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Society The Basics 14th Edition
Macionis Solutions Manual

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Macionis, Society: The Basics, 14/e
Chapter 7
Deviance
Contents
Author’s Note
Additional Content in REVEL
Learning Objectives
Detailed Chapter Outline
REVEL Media
John’s Chapter Close-Up: The Chapter Power of Society Figure
John’s Personal Video Selection: The Criminalization of the Mentally Ill
Research for a Cutting-Edge Classroom
Using ASA Journal Teaching Sociology in Your Classroom
Supplemental Lecture Material
• The Elevation of a Hero
• Women in Prison
• Gun Control and Crime Control: The Same Issue?
• Copycat Crime
Essay Topics
Author’s Note for Chapter 7
There are two halves to this chapter. The first half of the chapter (pp. 176–189) focuses on the
concept of deviance. This half of the chapter is largely theoretical and is concerned with
explaining what deviance is and how it comes to exist. The key ideas are as follows:
 Deviance is socially constructed. My experience is that most students come to the course
thinking, more or less, that deviance refers to the specific behaviors that everyone knows
are wrong. The chapter conveys sociology’s major lesson that deviance is created by
society.
 There are biological and psychological theories of deviance. They have value. But, as this
chapter explains (pp. 177–178), both these approaches treat deviance as a trait of
individuals; deviance has more to do with the organization of society. Another way to say
this is that most of what comes to be seen as deviance is carried out by people who are,
biologically and psychologically speaking, quite normal.
 The social foundation of deviance has three parts, and these are presented on pages
178–179. Each of these parts refers to one the sociology’s major theoretical approaches.
 Structural-functional theories appear first, followed by symbolic-interaction theories, and
then social-conflict theories including race-conflict and feminist theories. I have always
enjoyed teaching deviance because, unlike some topics in the discipline that seem to be
most effectively taught from one or another theoretical orientation, this topic allows rich
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 107

and diverse insights by applying each of the approaches. What all of the theories share, of
course, is the premise that deviance is created as part of social life.
The second half of the chapter (pp. 189–200) deals with the concept of crime. Crime is a
more straightforward matter of law violation. Technically, crime is a subcategory of deviance
because most deviance is not criminal. On the other hand, most but not all crime is deviant
because some crime (such as victimless crimes or violation of outmoded statutes) falls outside of
what most people would consider to be deviant. This half of the chapter, then, presents data on
the extent of known violations accepting the definitions used by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation. Points to emphasize include:
 There are two categories of “serious” or “index” crime used in crime statistics. Crimes
against the person show different patterns than crimes against property.
 Data reflect crimes known to the police. Some cautionary comments about interpreting
such data are found on page 190.
 FBI data and sociological research give us a good profile of those arrested for crime. Such
data do not reflect all crimes (many or most of which are not cleared by arrest), nor do
they allow for the fact that some arrested persons are not guilty of the crime for which
they have been arrested.
 In global perspective, the United States has a relatively high crime rate (see pages 193–
194).
 The operation of the criminal justice system is covered on pages 195–200. Many
aspects of the system—from the behavior of police to plea-bargaining to the use of the
death penalty—involve controversy. Most of these topics will support lively class
discussions.
Additional Content in REVEL
REVEL is the electronic version of this text that provides interactive learning, student learning
assessment, and additional readings and engaging video—at remarkably low cost. All of the
REVEL content has been developed by John Macionis and is seamlessly integrated into the text.
For each chapter, REVEL expands and deepens student learning with rich content including:
In Greater Depth—This interactive graphic allows students to go deeper into the Power of
Society figure at the beginning of the chapter, in this case analyzing illegal drug use in terms of
gender.
Video—REVEL provides students with short videos that present key concepts in engaging ways.
In this chapter, students can access “The Big Picture: Deviance” and a short video applying
sociological theory to deviance.
Surveys—These interactive exercises ask students to assess the extent to which they “break the
rules,” how serious they find the crime problem to be, and students’ own experience as victims of
crime.

In Review—These interactive “drag and drop” exercises allow students to assess their learning
and also to have fun. In this chapter, In Review exercises focus on Merton’s strain theory of
deviance and also the four justifications of punishment.
Boxed Features—Find additional boxed features not available in the printed book, in this case a
Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life box on whether our culture is saying that it is okay to break
the rules.
Video—REVEL provides students with short videos that present key concepts in engaging ways.
In this chapter, students can access “Sociology in Focus: Deviance,” a short video on labeling
theory.
Journals—Short student writing exercises. This chapter’s journals to consider their own
experiences being labeled as deviant, to reflect on the link between deviance and power,
and to share their assessment of the U.S. criminal justice system.
Diversity—These interactive graphics focus on race, class, and gender. This chapter’s diversity
graphics highlight the differing risk of occupational fatality for various categories of the U.S.
population, the risk of being the victim of a hate crime for various categories of people, crime
rates by race, and rates of incarceration by race and gender.
Surveys—These interactive exercises ask students to assess the own attitudes and behavior and
compare themselves to others in the United States or to populations in other countries. This
chapter’s surveys ask students to assess the size of the crime problem in the United States, to rate
their level of confidence in the police, and to assess the performance of police.
A Global Perspective—These interactive graphics focus on global patterns, in this case showing
incarceration rates for nations around the world.
Read the Document—These primary readings allow students to read important sociologists in
their own words. All readings have been carefully chosen and edited to provide rich learning
accessible to all students. This chapter’s reading is Jeffrey Reiman’s “The Rich Get Richer, The
Poor Get Prison.”
_____________________________________________________________________________
Learning Objectives
 7.1 Explain how sociology addresses limitations of a biological or psychological

approach to deviance.
 7.2 Apply structural-functional theories to the topic of deviance.
 7.3 Apply symbolic-interaction theories to the topic of deviance.
 7.4 Apply social-conflict theories to the topic of deviance.
 7.5 Identify patterns of crime in the United States and around the world.
 7.6 Analyze the operation of the criminal justice system.
____________________________________________________________________________

Detailed Chapter Outline
I. What Is Deviance?
L.O. 7.1: Explain how sociology addresses limitations of a biological or psychological approach
to deviance.
A. Deviance is defined as the recognized violation of cultural norms. What deviant
actions or attitudes have in common is some element of difference that causes us to
regard another person as an “outsider.”
1. One category of deviance is crime, or the violation of a society’s formally
enacted criminal law.
2. The Big Picture: Deviance. Deviance is the topic of this video. It explains that
deviance is a violation of cultural norms. Norms are guidelines or
expectations for how we should behave in our day-to-day lives. Deviance is
relative and varies according to social norms.
B. Deviance calls forth social control, attempts by society to regulate people’s thoughts
and behavior.
1. The criminal justice system is the organizations—police, courts, and prison
officials—that respond to alleged violations of the law.
C. The biological context.
1. Genetic research seeks possible links between biology and crime.
D. Personality factors.
1. Reckless and Dinitz’s (1967) containment theory suggests that strong moral
standards and positive self-image can keep boys from becoming delinquent.
2. Critical review. Most crimes are committed by people who are
psychologically normal.
E. The social foundations of deviance:
1. Deviance varies according to cultural norms.
2. People become deviant as others define them that way.
3. Both norms and the way people define rule-breaking involve social power.
II. The Functions of Deviance: Structural-Functional Theories

L.O. 7.2: Apply structural-functional theories to the topic of deviance.
A. Emile Durkheim (1893, 1895): The functions of deviance:
1. Deviance affirms cultural values and norms.
a. Social Inequalities: Deviance. Deviance is a failure to conform to the
norms of a society. In this video, deviance is discussed as something that
occurs in every culture and can be an impetus for social change.
2. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries.
3. Responding to deviance promotes social unity.
4. Deviance encourages social change.
5. Kai Erikson’s (1966) classic study of the Puritans of Massachusetts Bay brings
Durkheim’s theory to life.
B. Merton’s strain theory (1938, 1968).

1. The “strain” between our culture’s emphasis on wealth and the limited
opportunity to get rich gives rise, especially among the poor, to theft, the sale
of drugs, or other street crime.
2. Merton’s four types of deviance (responses to failure):
a. Innovation.
b. Ritualism.
c. Retreatism.
d. Rebellion.
C. Deviant subcultures.
1. Cloward and Ohlin (1966) extended Merton’s theory, proposing that access
to illegitimate opportunities for success is also problematic. As a result of
this, three different types of delinquent subcultures may arise:
a. Criminal subcultures.
b. Conflict subcultures.
c. Retreatist subcultures.
2. Albert Cohen (1955) suggests that delinquency is most pronounced in lower-class
youths because they have the least opportunity to achieve conventional success.
3. According to Walter Miller (1958), deviant subcultures are characterized by:
a. Trouble.
b. Toughness.
c. Smartness.
d. A need for excitement.
e. A belief in fate.
f. A desire for freedom.
4. SOCIOLOGY IN FOCUS: Deviant Subculture: Has It Become OK to Break
the Rules? This box presents evidence that at least some people are less likely
today to play according to the rules.
D. Critical review.
1. Durkheim’s work remains important, but communities do not always come
together in reaction to crime.
2. Merton’s theory explains some types of crime better than others and ignores
the fact that not everyone seeks success in conventional terms of wealth.
3. The general argument that deviance reflects the opportunity structure of
society falls short in assuming that everyone shares the same cultural
standards for judging right and wrong; focuses undue attention on the
behavior of the poor; and falsely implies that everyone who breaks the rules
will be defined as deviant.
III. Labeling Deviance: Symbolic-Interaction Theories

L.O. 7.3: Apply symbolic-interaction theories to the topic of deviance.
A. Labeling theory is the idea that deviance and conformity result, not so much from
what people do, but from how others respond to those actions.
1. Primary deviance refers to passing episodes of norm violation that have little
effect on the self; and secondary deviance is when an individual repeatedly
violates a norm and begins to take on a deviant identity.

2. Stigma is a powerfully negative social label that radically changes a

person’s self-concept and social identity, operating as a master status.
a. Stigmas are often attached in formal rituals called degradation
ceremonies.
b. Sociology in Focus: Deviance. This video introduces the topic of social
deviance. Most people follow social norms, such as acceptable ways to
behave in a social group. Social deviance is a violation of these norms,
which can lead to serious consequences when the violations are extreme.
3. Stigmas are deepened by retrospective labeling, the interpretation of
someone’s past consistent with present deviance. People may also engage in
projective labeling, or the tendency to base future behavior on the current
deviant episode.
4. Labeling difference as deviance: Thomas Szasz (1961) argues that “mentally
ill” is a label we attach to people who are only different and concludes that
we should abandon the concept of mental illness entirely.
B. The medicalization of deviance is the transformation of moral and legal issues into a
medical condition.
1. Whether deviance is defined morally or medically has three profound
consequences.
a. It affects who responds to deviance.
b. It affects how people respond to deviance.
c. It affects whether the deviant is regarded as being personally competent.
C. Edwin Sutherland’s (1940) differential association theory suggests that all deviance is
learned in groups.
D. Hirschi’s (1969) control theory.
1. Control theory states that social control depends on imagining the
consequences of one’s behavior.
2. Hirschi asserts that conformity arises from four types of social controls:
a. Attachment.
b. Commitment.
c. Involvement.
d. Belief.
E. Critical review.
1. Labeling theory is most applicable to minor forms of deviance.
2. The consequences of deviant labeling may vary.
3. Not everyone resists deviant labeling.
IV. Deviance and Inequality: Social-Conflict Theories

L.O. 7.4: Apply social-conflict theories to the topic of deviance.
A. Principles of deviance and power:
1. The norms of any society generally reflect the interests of the rich and
powerful.
2. The powerful have the resources to resist deviant labeling.
3. The laws may be inherently unfair.

B. Deviance and capitalism: Steven Spitzer (1980) suggests that deviant labels are chiefly
applied to those who impede the operation of capitalism.
C. White-collar crime consists of crimes committed by persons of high social position in
the course of their occupations.
1. It is usually controlled by civil rather than criminal law.
2. Most white-collar criminals are treated leniently.
D. Corporate crime refers to the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its
behalf.
E. Organized crime is a business supplying illegal goods or services.
F. Critical review.
1. Social-conflict analysis falsely assumes that laws benefit only the rich.
2. It implies that crime arises only in societies that treat their members
unequally.
V. Deviance, Race, and Gender: Race-Conflict and Feminist Theories

L.O. 7.5: Identify patterns of crime in the United States and around the world.
A. Hate crimes are criminal acts carried out against a person or a person’s property by
an offender motivated by racial or other bias.
B. Gender is an important variable affecting deviant labeling and other aspects of deviant
behavior.
1. THINKING ABOUT DIVERSITY: RACE, CRIME, AND GENDER BOX
(p. 188): Hate Crime Laws: Should We Punish Attitudes as Well as Actions?
The box provides two sides of the debate over the policy of more severely
punishing crimes motivated by hate.
VI. Crime
L.O. 7.6: Analyze the operation of the criminal justice system.
A. Crime involves two components, the act itself (actus reus) and criminal intent (mens
rea).
B. Types of crime:
1. Crimes against the person involve direct violence or the threat of violence
against others.
2. Crimes against property involve theft of property belonging to others.
3. Victimless crimes are violations of law in which there are no readily
apparent victims.
C. SEEING OURSELVES (p. 190)—National Map 7–1:The Risk of Violent Crime
across the United States. The risk of becoming a victim of violent crime is highest in
low-income, rural counties that have a large population of men between the ages of
fifteen and twenty-four.
D. How Are Crime and Punishment Distributed Across the United States? This discovery
exercise gives students the opportunity to look at how the risk of becoming a victim of
violent crime varies across the United States. In addition, they will examine another
important dimension of the crime issue—where our society locates its prisons.
E. Criminal statistics show crime rising between 1960 and 1990, but declining since then.

1. Official statistics are compiled by the FBI and published as the Uniform
Crime Report, or UCR.
2. Victimization surveys may provide more accurate data.
F. The “street” criminal: A profile.
1. Age. Official crime rates rise sharply during adolescence and peak in the late
teens, falling thereafter.
2. Gender. Men are arrested more than twice as often as women for property
crimes. In the case of violent crimes, the disparity is even greater, with a five-
to-one ratio.
3. Social class. Street crime is more widespread among people of lower social
position. Yet the link between class and crime is more complicated than it
appears on the surface.
4. Race and ethnicity. Both race and ethnicity are strongly correlated to crime
rates, although the reasons are many and complex.
E. Crime in Global Perspective: The U.S. crime rate is high. Two factors which may help
to explain this are:
1. Our culture’s emphasis on individual economic success.
2. The extensive private ownership of guns.
F. WINDOW ON THE WORLD: Global Map 7–1 (p. 194)─Capital Punishment in
Global Perspective. The death penalty does not exist in ninety-eight countries and
territories. In general, high-income nations do not have a death penalty, with a major
exception being the United States.
VII. The U.S. Criminal Justice System

A. Due Process.
1. The criminal justice system must operate within the bounds of the law. The
concept of due process means that anyone charged with a crime must receive:
a. fair notice of the proceedings.
b. a hearing on the charges conducted according to law and with the ability to
present a defense.
c. a judge or jury that weighs evidence impartially.
B. Police.
1. The police serve as the primary point of contact between the population and
the criminal justice system.
2. Police quickly size up a situation in terms of six factors:
a. How serious is the alleged crime?
b. What is the victim’s preference?
c. Is the suspect cooperative or not?
d. Have they arrested the suspect before?
e. Are bystanders present?
f. What is the suspect’s race?
C. Courts.
1. Plea bargaining is a legal negotiation in which the prosecution reduces a
defendant’s charge in exchange for a guilty plea.

2. Trend to Lighten Harsh Sentences Catches On in Conservative States, by

Charlie Savage. While liberals have long criticized as unjust harsh mandatory
minimum sentences for nonviolent offenses such as drug possession,
conservatives have historically supported such measures. With the recent
economic recession, however, conservatives have increasingly advocated for
loosening of such mandatory sentencing, but for a different reason—to save
money. Students can consider the pros and cons of current incarceration
policies in light of the evidence presented in this article.
D. Punishment: Four basic reasons to punish:
1. Retribution is an act of moral vengeance by which society subjects an
offender to suffering comparable to that caused by the offense.
2. Deterrence is the attempt to discourage criminality through punishment.
a. Specific deterrence demonstrates to the individual offender that crime does
not pay.
b. In general deterrence, the punishment of one person serves as an example
to others.
3. Rehabilitation involves reforming the offender to prevent subsequent
offenses.
4. Societal protection is rendering an offender incapable of further offenses
temporarily through incarceration or permanently by execution.
5. Critical review:
a. Punishment deters some crime, yet our society has a high rate of criminal
recidivism, the subsequent offenses by people convicted of crimes.
b. The death penalty has limited value as a general deterrent.
c. Prisons do little to reshape attitudes or behavior in the long term.
E. Com m unity-Based Corrections.
1. Community-based corrections are correctional programs located within
society at large rather than behind prison walls. Such programs have the
advantage of reducing prison overcrowding, reducing costs, and allowing for
supervision of convicts, while eliminating the stigmatizing hardships of
prison life.
2. One form of community-based corrections is probation: a policy of permitting
a convicted offender to remain in the community under conditions imposed
by a court and subject to regular supervision.
3. A related strategy is shock probation: a policy by which a judge orders a
convicted offender to prison for a length of time, but then stipulates that only
a portion of the sentence will be served in actual incarceration.
4. Parole is a policy of releasing inmates from prison to serve the remainder of
their sentences supervised within the local community.
5. Evaluations of probation and parole are mixed.
6. CONTROVERSY & DEBATE BOX (p. 200): Violent Crime Is Down—But
Why?
a. A reduction in the youth population.
b. Change in policing.
c. More prisons.

d. A better economy.
e. The declining drug trade.
VIII. Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life photo essay (pp. 201–202). Use this essay to spark
discussion of how organizations and societies create and employ heroes and villains to define
themselves and to encourage conformity.
REVEL Media
IN GREATER DEPTH [graphic] The Power of Society to Affect the Odds of Being
Incarcerated for Using Drugs: Gender and Illegal Drug Use, found in Module 7.1.
VIDEO The Big Picture: Deviance This video explains how social institutions operate as agents
of social control, how labeling theory helps explain what comes to be regarded as deviant, and
how factors such as money, race, gender, and age give some categories of people the power to
define what is deviant, found in Module 7.2.
SURVEY Breaking the Rules: Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.3.
VIDEO Social Inequalities: Deviance The functionalist view of deviance, described by Emile
Durkheim, is explored in his video, along with the view of deviance as socially constructed,
expressed in labeling theory. Real-life illustrations are provided, found in Module 7.4.
IN REVIEW Merton’s Strain Theory, found in Module 7.5.
SEEING SOCIOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE [boxed feature] Deviant Subcultures: Has It
Become OK to Break the Rules? found in Module 7.6.
VIDEO Sociology in Focus: Deviance This video investigates labeling theory, citing recent
examples of how being labeled deviant irrevocably shaped the lives of individuals, found in
Module 7.7.
JOURNAL Personalizing Deviance, found in Module 7.8.
IN REVIEW Applying Theory: Deviance, found in Module 7.9.
JOURNAL Linking Deviance and Power, found in Module 7.10.
DIVERSITY [graphic] Fatal Occupational Injuries among Various Categories of the Population,
found in Module 7.11.
DIVERSITY [graphic] Risk of Victimization by Hate Crimes, found in Module 7.12.
INTERACTIVE MAP The Risk of Violent Crime across the United States, found in Module
7.13.
SOCIAL EXPLORER Explore the share of the population in prison in your local community
and in counties across the United States, found in Module 7.14.
DIVERSITY [graphic] Crime and Race, found in Module 7.15.
DIVERSITY [graphic] Imprisonment Rates by Race and Gender, found in Module 7.16.
SURVEY How Big a Problem Is Crime? Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.17.
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE [graphic] Homicide Rates, found in Module 7.18.
DIVERSITY [graphic] Locked and Loaded: What Share of People Own a Gun? found in
Module 7.19.
SURVEY Have You Been a Victim of Crime? Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.20.
COMPARISON MAP Capital Punishment/Economic Development in Global Perspective,
found in Module 7.21.

SURVEY Confidence in the Police: Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.22.

SURVEY Assessing Police Behavior: Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.23.
READ THE DOCUMENT The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison by Jeffrey Reiman
This article documents inequities in the criminal justice system, showing that from arrest to
conviction to sentencing, the poor are at a serious disadvantage, found in Module 7.24.
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE [graphic] Incarceration Rates, found in Module 7.25.
IN REVIEW Four Justifications for Punishment, found in Module 7.26.
SHARED WRITING Assessing the U.S. Criminal Justice System, found in Module 7.27.
SEEING SOCIOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE [photo gallery] Heroes and villains: Helping
us (at least most of the time) obey the rules, found in Module 7.28.
John’s Chapter Close-Up: The Chapter Power of Society Figure
Is conformity or crime simply a choice made by individuals? Do people “get what they deserve?”
Sociologists understand that the answer to the first question is certainly “no,” and researchers
who have examined the criminal justice system of the United States have learned that the answer
to the second is often the same.
The figure found on page 175 of the text is stark evidence of the power of society to shape
human experience. The data here also point to the uncomfortable conclusion that racial bias runs
deep in the way our society defines and responds to drug offenses. According to research by the
Department of Justice and the Department of Health and Human Services, race has no significant
impact on the likelihood that people will use an illegal drug. That is, non-Hispanic whites and
African Americans report rates of illegal drug use that are roughly equal to their share of the
population. At the same time, non-Hispanic whites represent just 30 percent of the inmates in
state or federal prisons who are serving a sentence for a drug conviction. This percentage
represents half the share we would expect based on the proportion of people reporting illegal
drug use. African Americans, by contrast, represent half the inmates serving sentences following
a drug conviction—more than four times what the “use” data would lead us to predict.
Many factors may be at work here. The types of drugs used, the frequency of use, and prior
criminal convictions are not controlled in this comparison. But the inescapable conclusion is that
race itself is playing a big part. That is, race operates as a lens that colors the way people (the
police as well as the public) see individuals, assess their character, and define the significance of
their drug use.
In REVEL, the “In Greater Depth” graphic examines incarceration rates by sex, allowing the
class to explore the effect of gender on incarceration rates for illegal drug use.
____________________________________________________________________________
John’s Personal Video Selection: The Criminalization of the Mentally Ill
Early in our nation’s history, people with mental illness were thrown into jails along with
convicted criminals. During the nineteenth century, a reform movement led by Dorothea Dix led
to the creation of asylums where people with mental illness could find some measure of shelter
from the world, if not effective treatment for their disease. By the middle of the twentieth
century, mental asylums had grown in size and were under fire for warehousing people. A new

reform movement advocating community-based mental health services and replacing

confinement with the use of new psychotropic drugs led to the deinstitutionalization of people
and the closing of most of the old asylums. But what happened to the people with mentally
illnesses? Some made it on their own, some found effective community support, some were able
to function well on their medications. But there were also some who joined the ranks of the
homeless.
As this twenty-minute video explains, we seem to have come full circle as hundreds of
thousands of people with mental illness are now in U.S. prisons. Our criminal justice system may
be managing more people with mental illness in the United States than mental facilities of all
types. From another angle, as many as half of the U.S. prison population may be people with
some significant mental impairment.
Search YouTube for “fault lines mental illness in US prisons.” The video may be available in
two parts.
____________________________________________________________________________
Research for a Cutting-Edge Classroom
For each chapter of the text, I am happy to share a short, Power-Point based presentation
informed by very recent research. These presentations deal with highly current and typically
controversial issues that are in the news and are part of the country’s political dialogue. Each
presentation provides a clear statement of the issue, several slides that present recent research
findings from organizations including Pew, Gallup, or other organizations, notes that help
instructors develop the importance of the data, and questions for class discussion.
To access these PowerPoint presentations from REVEL, after creating a course with either
Sociology 16/e or Society: The Basics 14/e, enter the course and hover over the left-hand
navigation menu. The PowerPoints (as well as the Test Item File, Instructor's Manual, and other
resources) can be found in the “Resources” tab.
From outside of REVEL, please go to www.pearsonhigerhed.com and navigate/search for
Sociology 16/e or Society: The Basics 14/e. The PowerPoints can be found under the
“Resources” tab.
In this chapter, the cutting edge classroom topic focuses on race and the criminal justice
system—specifically, exposing the dangers of “driving while black.”
Using the ASA Journal Teaching Sociology in Your Classroom
Any discussion of deviance and/or deviant behavior involves the concept of sanctions in general,
and punishment in particular. Joseph W. Rogers has provided an interesting strategy for teaching
the concept of punishment (“An Introductory Procedure for Teaching the Concept of
Punishment,” Teaching Sociology, 20, October 1992, pp. 135–142). Rogers’s approach consists
of three key areas: (1) a framework for understanding the functions of punishment; (2) a
delineation of ideal criteria for the application of punishment; and (3) a description of
compliance, identification, and internalization as processes that influence conformity. In his
article, Rogers takes the reader through each of these areas, step-by-step, laying out a very

interesting procedure that you may be able to utilize in your classroom during your discussions of
deviance and deviant behavior.

The Elevation of a Hero
The Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life photo essay in this chapter points out that every society
or organization creates heroes and villains. As Durkheim explained, heroes and villains are a
resource that helps a community define itself (what we are, and what we are not) and also helps
encourage conformity and solidarity among members.
The creation of heroes is not simple nor is it quick. The hero comes to represent a goal or
principle. This means that the person being constructed as a hero must be idealized. For this to
happen, any elements inconsistent with the heroic status must be expunged, ignored, or forgotten.
No doubt, this is why the Catholic Church requires that anyone being considered for sainthood be
dead for a long time.
A recent issue of Time magazine (September 2, 2013) has a cover story on the fiftieth
anniversary of Martin Luther King, Jr. giving the “Dream” speech in Washington, DC. From the
point of view of understanding heroism, it is worth noting that the article is helping to establish
King as far more than the major leader of the African-American community and the civil rights
movement but as a “founding father” of the United States. In short, King now stands in the
pantheon with other heroic figures including Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln. In
embracing Martin Luther King Jr. in this way, our nation is continuing on the journey—still
unfinished—of creating a color-blind society in which people will be judged by “the content of
their character rather than the color of their skin.”

Women in Prison
Historically, sociologists have devoted very little attention to female criminal behavior, primarily
because women have been, and continue to be, far less likely than men to commit the actions we
define as serious crime. However, as the text explains, the trend has been for women to represent
an increasing share of people arrested for serious crime. In 2013, women represented about 38
percent of people arrested for property crimes and 20 percent of people arrested for violent crime.
The fact women represent a minority of people in prison leads to some challenges for women.
Most states operate only a single women’s prison, which means that hardened criminals are
likely to be mixed in with lesser offenders and that the variety of educational, rehabilitative, and
vocational programs available to female inmates is generally inferior to those provided in more
numerous men’s prisons.
But the most serious problem for imprisoned women usually concerns their children. About
70 percent of female prisoners are mothers. When fathers are locked away, their children are
usually looked after by their mothers, but when mothers are imprisoned, their children normally
live with their grandparents or are placed in foster care. Separation from their children is usually
intensely painful for incarcerated women; one, living apart from her seventeen -year-old daughter

and seven-year-old son, said “I miss them to death. [Separation] was the worst of all my
experiences in jail. Being locked up wasn’t so bad. [Separation] almost destroyed me. My son is
my heart.”
Because, most states have only one prison for women, mothers are frequently confined
hundreds of miles away from their children, making visiting difficult and expensive. Only one
women’s prison in the United States, Bedford Hills in New York, provides an onsite nursery.
Under these circumstances, many mothers worry about being able to establish and maintain
adequate bonds with their children.
Proposals to help these women center around the expansion of alternative sentencing. If
female offenders could serve their sentences in the community, families would not be broken up
and more advantage could be taken of rehabilitative services located outside prison walls.
Source:
Fessler, Susan Raikovitz. “Behind Bars: Women’s Needs Are Unmet.” Albany Times Union
(August 4, 1991) and recent statistical sources.
Discussion Questions:
1. Should serious female offenders be allowed to maintain regular contact with their children, or
should separation be considered part of their punishment?
2. Co-correctional institutions that contain both women and men have been are one possible
solution to some of the special problems which women face in the penal system. Do you
support such institutions, or should prisoners continue to be generally segregated by sex?

Gun Control and Crime Control: The Same Issue?
Gun control easily ranks as one of the most persistent and divisive issues for Americans over the
past few decades, particularly in regard to handguns and “assault” weapons. Both proponents and
opponents of gun control make claims that link their position on gun ownership to controlling
crime.
The United States certainly seems to have a lot of guns, especially handguns. There are more
guns in this country on a per capital basis than in any other high-income nation. As the text
explains (see pages 193–194), more than half of U.S. households have at least one gun. The
nation’s rate of violent killing, while trending downward in recent decades, is also high by
international standards.
There are cultural reasons for this nation’s high rates of gun ownership and gun violence. Our
frontier history and cultural emphasis on self-reliance certain play a part. The gun killings of
children in the Sandy Hook Elementary School in 2012 and the killings on an Oregon college
campus in 2015 have certainly kept the issue of gun control on center stage. But while the
continued killings have sparked heated rhetoric on both sides, they have resulted in little real
change.
Other countries appear to have more faith in police protection, the restriction of firearm sales,
and the process of certifying and registering legal handgun users than Americans. More to the
point, voters in these countries seem more prepared to connect the spread of firearms and the

increase in the number of deaths from those firearms, whereas people in the United States do not
see a contradiction between owning a weapon and being at risk from its use.
Discussion Questions
1. Why do you think gun ownership is so widespread in the United States? Does this pattern
increase our security as a nation or does it put us at risk? Why?
2. Do you or anyone in your household own a gun? If there is a gun, what is the reason for
owning it?

Copycat Crime
Copycat crimes are certainly not new phenomena. Looking back in time, Tylenol bottles laced
with poison on supermarket shelves (1982), syringes planted in Pepsi cans (1993), and letters
purposely containing deadly anthrax (2001) all occurred in years when a wave of similar crimes
suddenly began appearing across the country. “Ever since the Columbine High School killings,
the copycat syndrome has been working overtime,” says Adam Cohen. Within weeks of those
shootings, hundreds of schools were hit with Columbine-style, and 20 percent said their schools
had been evacuated because of a bomb threat.
Harvard psychologist William Pollack believes that the epidemic of imitation “starts with
kids who are already close to the edge.” Copycats model themselves on crimes (both real and
fictional) that get a lot of attention. Sometimes copycats are just looking for pointers on how to
commit a crime effectively (mode copying). But copycat criminals are often motivated more by
the sheer thrill of making headlines. “It becomes a power trip for the powerless, those who feel
they have nothing to lose” says Cohen.
While some say less attention should be given to notorious crimes when they happen, others
argue that what’s needed is not less coverage but more information about how these cases turn
out. That’s part of the story few copycats have in mind while daydreaming about their “moment
in the sun.”
Source:
Cohen, Adam. “Criminals as Copycats.” Time (May 31, 1999), p. 38.
Discussion Questions:
1. What’s your sense about the media attention given to events like the Columbine shootings or
the more recent Sandy Hook shootings? Do you think such coverage encourages further
violence?
2. What are some of the factors that create a sense of powerlessness among people in the United
States today that may make people vulnerable to seeking a sense of power through copycat
crime?
_____________________________________________________________________________

Essay Topics
1. Sociologists point out what is and is not defined as deviant varies from time to time and
from place to place. Provide evidence in support of this assertion. How does this claim
support the conclusion that deviance is a product of society?
2. According to Emile Durkheim, why is deviance a necessary resource for all societies?
Specify the ways in which deviance helps any society to operate.
3. Explain how labeling theory shifts attention from what people do to how an audience
responds to what people do. Distinguish between primary and secondary deviance.
4. Most of us have been labeled at least mildly deviant at some time in our lives. Recount
your own experiences with deviant labeling, making reference to relevant terms such as
primary and secondary deviance, stigma, and retrospective labeling.
5. What is the medicalization of deviance? Explain how the use of marijuana is being
transformed from a criminal behavior to a treatment with “pushers” being redefined as
“dispensers,” and “users” being redefined as “patients.”
6. What are the reasons that the U.S. crime rate is very high in global context? What policies
or programs would you recommend to try to reduce this rate?
7. Identify the four justifications for punishment discussed in the text. Assess the relative
importance of each one in the public view.
8. Describe the criminal statistics available from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. What
can we learn from such statistics? What are several limitations of these data?

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Fig. 261.—Valves of a Chiton
separated to show the
various parts (anterior valve
uppermost): a, a,
articulamentum; b, beak; j,
jugum; pl, pl, pleura; t, t,
tegmentum.
Fig. 262.—Valves of Chitonellus
separated out (anterior valve
uppermost): a, a,
articulamentum; t, t,
tegmentum. × 2.
The Polyplacophora are characterised, externally, by their usually
articulated shell of eight plates or valves, which is surrounded and
partly kept in position by a muscular girdle. These plates overlap like
tiles on a roof in such a way that the posterior edge of the first,
cephalic, or anterior valve projects over the anterior edge of the
succeeding valve, which in its turn overlaps the next, and so on
throughout. Seven-valved monstrosities very rarely occur.
A certain portion of each valve is covered either by the girdle or by
the valve next anterior to it. This portion, which is whitish in colour
and non-porous in structure, forms part of an inner layer which
underlies the rest of the substance of the valve, and is called the
articulamentum. The external portion of the valves, or tegmentum, is
generally more or less sculptured, and is largely composed of chitin,
impregnated with salts of lime, thus answering more to a cuticle than
to a shell proper. It is very porous, being pierced by a quantity of
minute holes of two sizes, known as megalopores and micropores,
which are connected together by minute canals containing what is
probably fibrous or nerve tissue, the mouths of the pores being
occupied by sense organs connected with these nerves. The
tegmentum of the six intermediate valves is generally divided into
three triangular areas by two more or less prominent ribs, which
diverge from the neighbourhood of the median beak or umbo. The
space enclosed between these ribs is known as the median area or
jugum, the other two spaces as the lateral areas or pleura. The ribs
terminate with the edge of the tegmentum, and are not found on the
articulamentum. In certain genera these areas are either non-
existent, or are not distinctly marked. The sculpture of the lateral
areas (which is, as a rule, much stronger than that of the median
area) will generally be found to resemble that of the anterior valve,
which has no proper median area. In the posterior valve the median
area is very small, while the sculpture of the rest of the valve
corresponds to that of the lateral areas generally (see Fig. 261).
Fig. 263.—First, fourth, and eighth
valves of a Chiton, showing l.i,
laminae of insertion; n, n,
notches; s.l, s.l, sutural
laminae. × 2.
The articulamentum of the intermediate valves is divided into two
equal parts in the middle of the anterior edge, opposite to the beak,
by a sinus. Each of the portions thus formed is again divided by a
notch or suture into two unequal parts, the anterior of which is known
as the sutural lamina, and is more or less concealed by the valve in
front of it, while the lateral part, or lamina of insertion, is entirely
concealed by the girdle. The articulamenta of the anterior and
posterior valves are either simple or pierced by a series of notches
(Fig. 263).
The girdle of the Chitonidae varies considerably in character.
Sometimes its upper surface is simply corneous or cartilaginoid, with
no other sculpture than fine striae, at others it is densely beset with
spines or bristles, or tufted at intervals with bunches of deciduous
hairs; again it is marbled like shagreen or mossy down, or covered
with serpent-like scales. The width of the girdle varies greatly, being
sometimes very narrow, sometimes entirely covering all the valves
(Cryptochiton). As a rule, its outer edge is continuous, but in
Schizochiton it is sharply notched over the anus.
A description has already been given of the dorsal eyes in Chiton
(p. 187), the nervous system (p. 202), the branchiae (p. 154), the
radula (p. 228), and the generative system (p. 126).
Fig. 264.—Girdles of various Chitonidae. A, Radsia sulcata

Wood, × 2; B, Maugeria granulata Gmel., × 3; C,
Enoplochiton niger Barnes, × 3; D, Acanthochiton fascicularis
L., × 4; E, Tonicia fastigiata Sowb., × 4.
The recent Chitons are thus classified by Dr. W. H. Dall:—
Section I. Chitones Regulares.—Anterior and posterior valves
of similar character.
A. Leptoidea.—Insertion plates obsolete, or, if present, unslit;
Leptochiton, Hanleyia, Hemiarthrum, Microplax.
B. Ischnoidea.—Insertion plates sharp, smooth, fissured; with
eaves; Trachydermon, Callochiton, Tonicella, Schizoplax, Leptoplax,
Chaetopleura, Spongiochiton, Ischnochiton, Callistochiton.
C. Lophyroidea.—Insertion plates broad, pectinated, projecting
backward; Chiton, Tonicia, Eudoxochiton, Craspedochiton.
D. Acanthoidea.—Insertion plates thrown forward; Sclerochiton,
Acanthopleura, Dinoplax, Middendorffia, Nuttallina, Arthuria,
Phacellopleura.
Section II. Chitones Irregulares.—Posterior valve abnormal, or
with a sinus behind.
E. Schizoidea.—Posterior valve fissured; Lorica, Schizochiton.
F. Placiphoroidea.—Posterior valve unslit, internally ridged, umbo
nearly terminal; Enoplochiton, Ornithochiton, Plaxiphora.
G. Mopaloidea.—Posterior valve with posterior sinus and one slit
on each side; Mopalia, Katherina, Acanthochiton, Notoplax.
H. Cryptoidea.—With double sutural laminae; Cryptoconchus,
Amicula, Cryptochiton.
I. Chitonelloidea.—Posterior valve funnel shaped; laminae thrown
forward; Chitonellus, Choneplax.
Fig. 265.—Chitonellus fasciatus Quoy; ant, anterior

end.
Sub-order 2. Aplacophora.—Animal vermiform, foot absent, or a
mere groove, cuticle more or less covered with spicules.
According to Marion, one of the principal authorities on the group,
the Aplacophora are perhaps Amphineura whose development has
been arrested at an early stage, their worm-like exterior being due to
adaptation to surroundings. They have hitherto been found chiefly in
the N. Atlantic and Mediterranean, generally at considerable depths,
and often associated with certain polyps in a way which suggests a
kind of commensalism.
Fam. 1. Neomeniidae.—Foot a narrow groove, intestinal tube
without differentiated liver, kidneys with common exterior orifice,
sexes united, ctenidia present or absent. Genera: Neomenia (Fig.
266), Paramenia, Proneomenia, Ismenia, Lepidomenia, Dondersia.
Fig. 266.—Neomenia carinata
Tullb.: a, anus; gr, ventral
groove; m, mouth.
Fig. 267.—Chaetoderma
nitidulum Lov.: a, anus; m,
mouth. × 3.
Fam. 2. Chaetodermatidae.—Body cylindrical, no ventral groove,
liver a single sac, kidneys with separate orifices into the branchial
cloaca, two bipectinate ctenidia. Single genus, Chaetoderma (Fig.
267).
Order II. Prosobranchiata

Visceral loop twisted into a figure of 8 (streptoneurous), right half
supra-intestinal, left half infra-intestinal; heart usually in front of the
branchia (ctenidium), which is generally single; head with a single
pair of tentacles; animal dioecious, usually marine, more or less
contained within a shell, operculum generally present. Cambrian to
present time.
Sub-order 1. Diotocardia.—Heart with two auricles (except in the
Docoglossa and Helicinidae), branchiae bipectinate, front end free;
two kidneys, the genital gland opening into the right (except in
Neritidae); nervous system not concentrated; no proboscis or siphon,
penis usually absent.
(a) Docoglossa (p. 227).—Heart with a single auricle, ventricle
not traversed by the rectum, visceral sac not spiral, shell widely
conical, non-spiral, no operculum; radula very long, with few hooked
teeth in each row.
Fam. 1. Acmaeidae.—Left ctenidium alone occurring, free on a
long stalk. Cretaceous——. Principal genera: Pectinodonta, front
part of head much produced, radula 0 (1. 0. 1.) 0; Acmaea (=
Tectura), with sub-genera Collisella and Collisellina, no accessory
branchial ring, shell closely resembling that of Patella, but generally
with a distinct internal border; Scurria, accessory branchial ring on
the mantle.
Fam. 2. Lepetidae.—No ctenidia or accessory branchiae, animal
generally blind. Pliocene——. Principal genera: Lepeta; Propilidium,
apex with internal septum; Lepetella.
Fam. 3. Patellidae.—No ctenidia, the osphradial patch at the base
of each alone surviving, a circlet of secondary branchiae between
the mantle and sides of the foot. Ordovician——. (i.) Patellinae.—
Three lateral teeth on each side, two of them anterior. Principal
genera: Patella, branchial circlet complete; chief sections Patella
proper, Scutellastra, Ancistromesus (A. mexicana Brod., measures
8–14 in. long); Helcion, branchial circlet interrupted in front;
Tryblidium (Ordovician).—(ii.) Nacellinae.—Two developed laterals
on each side, one anterior. Genera: Nacella, branchial circlet
complete; Helcioniscus, branchial circlet interrupted in front.
(b) Rhipidoglossa (p. 225).—Ventricle of the heart traversed by
the rectum (except in Helicinidae), one or two ctenidia; jaw in two
pieces, radula long, marginals multiplied, rows curved.
Of all the Gasteropoda, this section of the Diotocardia approach
nearest to the Pelecypoda, particularly in the least specialised forms.
The auricle, the branchiae, and the kidneys are in many cases
paired, and more or less symmetrical. The ventricle is generally
traversed by the rectum, there is a long labial commissure between
the cerebral ganglia, special copulative organs are usually absent,
while the shell is often nacreous, like those of Pelecypoda of a
primitive type.
Section I. Zygobranchiata.—Two ctenidia, shell with apical or
marginal slit or holes, corresponding to an anal tube in the mantle (p.
265).
Fam. 1. Fissurellidae.—Two symmetrical ctenidia and kidneys,
visceral mass conical, shell conical, elevated or depressed, with a
single anterior or apical slit or impression; no operculum. Jurassic
——. (i.) Fissurellinae. Shell wholly external, apex entirely removed
by perforation, apical callus not truncated posteriorly; central tooth
narrow. Genera: Fissurella (Figs. 171, p. 261; 178, p. 265),
Fissuridea, Clypidella. (ii.) Fissurellidinae. Shell partly internal,
otherwise as in (i.); central tooth broad, mantle more or less reflected
over the shell, apical hole very wide. Genera: Fissurellidaea,
Pupillaea, Lucapina, Megatebennus, Macroschisma, Lucapinella.
(iii.) Emarginulinae. Shell usually wholly external, apex usually not
removed by perforation, sometimes with internal septum, anal tube
in a narrow slit or sinus. Genera: Glyphis, externals of Fissurella, but
holecallus truncated behind; Puncturella (sub-genera Cranopsis and
Fissurisepta), slit just anterior to the apex, a small internal septum;
Zeidora, large internal septum as in Crepidula: Emarginula, shell
elevated, slit very narrow, on the anterior margin (in subg. Rimula, it
is between the apex and the margin), radula bilaterally asymmetrical;
Subemarginula, margin indented by a shallow groove; Scutus (=
Parmophorus) shell oblong, depressed, nicked in front, largely
covered by the mantle.
Fig. 268.—Scutus australis Lam.,
Australia: m, m, mantle; sh,
shell, × ⅔.
Fam. 2. Haliotidae.—Right ctenidium the smaller, epipodial line
broad, profusely lobed; shell rather flattened, spire short, last whorl
very large, with a row of perforations on the left side, which become
successively obliterated; through these holes, the posterior of which
is anal, pass tentacular appendages of the mantle; no operculum.
Cretaceous——. Single genus, Haliotis; principal sub-genera
Padollus, Teinotis.
Fam. 3. Pleurotomariidae.—Central tooth single, narrow, about 26
laterals, 60 to 70 uncini. Shell generally variously trochiform,
nacreous, operculate, with a rather broad marginal sinus in the last
whorl; as this sinus closes up it forms an “anal fasciole” or “sinus
band.” Cambrian——. Principal genera: Scissurella, epipodial line
with several long ciliated appendages at each side, shell very small,
slit open, sinus band extending nearly to apex; Schismope, anal slit
closed in the adult into an oblong perforation; Murchisonia
(Palaeozoic only), shell long, turreted, whorls angulate or keeled with
a sinus band; Odontomaria (Palaeozoic only), shell tubular, curved;
Polytremaria (Carboniferous), shell turbinate, slit a series of small
holes connected by a passage; Trochotoma, shell trochiform,
perforation consisting of two narrow holes united by a slit;
Pleurotomaria, branchiae almost symmetrical, radula as above, shell
variously spiral.
In Pleurotomaria we have the case of a genus long supposed to
be extinct. More than 1100 fossil species have been described, and
within the last 38 years about 20 specimens, belonging to 5 species,
have been discovered in a living state.
Fig. 269.—Pleurotomaria
adansoniana Cr. and F., Tobago.
× ½.
Fam. 4. Bellerophontidae.—Shell nautiloid, spire generally
concealed, aperture large, sinus or perforations central (Fig. 179, p.
266). Ordovician—Trias. Genera: Bellerophon, Trematonotus,
Cyrtolites.
Section II. Azygobranchiata.—One ctenidium (the left) present.
Fam. 1. Cocculinidae.—A single cervical ctenidium, foot broad, no
eyes, shell patelliform, with caducous spire. Single genus, Cocculina.
Deep water.
Fam. 2. Stomatellidae.—A single (left) ctenidium, front third free,
shell nacreous, spiral or patelliform, depressed, last whorl large.
Jurassic——. Genera: Stomatella (subg. Synaptocochlea, Niphonia),
shell depressed, spirally ribbed, spire short, operculum present;
Phaneta, fluviatile only, shell trochiform, imperforate, last whorl
keeled, sinuate in front; Stomatia, spire short, surface tubercled or
keeled, no operculum; Gena, shell haliotis-shaped, surface smooth,
aperture very large; Broderipia, shell patelliform, spiral apex often
lost.
Fam. 3. Cyclostrematidae.—Tentacles ciliated, thread-like, snout
bilobed, foot truncated in front, angles produced into a filament, shell
depressed, umbilicated, not nacreous. Eocene——. Principal
genera: Cyclostrema, Teinostoma, Vitrinella.
Fam. 4. Liotiidae.—Epipodial line with a lobe behind each eye-
peduncle, shell solid, trochiform, longitudinally ribbed or trellised,
aperture round, operculum multispiral, hispid, corneous, with a
calcareous layer. Silurian——. Principal genera: Liotia,
Craspedostoma (Silurian), Crossostoma (Jurassic).
Fig. 270.—Monodonta canalifera

Lam., New Ireland. (After
Quoy and Gaimard.)
Fam. 5. Trochidae.—Snout short, broad, frontal lobes often
present, epipodial line furnished with cirrhi; shell nacreous, variously
spiral, operculum corneous, multispiral, nucleus central (Fig. 182, p.
268). Silurian——. (i.) Trochinae.—Frontal lobes present, lateral
teeth (= side centrals) 5 only, no jaws, peristome incomplete.
Principal genera: Trochus (subg. Cardinalia, Tectus, Infundibulum,
Clanculus), Monodonta (subg. Diloma), Cantharidus (subg. Bankivia,
Thalotia), Gaza (subg. Microgaza), Callogaza, Bembix, Chlorostoma.
(ii.) Gibbulinae.—Frontal lobes and jaws present, laterals often more
than 5, peristome incomplete. Principal genera: Gibbula (subg.
Monilia, Aphanotrochus, Enida), Minolia, Circulus, Trochiscus,
Livona, Photinula, Margarita, Solariella, Calliostoma, Turcica,
Basilissa, Euchelus (subg. Olivia, Perrinia). (iii.) Delphinulinae.—No
frontal lobes, jaws present; shell solid, surface spirally lirate, scaly,
spinose, umbilicate, peristome continuous. Single genus, Delphinula.
(iv.) Umboniinae.—Eyes pedunculate, left tentacle attached to a
frontal appendage, mantle reflected over edge of aperture, lateral
teeth 6 on each side; shell polished, peristome incomplete, umbilicus
generally closed by a callosity. Principal genera: Umbonium, Ethalia,
Isanda, Camitia, Umbonella, Chrysostoma.
Fig. 271.—Phasianella australis

Gmel., Australia.
Fam. 6. Turbinidae.—Epipodial line with slender cirrhi, snout
broad, short, eyes pedunculate at outer base of tentacles, a frontal
veil between tentacles; shell turbinate, solid, aperture continuous,
operculum solid, calcareous, usually paucispiral, convex exteriorly
(Fig. 182, p. 268). Silurian——. (i.) Phasianellinae.—Shell bulimoid,
polished, not nacreous, coloured in patterns, aperture oval. Single
genus, Phasianella (Fig. 271). (ii.) Turbininae.—Shell very solid,
nacreous within, aperture circular or long oval. Principal genera,
Turbo, whorls rounded above and below, spines, if present,
becoming more prominent with age, operculum smooth or granulose,
nucleus sub-central; subg. Callopoma, Ninella, Marmorostoma,
Sarmaticus, Prisogaster; Astralium, whorls flattened above and
below, spines, if present, becoming less prominent with age,
operculum oblong, often excavated at centre, last whorl large,
nucleus marginal or sub-marginal; subg. Lithopoma, Imperator,
Guildfordia, Bolma, Cyclocantha, Uvanilla, Cookia, Pomaulax,
Pachypoma. (iii.) Cyclonematinae.—Shell nacreous, umbilicate,
operculum conical outside, whorls scalariform. Principal genera:
Cyclonema, Horiostoma (?), Amberleya (Silurian to Lias). (iv.)
Leptothyrinae.—Shell small, solid, depressed, operculum nearly flat,
nucleus sub-central. Genera: Leptothyra, Collonia (?).
Fam. 7. Neritopsidae.—Tentacles wide apart, long, eyes on short
peduncles at the outer base; shell solid, neritiform or naticoid,
aperture semi-lunar or oval; operculum (Fig. 183, p. 269) thick,
calcareous, non-spiral, exterior face smooth, interior face divided into
two unequal parts, with a broad median appendage. Devonian——.
Principal genera: Neritopsis (one recent species), Naticopsis
(Devonian to Miocene).
Fam. 8. Macluritidae.—Shell discoidal, whorls few, longitudinally
grooved behind, right side convex, deeply umbilicated, left side flat;
operculum very thick, nucleus excentrical, internal face with two
apophyses, one very large. The general appearance is more that of
an inequivalve bivalve, such as Requienia, than of a spiral
gasteropod. Palaeozoic——. Single genus, Maclurea.
Fam. 9. Neritidae.—Snout short, tentacles long, eyes pedunculate
at their outer base, branchia triangular, free at the front end,
epipodium without cirrhi, penis near the right tentacle; shell solid,
imperforate, turbinate to almost patelliform, spire short, internal
partitions absorbed (p. 168), columellar region broad, edge simple or
dentate, operculum calcareous, spiral or non-spiral, with prominent
apophyses on the interior face, one of which locks behind the
columellar lip. Jurassic——. Principal genera: Nerita (Fig. 13, p. 17);
Neritina (chiefly brackish water and fluviatile), sub-genus Clithon,
usually coronated with spines; Velates (Tertiary), Neritoma
(Jurassic), Deianira (Cretaceous), Septaria (= Navicella), shell more
or less narrowly patelliform, with terminal apex, aperture very large,
with a broad columellar septum, operculum too small for the
aperture, more or less covered by the integument of the foot;
fluviatile only; Pileolus (Jurassic to Cretaceous).
Fam. 10. Hydrocenidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, eyes at the outer base of the tentacles, marginals of the
radula very oblique, centrals often wanting; shell small, conical,
whorls convex, operculum calcareous, with a prominent apophysis.
Recent. Principal genera: Hydrocena, Georissa.
Fam. 11. Helicinidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, heart with one auricle; shell globular, with a short spire,
internal partitions absorbed; operculum without apophysis.
Carboniferous——. Principal genera: Helicina (Fig. 18b, p. 21; subg.
Alcadia, Schasicheila, Heudeia, Calybium), Eutrochatella (subg.
Lucidella), Stoastoma, Bourcieria, Dawsonella (Carboniferous).
Fam. 12. Proserpinidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, mantle partly reflected over the shell, eyes sessile; shell
depressed, discoidal, columella folded or truncated at the base,
whorls with one or more internal plicae, internal partitions absorbed,
no operculum. Eocene——. Single genus; Proserpina, subg.
Proserpinella, Cyane, Dimorphoptychia (Eocene), and Ceres (Fig.
18c, p. 21).
Sub-order II. Monotocardia.—Heart with one auricle, one
ctenidium (the left), monopectinate, fused with the mantle (except in
Valvata), one kidney, not receiving the genital products, nervous
system somewhat concentrated, proboscis and penis usually
present.
(a) Ptenoglossa.—Radula with formula ∞. ᴑ. ∞, teeth similar
throughout, outermost largest (p. 224).
Fam. 1. Ianthinidae.—Snout prominent, blunt, no eyes, shell
helicoid, fragile, bluish, no operculum; eggs carried on a raft of
vesicles attached to the foot (Fig. 42, p. 126). Pelagic only. Pliocene
——. Genera: Ianthina, Recluzia.
Fam. 2. Scalariidae.—Shell long, turriculate, whorls often partly
uncoiled, with longitudinal ribs and prominent lamellae, aperture
circular, operculum spiral, corneous, animal carnivorous. Ordovician
——. Principal genera: Scalaria, Eglisia, Elasmoneura (Silurian),
Holopella (Silurian to Trias), Aclis.
(b) Taenioglossa.—Radula with normal formula 2.1.1.1.2,
marginals sometimes multiplied (p. 223).
Section I. Platypoda.—Foot more or less flattened ventrally.
Fam. 1. Naticidae.—Foot very large, produced before and behind,
propodium reflected upon the head, eyes absent or buried in the
integument, central and lateral tooth of the radula tricuspid, middle
cusp strong; shell globular or auriform, outer lip simple, operculum
corneous or calcareous, nucleus excentrical. Carboniferous ——.
Principal genera: Natica, with many sub-genera; Ampullina (Tertiary);
Amaura; Deshayesia (Tertiary); Sigaretus (Fig. 91, p. 186), shell
auriform, last whorl very large, operculum much too small for the
aperture.
Fam. 2. Lamellariidae.—Mantle reflected over more or less of the
shell, shell delicate, no operculum. Eocene——. Principal genera:
Lamellaria, shell completely internal, transparent, auriform; some
species deposit their eggs on compound Ascidians (p. 74); Velutina,
shell almost entirely external, paucispiral, with a thick periostracum;
Marsenina, shell auriform, partly internal; Onchidiopsis, shell a
membranous plate, internal.
Fam. 3. Trichotropidae.—Branchial siphon short, eyes on the outer
side of the tentacles; radula closely allied to that of Velutina; shell
conical, last whorl rather large, periostracum thick and hairy,
operculum blunt claw-shaped, nucleus terminal. Cretaceous——.
Genera: Trichotropis, Torellia.
Fam. 4. Naricidae.—Tentacles broad in the middle, with sessile
eyes at the exterior base, propodium narrow, quadrangular, a large
epipodial veil on each side of the foot; shell naticoid, cancellated,
with velvety periostracum. Jurassic——. Single genus: Narica.
Fam. 5. Xenophoridae.—Foot divided by a groove, anterior portion
the larger; central tooth heart-shaped, with blunt cusps, lateral large,
roughly triangular, marginals long, falciform; shell trochiform,
somewhat flattened, attaching various fragments externally.
Devonian——. Single genus, Xenophora (Figs. 25, 26, p. 64).
Fam. 6. Capulidae.—Ctenidium deeply and finely pectinate,
visceral sac scarcely spiral, penis long, behind the right tentacle;
shell roughly patelliform, with scarcely any spire, interior polished,
usually with a septum or internal plate of variable form, no
operculum. Devonian——. Principal genera (Fig. 155, p. 248);
Capulus, shell cap-shaped, no internal plate; Platyceras (Palaeozoic,
see p. 76), Diaphorostoma (Palaeozoic), Addisonia (?); Crucibulum,
internal appendage funnel-shaped; Crepidula (including Crepipatella
and Ergaea), shell slipper-shaped, with a large septum; Calyptraea
(including Galerus and Trochita), internal lamina semi-spiral.
Fam. 7. Hipponycidae.—Foot aborted, animal sedentary,
adductor-muscle shaped like a horse’s hoof, fastened on the ventral
side to the region of attachment, or to a thin calcareous plate which
closes the aperture like a valve; ventral side of the body surrounded
by a mantle with papillose border, which corresponds
morphologically to the epipodia, head emerging between the dorsal
and ventral mantles. Shell thick, bluntly conical, surface rugose.
Eocene ——. Genera: Hipponyx; Mitrularia, a narrow half funnel-
shaped appendage within the shell.
Fig. 272.—Two specimens of

Crepidula (marked a and b)
on an old shell of Murex
radix Gmel.
Fam. 8. Solariidae.—Foot large, eyes sessile, near the outer base
of the tentacles, radula abnormal (p. 224); shell more or less
depressed, lip simple, umbilicus wide, margins often crenulated,
operculum variable. The proper position of the family is quite
uncertain. Ordovician——. (i.) Solariinae. Genera: Solarium, shell
depressed, highly finished, angular at periphery, operculum
corneous, central tooth absent, laterals and marginals numerous,
long, and narrow; Platyschisma (Silurian). (ii.) Toriniinae. Genera:
Torinia, whorls usually rounded, operculum (Fig. 183) conically
elevated, spiral externally, central tooth present, marginals few, edge
pectinated; Omalaxis. (iii.) Euomphalinae, shell planorbiform, whorls
rounded. Genera: Euomphalus, Ophileta, Schizostoma,
Eccyliomphalus (all Palaeozoic).
Fam. 9. Homalogyridae.—Tentacles absent, eyes sessile, central
tooth unicuspid on a quadrangular base, laterals and marginals
replaced by an oblong plate; shell very small, planorbiform. Recent.
Single genus: Homalogyra, whose true position is uncertain.
Fig. 273.—Solarium
perspectivum Lam., Eastern
Seas.
Fam. 10. Littorinidae.—Proboscis short, broad, tentacles long,
eyes at their outer bases, penis behind the right tentacle;
reproduction oviparous or ovoviviparous, radula very long; shell
turbinate, solid, columella thickened, lip simple, operculum corneous,
nucleus excentrical. Jurassic——. Principal genera: Littorina (radula,
Fig. 16, p. 20), Cremnoconchus (p. 16), Fossarina; Tectarius, shell
tubercled or spinose; Risella, base slightly concave; Lacuna, shell
thin, grooved behind the columellar lip.
Fam. 11. Fossaridae.—Shell turbinate, solid, small, white, spirally
ribbed, outer lip simple. Miocene——. Principal genus, Fossarus.
Fam. 12. Cyclophoridae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, tentacles long, thread-like (radula, Fig. 17, p. 21); shell variously
spiral, peristome round, often reflected, operculum circular.
Terrestrial only. Cretaceous——. (i.) Pomatiasinae, shell high,
conical, longitudinally striated, operculum consisting of two laminae
united together. Single genus, Pomatias. (ii.) Diplommatininae, shell
more or less pupiform, peristome thickened or reflected, often
double. Genera: Diplommatina (subg., Nicida, Palaina, Paxillus,
Arinia), shell dextral or sinistral, small, columella often denticulated;
Opisthostoma (Fig. 208, p. 309), last whorl disconnected, often
reflected back upon the spire. (iii.) Pupininae, shell more or less
lustrous, bluntly conical, lip with a channel above or below. Genera:
Pupina (subg., Registoma, Callia, Streptaulus, Pupinella, Anaulus),
Hybocystis (Fig. 205, p. 305), Cataulus, Coptochilus,
Megalomastoma. (iv.) Cyclophorinae, shell turbinate or depressed,
operculum corneous or calcareous. Genera: Alycaeus,
Craspedopoma, Leptopoma, Lagochilus, Cyclophorus (Fig. 206, p.
306); including Diadema, Aulopoma, Ditropis, and others),
Aperostoma (including Cyrtotoma and others), Cyathopoma,
Pterocyclus (subg., Myxostoma, Spiraculum, Opisthoporus, and
Rhiostoma (Fig. 180, p. 266), Cyclotus, Cyclosurus, and
Strophostoma.
Fam. 13. Cyclostomatidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, tentacles obtuse, foot with a deep longitudinal median groove;
central tooth, lateral, and first marginal more or less bluntly cusped,
second marginal large, edge pectinate; shell variously spiral, spire
usually elevated, aperture not quite circular; operculum generally
with an external calcareous and an internal cartilaginoid lamina,
rarely corneous. Terrestrial only. Cretaceous——. Genera:
Cyclostoma (subg., Leonia, Tropidophora, Rochebrunia, Georgia,
Otopoma, Lithidion, Revoilia), Cyclotopsis, Choanopoma (subg.,
Licina, Jamaicia, Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Adamsiella), Cistula
(subg., Chondropoma, Tudora), Omphalotropis (subg., Realia,
Cyclomorpha), Hainesia, Acroptychia.
Fig. 274.—Cyclostoma
campanulatum Pfr., Madagascar.
Fam. 14. Aciculidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary sac,
tentacles cylindrical, pointed at the end, eyes behind their base, foot
long and narrow; central tooth and lateral very similar, pinched in at
the sides, external marginal broad, edge finely pectinate; shell small,
acuminate, with a blunt spire, operculum corneous. Terrestrial only.
Tertiary——. Genus, Acicula (= Acme).
Fam. 15. Truncatellidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, proboscis very long, eyes sessile, behind the base of the
tentacles, shell small, evenly cylindrical, apex truncated in the adult.
Eocene——. Genera: Truncatella (subg., Taheitia, Blanfordia, and
Tomichia), Geomelania (subg., Chittya and Blandiella), Cecina (?).
Fam. 16. Rissoidae.—Eyes at the external base of the tentacles,
epipodium with filaments, operculigerous lobe with appendages;
central tooth pleated at the basal angles, lateral large, bluntly
multicuspid, marginals long, narrow, denticulate at the edge; shell
small, acuminate, often elaborately sculptured, mouth entire or with a
shallow canal, operculum corneous. Marine or brackish water.
Jurassic——. Principal genera: Rissoa (subg., Folinia, Onoba,
Alvania, Cingula, Nodulus, Anabathron, Fenella, Iravadia, and
others), Scaliola (shell agglutinating fragments of sand, etc.),
Rissoina (lip thickened, operculum with an apophysis as in Nerita),
Barleeia, Paryphostoma (Eocene).
Fam. 17. Hydrobiidae.—Eyes at the outer base of the tentacles,
penis behind the right tentacle, prominent, operculigerous lobe
without filaments; radula rissoidan, central tooth often with basal

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Author’s Note for Chapter 7

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 107

Additional Content in REVEL

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 7.1 Explain how sociology addresses limitations of a biological or psychological

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Detailed Chapter Outline

II. The Functions of Deviance: Structural-Functional Theories

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III. Labeling Deviance: Symbolic-Interaction Theories

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2. Stigma is a powerfully negative social label that radically changes a

IV. Deviance and Inequality: Social-Conflict Theories

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V. Deviance, Race, and Gender: Race-Conflict and Feminist Theories

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 113

VII. The U.S. Criminal Justice System

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2. Trend to Lighten Harsh Sentences Catches On in Conservative States, by

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Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 116

SURVEY Confidence in the Police: Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.22.

John’s Chapter Close-Up: The Chapter Power of Society Figure

John’s Personal Video Selection: The Criminalization of the Mentally Ill

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reform movement advocating community-based mental health services and replacing

Research for a Cutting-Edge Classroom

Using the ASA Journal Teaching Sociology in Your Classroom

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Supplemental Lecture Material

Supplemental Lecture Material

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Supplemental Lecture Material

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Supplemental Lecture Material

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Fig. 264.—Girdles of various Chitonidae. A, Radsia sulcata

Fig. 265.—Chitonellus fasciatus Quoy; ant, anterior

Order II. Prosobranchiata

Fig. 270.—Monodonta canalifera

Fig. 271.—Phasianella australis

Fig. 272.—Two specimens of

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