random changes in
allele frequencies in a population. It is particularly powerful in small populations.
Gene flow describes allele frequency changes due to the immigration and
emigration of individuals from a population. Mutation is a weak
evolutionary force but is crucial because all genetic variation arises
originally from mutation, alterations in the DNA sequences resulting from
errors during replication or other factors. The Modern Synthesis
recognized that the majority of mutations are deleterious (have a harmful
effect), and that mutations that are advantageous usually have a

50
 small phenotypic effect. Advantageous mutations may be incorporated
into the population through the process of natural selection. Changes in
species therefore occur gradually through the accumulation of small
changes. The large differences that are observed between species involve
gradual change over extensive time periods. Speciation (the formation of
new species) results from the evolution of reproductive isolation, often
during a period of allopatry , in which two populations are isolated from
one another.

E E
E
Learning Task 2: Tell whether the following speciation is allopatric,
sympatric or parapatric. Explain your answer.

1. Two species of butterflies are found in Northern Michigan, but one species is
found only year near the river and streams the other near lake
2. Due to grand canyon, the squirrel population was separated from each other by
this geographic change and could no longer live in the same area.
3. A group of bears was separated when the landmass they were living split up. One
group eventually became black and brown bears the other polar bears
4. Plants that live on boundaries between very distinct climates may flower at
different times in response to their different environments, making them unable
to interbreed.
5. In which theory of speciation does a new species emerge from within the
geographic range of its ancestor?

51
 Learning Task 3: 1. Research 5 similar species with different
characteristics.

Learning Task 4: Give at least 2 examples of species in each premating

isolation mechanism

52
 Learning Task 5: A. The two illustrations below explain the theories
originated by two scientist in evolution. Fill in the table completely to clearly
explain their concepts.

B. Give at least 5 more examples of organisms for each theory

Natural Selection Theory
Characteristics
1. _________________________
2. _________________________
3. _________________________
4. _________________________
5. _________________________
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________

53
 Learning Task 6. Write Lamarckism if the statement explains theory of
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. Otherwise Darwinism if it explains
the theory of Natural Selection.
_ ____________1. Aquatic birds like ducks have been evolved from the terrestrial
ancestors. Since they had to go to water due to lack of food, etc., some structures
like web between the toes developed in them, so that they could live in water
easily. The wings were not used for flying as they were not needed, and later on
they got reduce.

____________2. Life by its own force, tends to increase the volume of all organs
which possess the force of life, and the force of life extends the dimensions of
those parts up to an extent that those parts bring to themselves;
____________3.A species of rats live in a certain type of tree with the branches
evenly spaced. Smaller rats could not reach from branch to branch and larger
rats would break the branches and fall. Soon, all rats were just the right size for
the tree branches
____________4. Deer mice that migrated to the sand hills of Nebraska changed
from dark brown to light brown to better hide from predators in the sand.
____________5. Galapagos finches all have different types of beaks. During
drought, the finches with the larger beaks survived better than those with smaller
beaks. During rainy times, more small seeds were produced and the finches with
smaller beaks fared better.
____________6. All that has been acquired, traced, or changed, in the physiology
of individuals, during their life, is conserved through the genesis, reproduction,
and transmitted to new individuals who are related to those who have undergone
those changes.
_____________7. The production of a new organ in an animal body, results from a
new requirement arising. and which continues to make itself felt, and a new
movement which that requirement gives birth to, and its upkeep/maintenance;
_____________8. In one ecosystem, lizards that had long legs could climb better to
avoid floods and reach food
______________9. The development of the organs, and their ability, are constantly
a result of the use of those organs.
______________10. Deep sea fishes present at the bottom of sea where there is no
sunlight, led an inactive life, lying on one side of the body. The eye of that side
(lying towards bottom) migrated towards upper side and, thus both eyes are on
one side of the body.

54
 A

Learning task 7: Tell whether the following statements are True or False
1. The synthetic theory of evolution is based at least in part on an acceptance of
natural selection as a cause of evolution.
2. "The sum total of the genetically inherited changes in the individuals who are
members of a population" is a description of evolution.
3. (p² + 2pq + q²= 1) The equation allows you to discover the phenotypic frequency
only. .
4. Population genetics and the synthetic theory of evolution were developed
mostly in the 19th century.
5. "Synthetic theory of evolution" refers to combination of Charles Darwin's
concept of natural selection along with evolutionary theories developed in the
20th century by population geneticists and molecular biologists
6. Natural selection is not occurring.
7. Evolution is a common occurrence in natural populations
8. Mutations that are advantageous usually have a small phenotypic effect
9. Modern Synthesis describes the fusion (merger) of Mendelian genetics with
Darwinian evolution.
10. Changes in species therefore occur gradually through the accumulation of
small changes.

55
 References

J.L.B.M. (JLB Mallet) Mayr E. (1970) Populations, Species, and Evolution.

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
http://abacus.gene.ucl.ac.uk/jim/Sp/isolmech.html

THE GCATBLOG, The space for species: how spatial aspects influence
speciation November 1, 2018 https://theg-cat.com/2018/11/01/the-space-for-
species-how-spatial-aspects-influence-speciation/

New England Complex System Institute, What Lamarck Belived

https://necsi.edu/what-lamarck-
believed#:~:text=Lamarck%20is%20best%20known%20for,passed%20on%20to
%20its%20offspring.

Yeh, Jennifer, “Modern Synthesis”.2020 https://sciencing.com/natural-

selection-definition-darwins-theory-examples-facts-13719065.html

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/theories/lamarckism-theory-of-
inheritance-of-acquired-characters/23321

56
Department of Education Division Rizal

Address: DepEd Bldg., Cabrera Rd., Bgy. Dolores, Taytay, Rizal 1920

Telephone number: 09274562115/09615294771

57