DNA SEQUENCING

STEPS OF GENETIC
RECOMBINATION TECHNOLOGY
1. ISOLATION OF GENETIC
MATERIAL
2. RESTRICTION ENZYME
DIGESTION
3. AMPLIFICATION USING PCR
4. LIGATION OF DNA MOLECULES
5. INSERTION OF RECOMBINANT
DNA INTO HOST
6. ISOLATION OF RECOMBINANT
CELLS
APPLICATION OF RECOMBINANT
DNA TECHNOLOGY
LIMITATIONS OF RECOMBINANT
DNA TECHNOLOGY
 DNA SEQUENCING
• process of determining the nucleic acid
sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA
• includes any method or technology that is
used to determine the order of the four
bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine
• The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods
has greatly accelerated biological and
medical research and discovery
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 DNA SEQUENCING
• biological research, DNA Genographic Projects
and in numerous applied fields such as medical
diagnosis, biotechnology, forensic biology,
virology and biological systematics.
• first DNA sequences were obtained in the early
1970s by academic researchers using laborious
methods based on two-dimensional
chromatography.
• Following the development of fluorescence-based
sequencing methods with a DNA sequencer, DNA
sequencing has become easier and orders of 4
 BASIC METHODS
• Maxam-Gilbert sequencing
• Chain-termination methods

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 MAXAM-GILBERT SEQUENCING
• Maxam and Walter Gilbert published a DNA
sequencing method in 1977 based on chemical
modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at
specific bases
• chemical sequencing
• allowed purified samples of double-stranded DNA
to be used without further cloning
• use of radioactive labeling and its technical
complexity discouraged extensive use after
refinements in the Sanger methods had been made
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 MAXAM-GILBERT SEQUENCING
• requires radioactive labeling at one 5' end of
the DNA and purification of the DNA fragment to
be sequenced
• Chemical treatment then generates breaks at a
small proportion of one or two of the four
nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G,
A+G, C, C+T)
• The concentration of the modifying chemicals is
controlled to introduce on average one
modification per DNA molecule
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 MAXAM-GILBERT SEQUENCING
• series of labeled fragments is generated, from the
radiolabeled end to the first "cut" site in each
molecule
• fragments in the four reactions are electrophoresed
side by side in denaturing acrylamide gels for size
separation
• To visualize the fragments, the gel is exposed to
X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding a series
of dark bands each corresponding to a radiolabeled
DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be
inferred 8
 CHAIN-TERMINATION METHODS
• developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in
1977 soon became the method of choice, owing to
its relative ease and reliability
• When invented, the chain-terminator method used
fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of
radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method
• Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger
method was soon automated and was the method
used in the first generation of DNA sequencers.
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 CHAIN-TERMINATION METHODS
• Sanger sequencing is the method which prevailed
from the 1980s until the mid-2000s
• Over that period, great advances were made in
the technique, such as fluorescent labelling,
capillary electrophoresis, and general
automation
• These developments allowed much more efficient
sequencing, leading to lower costs

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 CHAIN-TERMINATION METHODS
• The Sanger method, in mass production form, is
the technology which produced the first human
genome in 2001, ushering in the age of
genomics.
• However, later in the decade, radically
different approaches reached the market,
bringing the cost per genome down from $100
million in 2001 to $10,000 in 2011

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NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING (NGS)

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 12

 NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING (NGS)
• Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) is a powerful
platform that has enabled the sequencing of
thousands to millions of DNA molecules
simultaneously.
• Next-generation sequencing (NGS), also known as
high-throughput sequencing, is the catch-all
term used to describe a number of different
modern sequencing technologies.

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 NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING (NGS)
• The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven the
development of high-throughput sequencing which
produce thousands or millions of sequences at once.
• They are intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing
beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator
methods.
• Thus, these recent technologies allow us to sequence
DNA and RNA much more quickly and cheaply than the
previously used Sanger sequencing, and as such have
revolutionized the study of genomics and molecular
biology.
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 NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING (NGS)
• Classified to different generations, NGS has led to
overcome the limitations of conventional DNA
sequencing methods and has found usage in a wide range
of molecular biology applications.
First Generation  Third Generation Sequencing
• Sanger Sequencing • Single Molecule Fluorescent Sequencing
Second Generation Sequencing • Single Molecule Real Time Sequencing
• Pyrosequencing • Semiconductor Sequencing
• Sequencing by Reversible • Nanopore Sequencing
Terminator Chemistry Fourth Generation Sequencing
• Sequencing by Ligation • Aims conducting genomic analysis directly
•   in the cell.
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 IMPORTANT NEXT GENERATION
SEQUENCING TECHNIQUES
Lynx therapeutics’ massively parallel signature
sequencing (MPSS)

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 LYNX THERAPEUTICS’ MASSIVELY
PARALLEL SIGNATURE SEQUENCING (MPSS)
• It is considered as the first of the “next-
generation” sequencing technologies.
• MPSS was developed in the 1990s at Lynx Therapeutics,
a company founded in 1992 by Sydney Brenner and Sam
Eletr.
• MPSS is an ultra high throughput sequencing
technology.
• When applied to expression profile, it reveals almost
every transcript in the sample and provide its
accurate expression level.

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 LYNX THERAPEUTICS’ MASSIVELY
PARALLEL SIGNATURE SEQUENCING (MPSS)
• MPSS was a bead-based method that used a complex
approach of adapter ligation followed by adapter
decoding, reading the sequence in increments of four
nucleotides; this method made it susceptible to
sequence-specific bias or loss of specific sequences.
• However, the essential properties of the MPSS output
were typical of later “next-gen” data types,
including hundreds of thousands of short DNA
sequences.
• In the case of MPSS, these were typically used for
sequencing cDNA for measurements of gene expression
levels. 19
POLONY SEQUENCING

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 POLONY SEQUENCING
• It is an inexpensive but highly accurate multiplex
sequencing technique that can be used to read millions
of immobilized DNA sequences in parallel.
• This technique was first developed by Dr. George
Church in Harvard Medical college.
• It combined an in vitro paired-tag library with
emulsion PCR, an automated microscope, and ligation-
based sequencing chemistry to sequence an E. coli
genome at an accuracy of > 99.9999% and a cost
approximately 1/10 that of Sanger sequencing.

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PYRO SEQUENCING

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 PYRO SEQUENCING
• A parallelized version of pyrosequencing was developed
by 454 Life Sciences, which has since been acquired by
Roche Diagnostics.
• The method amplifies DNA inside water droplets in an
oil solution (emulsion PCR), with each droplet
containing a single DNA template attached to a single
primer-coated bead that then forms a clonal colony.
• The sequencing machine contains many picolitre-volume
wells each containing a single bead and sequencing
enzymes.

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 PYRO SEQUENCING
• uses luciferase to generate light for detection
of the individual nucleotides added to the
nascent DNA, and the combined data are used to
generate sequence read-outs.
• This technology provides intermediate read
length and price per base compared to Sanger
sequencing on one end and Solexa and SOLiD on
the other.

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ILLUMINA (SOLEXA) SEQUENCING

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 ILLUMINA (SOLEXA) SEQUENCING
• Solexa developed a sequencing technology based on dye
terminators.
• In this method, DNA molecule are first attached to
primers on a slide and amplified. This is known as
bridge amplification.
• Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA can only be extended
one nucleotide at a time.
• A camera takes images of the fluorescently labeled
nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3′
blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing
the next cycle to commence.
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 SOLID
SEQUENCING

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 SOLID
SEQUENCING

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 SOLID SEQUENCING
• SOLiD
• The technology for sequencing used in ABISolid
sequencing is oligonucleotide ligation and detection.
• In this, a pool of all possible oligonucleotides of
fixed length are labelled according to the sequenced
position.
• This sequencing results to the sequences of quantities
and lengths comparable to illumine sequencing.

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NA NANOBALL
SEQUENCING

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 DNA NANOBALL SEQUENCING
• high throughput sequencing technology that is used to
determine the entire genomic sequence of an organism.
• The method uses rolling circle replication to amplify
fragments of genomic DNA molecules.
• allows large number of DNA nanoballs to be sequenced
per run and at low reagent cost compared to other next
generation sequencing platforms.
• only short sequences of DNA are determined from each
DNA nanoball which makes mapping the short reads to a
reference genome difficult.
• used for multiple genome sequencing projects and is
scheduled to be used for more. 31
 HELIOSCOPE SINGLE MOLECULE
SEQUENCING
• Helioscope sequencing uses DNA fragments with added
polyA tail adapters, which are attached to the flow
cell surface.
• The next steps involve extension-based sequencing with
cyclic washes of the flow cell with fluorescently
labeled nucleotides.
• The reads are performed by the Helioscope sequencer.
• The reads are short, up to 55 bases per run, but
recent improvement of the methodology allows more
accurate reads of homopolymers and RNA sequencing.

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SINGLE MOLECULE SMRT SEQUENCING

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 SINGLE MOLECULE SMRT SEQUENCING
• SMRT sequencing is based on the sequencing by
synthesis approach.
• The DNA is synthesisd in so called zero-mode wave-
guides (ZMWs) – small well-like containers with the
capturing tools located at the bottom of the well.
• The sequencing is performed with use of unmodified
polymerase and fluorescently labelled nucleotides
flowing freely in the solution.
• The wells are constructed in a way that only the
fluorescence occurring by the bottom of the well is
detected.
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 SINGLE MOLECULE SMRT SEQUENCING
• The fluorescent label is detached from the
nucleotide at its incorporation into the
DNA strand, leaving an unmodified DNA
strand.
• The SMTR technology allows detection of
nucleotide modifications. This happens
through the observation of polymerase
kinetics.
• This approach allows reads of 1000
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SINGLE MOLECULE REAL TIME (RNAP)
SEQUENCING

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 SINGLE MOLECULE SMRT SEQUENCING
• This method is based on RNA polymerase (RNAP), which
is attached to a polystyrene bead, with distal end of
sequenced DNA is attached to another bead, with both
beads being placed in optical traps.
• RNAP motion during transcription brings the beads in
closer and their relative distance changes, which can
then be recorded at a single nucleotide resolution.
• The sequence is deduced based on the four readouts
with lowered concentrations of each of the four
nucleotide types.

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