ARCHITECTURAL CORRELATION

MODULE 2: AREA 2; TOPIC 1 - THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE (1-3)

Duration: September 2nd Week

Session: Week 4
Number of Hours: Three (3) hours
Objective: To learn the importance of theory of architecture as foundation of design.

Theory of Architecture 1

Architecture – from word ARCHI - “first or original” and TEKNOS - “the ability to put
things together” ; requires analytical procedures and involves process of creation in
the design ; it goes beyond shelter function of modifying the microclimate it can
provide a sense of place and space provide settings for certain activities; remind
people of such activities express and support cosmological beliefs communicate
information help establish individual or group identity; encode value systems

Architecture Essentials- Vitruvius in his 10 books of architecture said: “Well building

hath three conditions: Commoditie, Firmenes, and Delight.” Firmitas – strength –
sound construction; Utilitas – commodity - utility; Venustas – beauty – aesthetics

Architecture Quality - Logical function - The building should meet satisfactorily

the requirements of the use which it is intended, its elements must be arranged so as
to secure an efficient and workable relationship between them. Related areas are
adjacent to each other and there is ease of circulation between different units. Sound
construction / strength –The building should soundly have constructed for
permanence and security. Beautiful composition / aesthetic - The visible elements
of the building should be arranged in accordance with the principles of design
composition.

Architecture Influences - Needs of Man - physical needs - self-preservation (food,

shelter, clothing, power, water, transportation, communication); reproduction –
procreation; for the population to increase and continue in existence; emotional needs
– stirred by the forces of art/aesthetics, religion and recreation; intellectual needs –
education, science and government.

Activities of Man - Desire for Preservation; Desire for Recognition; Desire for
Response; Desire for Self Expression

Nature Influence - climate; topography; construction materials

Man Influences - social conditions; social structure; public opinion; exposure to other
societies; social system; modernization; economic conditions; technological
development

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Archaic - saw the groping of the untried hand in an attempt to master new problems
and new mediums, an effort to find an expression for a new material.

Mastery - the buildings or art produced during this period show that the designer or
artist has discovered how to control his medium and is sure of his technique and
performance. This is the height of development.

Decadence - is marked with the artist too sure of himself and begins to take liberties
with his materials. His designs were less structural and were too ornate. It heralds the
decline and is the beginning of the end.

Principles of Design - involves the essentials of the structures

Visible Structure – form; surface;

Invisible Structure –the plan and composition

Form -It is determined by the mass or volume created by the enclosing of space and
is therefore three-dimensional. It has two qualities: direction – the vertical or horizontal
axis of the mass and shape – or geometric qualities.

Surface – Surface of area is composed of two-dimensions, as in the façade of the

building. Its qualities are texture – surface treatment identified with materials whether
rough or smooth; tone- light and shade caused by openings, projections; color-
inherent or applied color caused by spectrum hues

Design Elements – are lines, shape, form, plane and size

Lines - according to geometry are sets of points and are representation or abstraction
of the boundaries or edges found in nature CATEGORIES OF LINE – straight; curved
and combination; DIRECTION OF LINE horizontal; vertical; diagonal; combination

Shape - is the plane’s primary identifying characteristics. It refers to the edge contour
of a plane or the silhouette of a volume. It is the primary means by which we recognize
and identify the form of an object.

Circle – a shape with a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-
centering in its environment.

Triangle – shape that signifies stability when resting on one of its sides. The triangle
is an extremely stable figure.

Square – a shape that represents the pure and the rational. It is static and neutral
figure having no preferred direction.

Form - It is a two dimension, the figure is called an area or surface; but, if it is three-
dimensional, it becomes mass.

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Plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume,
having three dimensions: length, width and depth.
Shape – visual properties of form which results from the specific configuration of
form’s surface and edges.
Size– visual properties of form with the real dimension - length, width, and depth; while
these dimensions determine the proportions of a form. Its scale is determined by its
size relative to other forms in its context.
Color– the hue, the intensity, and the total value of a form’s surface; color is the
attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. It also affects the
visual weight of a form.

Texture – the surface characteristic of a form; texture affects both tactile and light
reflective qualities of a form’s surfaces.

Position – a form’s location relative to its environment or visual field - front, right, left,
back
left side of the heart center right side of the heart

Orientation – a form’s position relative to the ground plane, the compass points or to
the person viewing the form.

Visual Inertia – the degree of concentration and stability of a form, the visual inertia
of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation relative to the ground plane
and our line of sight.

Regular Form- are those whose parts are related to one another in a consistent and
orderly manner. They are generally stable in nature and symmetrical about one or
more axes. The platonic solids are prime examples of regular forms. Forms can retain
their regularity even transformed dimensionally, or by addition or subtraction of
elements.

Irregular Form – are those whose parts are dissimilar in nature and related to one
another in an inconsistent manner. They are generally asymmetrical and more
dynamic than regular forms. They can be regular forms from which irregular elements
have been subtracted or an irregular composition of regular forms. Since we deal with
both solids and voids in architecture, regular forms can be contained within irregular
forms. Similarly, irregular forms can be enclosed by regular forms

Transformation of Forms-, variations that are generated by the manipulation of their

dimensions, or by subtraction or addition of elements.

Dimensional Transformation - form can be transformed by altering one or more of

its dimensions and still retain its family identity

Subtractive Transformation - A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of

its volume. Depending on the extent of the subtractive process, the form can retain its
identity, or be transformed into a form of another family

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Additive Transformation - A form can be transformed by addition of elements to its
volume. The nature of the addition process will determine whether the identity of the
initial form is retained or altered.
Centralized Form- a number of secondary forms clustered about a dominant central
parent form

Linear Form - a series of forms arranged sequentially in a row

Radial Form - composition of linear forms extending outwards from a central form in
a radial manner

Clustered Form - Collection of forms grouped together by proximity or the sharing of

a common visual trait

Grid Form - set of modular forms related and regulated by three dimensional grid

Structural Elements- elements of architecture which carries the load of the building
such as Walls – are the simplest of the structural elements. Columns– vertical
structural elemenst that carries the load of horizontal structures and transmit it to the
foundation system.

Protective Elements - components which protect the structure form harmful

elements such roofs; domes; vaults and ceilings

Circulatory Elements – elements of architecture expressed Openings- (doors and

windows) to permit passage from the exterior to the interior or from one room to
another, as well as to allow the movement of light and air throughout the building;
Corridors – to allow travel from one part of the building to another; Stairways, ramps,
elevators– to allow communication between floors.

Decorative Elements – refers to decoration such as moldings and ornaments

Moldings – are architectural elements which are composed of narrow, curved and flat
projecting or receding members arranged in such a manner as to give a play of light
and shade and to furnish emphasis to certain parts of the building. Ornament

Abstract Ornament - is that which has no reference to any particular subject, or at

least to any familiar, easily recognized object. Pictorial – Pictorial Ornament has less
connection with architecture than with some other form of expression.

Non-pictorial Ornament - does not tell a story that is; there should be no pictorial
meaning to the design.

Materials – materials dictate the type of construction, and out of the limitations and
possibilities of wood, stone, bricks, steel and concrete

Function - of the structure - Relationship of units - Correct placing for proper

circulation; Physical qualities of units - Correct size and shape for equipment, furniture
and circulation
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Strength - of the structure involves correct use of materials and construction; relation
to function; economy of materials; adequacy of structure; honesty of expression
.
Composition - appearance of structure - composition of mass, volume, areas, details
organized according to contrast, proportion, scale, balance, rhythm, unity and
character.

Contrast – association of unlike qualities; transition is one important rule in using the
principle of contrast. contrast of form, line, shape, mass, size, tone treatment,
character etc.

Proportion – harmonious relation of one part to another with respect to magnitude

and quantity, refers to size of human beings.

Material Proportions - All materials have rational proportions that at dictated by their
inherent strengths and weaknesses

Structural Proportions – Beams and columns forms the skeletal structural framework
that defines modules of spaces. By their size and proportion, columns and beams
articulate space, and give it scale and a hierarchical structure.

Manufactured Proportions – many architectural elements are sized and

proportioned not only according to their structural properties and function, but also by
the process through which they are manufactured.

Relative Proportions – deals with the relationship between the parts of the object
and the whole. For example, the ratio between the diameter of a classical column and
its height or the relation of the panels of the door and the whole door.

Absolute Proportion – deals with the relationship between the different parts of an
object or the whole to the various parts.

Scale – deals with the relation of architectural motifs such as windows, doors,
moldings, to each other and to the human figure.

Balance – means equality, satisfying to the eye with reference to the relative
importance of the various parts of the design.

Symmetrical Balance – arrangement of elements on both sides to achieve symmetry

Pure or Absolute Symmetry - the simplest and easiest kind of balance, in which the
elements are so arranged in precisely the same manner on either side of s central axis
or line usually with similar objects.

Formal Balance- a type of symmetrical balance where the general mass and
grouping of parts may be similar but there are dissimilarities in plan, elevation and
details.
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Asymmetrical Balance - an occult balance, obtained by the grouping, in an informal
manner, of elements of varying sizes and shapes; one senses, rather than sees, a
state of equilibrium.

Rhythm – organized movement of line which carries the eye from one element to
another

Unity – relating to all unrelated parts of an architectural arrangement in order to obtain

a satisfactory composition.

Character - the external manifestation or expression of internal qualities. It grows out

of the function of the building and the consideration of all the creative principles of
composition; Function or use of the building; Association, or the influence of
traditional types; Personality, or emotional appeal.

Emphasis - Center of interest, dominant area that catches the eye or arrest attention
which leads the eye from the most important part of design to other subordinating
areas in the order of their importance.

THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2

Design - the activity of generating proposals that change something that already
exists into something that is better; it includes the most purposeful changes to the
physical environment;

Functional Zoning - the need for adjacency

Architectural Space - a concretization of man’s existential space; space is the most

influential aspect of design problem solving.

Circulation - may be conceived as the perceptual thread that links the spaces of a
building or any series of interior or exterior spaces together.

Building forms - are conceived as structures.

Response to Context – depends on the environment and the meaning of the structure
in that environment.

Building Envelope -the imaginary shape of a building indicating its maximum volume.

Creativity - the process of generating new ideas and an essential tool in design

Ideation- The mental process which gives the ability to think or ideate

Idea Quantity- The capacity to produce the largest number of ideas per unit of time
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Imagineering - The process of letting imagination soar and then engineering it back
to reality

STAGES IN DESIGNING

Design Analysis- the stage in which we identify the PROBLEM in order to come up
with ideas to solve it.

Alphabetical Listings - begins with listing all the letters of the alphabet. Then for
each letter, list a word or phrase that begins with that letter and pertains to the problem
you are attempting to solve or a potential solution to it.

Functional Visualization- thinking about what function the object will perform
instead of thinking how it will look like

Morphological Synthesis - making a list in a more direct manner to seek

alternatives.

Inversion - instead of thinking of how to improve the situation, think of how to make
it worse so that you are given a new set of perspective or concepts

Bionics - “back to nature” solutions

Description by Association - offering a description of the object by associating it

with something else.

Brainstorming – a group process in which several people, for a given amount of time,
gathers together and discusses a particular problem, and everyone contributes
positive thoughts to the discussion.

Criticism Design may be criticized by others who want to apply further objectives
or prioritize other aspects of the problem. During this stage, the problem may change
and the information and objectives may increase.

Operational Process - conceptual design and operational design

Conceptual Design – sketches which make up a statement to intent for the guidance
of structural and service engineering consultants and for information of suppliers and
manufacturers who will be involved in the work.

Operational Design – detailed working drawings and specifications which may be

constantly modified during the process but always within the framework of the basic
concept.

Design Process - - involves initiation, preparation, proposal, evaluation, action

Initiation - Involves the recognition and definition of the problem to be solved

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Preparation- The systematic collection and analysis of information about the problem
to be solved the activity is called “programming” and the product is a building program

Synthesis - a physical demonstration of the integration of a very large number of

issues. Drawings and notes form a tool for successive explorations and iterations that
converge on a solution

Translation – refers to the preparation of sketches, drawings and models

Evaluation -evaluation of alternative proposals by the designer; Comparing proposed

design solutions with the goals and criteria evolved in the programming stage

Action - Stage in the design process that include activities associated with
preparations and implementation of a project; Preparation of construction documents
(working drawings and written specifications for the building)

Axial Arrangements- Axis is determined by the relative importance of the sides which
bound the plan

Major Axis – carried through the mass as one enters the building; perpendicular to
the main elevation and to the directional quality of the area

Principal Minor Axis – extends at right angle from the major axis; parallel to the main
elevation

Organic Plans – all parts must fit together in such a way that the composition will be
disturbed if one element is moved

Repetition - When a number of room, window, arches, etc. of equal size and shape
occur side by side to create unaccented rhythm

Alternation- Alternating varying sizes or contrasting shapes

Transition - A satisfactory progression from one unit to another such as vestibules,

lobbies; gives preparatory indication of the character and use of the interior

Transformation - A prototypical architectural model whose formal structure and

ordering are appropriate is transformed through a series of discreet manipulations to
respond to specific conditions and context.

Theory - in architecture deals with what architecture is, what architecture should
accomplish, and how best to design it.

History - deals with theories, events, design methods, and buildings.

Criticism - is the process and record of response to the built environment; it relates
to both theory and history; history can be considered as a form of criticism.

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Mathematical Analogy - Geometry and numbers as a basis for Architecture, in tune
with a Universal order; Golden Section proportion: 1:1.6128 /2:3 / 3:5 / 5:8; Fibonacci
Series: 1+2 = 3, 2+3=5, 3+5 = 8 and so on; Create a continuing scale: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, 55, 89, 144....

Modular System - Le Corbusier (Modular System); number theories of renaissance

example Greek orders: Doric, Ionic or Corinthian

Biological Analogy - Organic – Focuses on the relationships between parts of the

building or between the building and its site.; Biomorphic – Focuses on growth
processes and movement capabilities associated with organisms

Romantic Analogy - Evocative uses associations or exaggeration to elicit an

emotional response; Associations can refer to nature, the past, exotic places, primitive
things, the future, childhood, etc.; Exaggeration or excess can intimidate, frighten, or
awe through the use of contrast, excessive stimulation, unfamiliar scale or forms.

Linguistic Analogy - Grammatical model – Architecture is composed of elements

(words) that are ordered by rules (grammar and syntax) that allow people to
understand what a building is trying to communicate. Expressionist model – Building
as a vehicle for expression of the Architects attitude towards the building.

Mechanical Analogy - Buildings are like machines. They should express only what
they are and what they do. Ex. “A house is a machine for living” –Le Corbusier

Problem Solving Analogy - Assumes that environmental needs can be solved

through careful analysis and deliberate procedures. It includes 3 Stages - Analysis,
Synthesis and Evaluation

Adhocist Analogy - Building should respond to the immediate need, using materials
readily available without making reference to an ideal. Ex. Eames House, Charles and
Ray Eames

Pattern Language Analogy - Human activities are often characterized as theatre

characterized as theatre and so the built environment may be seen as a stage in which
people play roles and buildings become settings and props. Ex. Plaza D’ Italia, Charles
Moore

Dramaturgical Analogy- Theories about what architecture should accomplish are

concerned with identifying the goals that the designer and buildings should satisfy.

THEORIES ABOUT HOW TO DESIGN

Classical Theories - MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLIO; Author of the oldest research on

architecture; Wrote an extensive summary of all the theories on construction

Medieval Theories - most documents dealt with monastery institutions

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Renaissance Theories- brought a new interest in the feats of antiquity (especially in
Italy)

Construction Theories - Before Written Construction Theory -Architecture created

without the help of architects or theory; During Middle Ages - No written documents
survived about theories or models to describe the magnificent vaults of medieval
cathedrals; During Renaissance - From Alberti onwards, architects began
specializing, first engineering school

Five points of Architecture – theoretical treatise of Le Corbusier in 1926 which has

elements such as pilotis; free plan ; free façade ; the long horizontal sliding window
and the roof garden.

Architecture as Space - theoretical treatise of Bruno Zevi; The “personal style” of

architects are not necessarily based on laws of nature or on logical reasoning.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Industrial Revolution (1768) - Arts and Crafts Movement Eclecticism; Fruits of

Industrial Revolution Examples Joseph Paxton – Crystal Palace, 1851; Elisha
Graves Otis – Elevator, 1857; Manufacturing of “Rolled Steel”

1870’s - The Great Fire of Chicago, 1871 downtown in Chicago was burned and
was in need of construction of new buildings place where first tallest building was
constructed; William Le Baron Jenney made the first skyscraper; Daniel Burnham
-“make no little plans, they have no magic to stir man’s blood”; Louis Sullivan - “form
follows function”

1880’s - Chicago School became the concentration of architectural development

introduce Chicago Window

1890’s - The World Columbian Exposition built in 1863 ; chief architect: Daniel
Burnham and Frederick Law Olmsted

1900’s; European architecture was notified; Otto Wagner; Adolf Loops “ornament
is a crime”; H.P. Berlage; Frank Lloyd Wright

1910’s - Office of Peter Behrens; Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe “less in more”; Walter
Gropius; Le Corbusier

Futurism – simultaneity of movement

Cubism – interpretation of space

1920’s - The Bauhaus - “Art and Technology, the new unity”; Frank Lloyd Wright
“organic architecture”; other architects Le Corbusier; Mies van der Rohe; Walter
Gropius

1930’s- International Style

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1950’s - The period of Reassessment ; Universalism ; Personalism; Postmodernism;
Robert Venturi “less is bore” ; Philip Johnson say that a portion of Chippendale
building in New York has no function ; Introduced the element of “Discovery”

Alvar Aalto-Nothing is dangerous in architecture dealing with separated problems. If

we split life into separated problems, we split the possibilities to make good art.

Eero Saarinen - The purpose of architecture is to shelter and enhance man’s life on
earth and to fulfil his belief in nobility of his existence.

Frank Lloyd Wright - All fine architectural values are human values, else not
valuable. “An idea is salvation by imagination.”

Le Corbusier - Architecture is a learned game, correct, magnificent, of forms

assembled in the light. “A house is a machine for living in.”

Louis Sullivan - Form follows function

Michael Graves: I don’t believe in morality in architecture.

Mies van der Rohe - Architecture is the will of the epoch translated into space.
“Less is more.”

Philip Johnson- Architecture is the art of how to waste space. “All architects want to
live beyond their death.”

Tadao Ando- I would like my architecture to inspire people to use their own resources,
to move into the future. I believe that the way people live can be directed a little by
architecture.

ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

Christian Nordberg Schulz – architectural theory The Phenomenon of Place;

example works of Tadao Ando

Geoffrey Broadbent – Theory of Signs; example Swiss Re Building

Kenneth Frampton – Critical Regionalism Theory; example Bilbao Museum

Louis Sullivan - Form Follows Function; example Guaranty

Building

Mies Van der Rohe - Universal Space Theory example; Crown Hall

Peter Eisenman – theory of Post Functionalism; example Fish

Dance Restaurant

Robert Venturi – theory of Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture example;

Ronchamp

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ARCHITECTURAL CONCERNS

Function- activity, grouping, and zoning

Space- volume required by activities

Geometry- circulation form and image

Context- site and climate

Enclosure- structure enclosing planes and openings

Systems- mechanical, electrical, etc.

Economic- initial cost, maintenance cost, etc.

Human factors- perception of human behavior

Horizontal Disposition– arrangement of the various units of the plan in a horizontal

manner in order to secure a workable relationship between the different areas.
Principle related to Function- Adjacency; Relatedness of departments, goals and
systems; Sequence in time; Required environments; Effect produce; Relative
proximity to buildings; Relatedness to core activities; Characteristics of people
involved; Volume of people involved; Extent of involvement of man and machine
Space - one of the most influential aspects of the analysis stage in solving a design
problem
Systems of Spaces - most of man’s actions comprise of a spatial aspect.
Expressive or Artistic Space- created by man to express the structure of his world.
Aesthetic Space- concept which systematized the space’s possible properties.
Concept of Space - Based on Euclidean space- stimulated by the importance of
Euclidean geometry.; Based on perception psychology- buffer zones, space
bubbles
Physical Space - the user’s physical needs, space may also be shaped by the user’s
sensory perception - olfactory, hearing and sight
Principles of Space Organization- are concerned with the use of space;
collaboration of materials and contributions of aesthetics
Space within a space- space to space relationship consists of larger space
enveloping a smaller space within its volume.
Interlocking spaces- space to space relationship consist of two spaces whose fields
overlap to form a zone of shared space.
Adjacent spaces- space to space relationship consist of two spaces that are clearly
defined and responsive to functional or symbolic requirements in their own way

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Spaces linked by common space- space to space relationship consist of two spaces
that are separated by distance and a third intermediate space that interlocks them and
defines their relationship.
Centralized- space arrangement consists of a central dominant space around which
a number of secondary spaces are grouped.
Linear- space arrangement consists of a linear sequence of repetitive spaces that are
generally alike in size, form and function.
Radial- space arrangement consists of a central space from which linear organizations
extend in a radial manner.
Clustered- space arrangement consists of repetitive cellular spaces grouped by
proximity or by the sharing of a common trait or relationship.
Grid- space arrangement consists of spaces whose positions in space and
relationships with one another are regulated by a three-dimensional grid pattern or
field.
Space Articulation –it is often used in architecture to define a zone of space within a
larger spatial context.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
CIRCULATION ELEMENT
Building approach- circulation element described as building entrances which are
usually approached along a path, making it the first phase of the circulation system;
it can be frontal, oblique or spiral in nature.
The building entrance- the building entrance distinguishes the passage from one
space to another (outside to inside)
Configuration of the path - Pedestrian path- can accommodate sharper turns but
require a greater volume of space than the bodily dimensions of the users.
Vehicular paths- can be tailored tightly to the width of the vehicles but requires less
abrupt changes in pace and direction.
Path space relationships - Pass by space- maintains the integrity of earth space;
flexible configuration; may be connected to mediating paths. Pass through spaces-
axially, obliquely or along its edge; creates patterns of movement or rest within the
space. Terminate in a space- used to approach and enter functionally and
symbolically important spaces.
Form of circulation space- corridors, balconies, galleries, stairs and rooms are
circulation space that form an integral part of the building organization and occupy a
significant amount of space within the building’s volume.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

Solar shading in summer - Shading by structural elements (overhangs, walls,

baffles, etc.) is designed to intercept the sun’s rays at the building exterior; it affects
the facade of the building.

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Powered louvers to diminish heat gain – exterior, power-operated sun louvers that
automatically turn to exclude the sun’s rays as it relative position changes throughout
the day
Evaporative cooling- as water evaporates heat is drawn from the air, reducing the
water’s temperature.
Building configuration- buildings should be constructed with minimum exposed
surface area except when the skin facilitates heat dissipation.
BUILDING ENCLOSURE AND BUILDING ENVELOPE

Properties of enclosure - Dimension (properties, scale) ; Shape (definition);

Configuration(form) ; Surface (color, texture, pattern); Edges; Openings (enclosure,
light, view)
OPENINGS IN SPACE
Degree of enclosure- openings in space that determined by the configuration and the
pattern of the openings, has a significant impact on our perception of the orientation
and overall form of the space.
Light- natural light coming from windows illuminates the space’s surfaces and forms
enlivens its colors and influences its mood.
View- windows and skylights provide view and establish a visual relationship between
the room and its surroundings
OPENINGS WITHIN PLANES
Building Envelope - The building envelope may be regarded as more than a two
dimensional space. It is a transition space where people inside can have a preview of
what is outside or vice versa.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVELOPE

Filter- a means to make the connection indirect (screens, walls); selects outside
conditions that will be allowed into the building; sometimes may be in the position of a
switch.

Connector- a means to make a connection (doorways, openings); characteristics of

architecture in mild climates

Switch- regulating connector (operable doors and windows)

Barrier- separating element (roof, wall); completely severs the relationship between
the indoor and the outdoor; characteristic of architecture in harsh climates

Closed Shell Envelope Design - establishes limited contacts with the outdoors;
usually found in harsh climates.

Open Frame Envelope Design- begins as a structural frame with the building skin
selectively added to modify only a few outside forces; usually found in hot, humid
climate.

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ECONOMICS THE COST OF THE BUILDING STRUCTURE
Structural cost – cost related to structural strength and physical integrity (25%)
Architectural cost – cost related to aesthetics of building (45- 60%)
Essential services – provisions for mechanical and electrical equipment and other
service systems (15-20% depending on type of building.

SOCIO-CULTURAL VARIABLES

Attitudes toward privacy – complete privacy/subtle cues and signals

Family structure – single/extended families; shared/individual spaces within the
dwelling
Role of women– isolation/segregation/ integration of women in activities and facilities
Recreational patterns – formal and sedentary recreational pursuits/ physically
oriented outdoor activities
Shopping habits – day to day / long term
Job patterns – separate/ single working and living environments
Technological experience – acceptance/ resistance to technological advances
PERSONAL SPACE TERRITORIAL CATEGORIES

Public – areas where individuals have freedom of access but not of action
Home – areas where individuals have regular freedom of behavior and sense of
control over the area
Interactional – areas where social gatherings occur; boundaries and territorial claims
are implicit and unofficial
Body – area immediately surrounding the individual’s body; most private and inviolate
to the individual
USER POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

Cultural factors – social rules and attitudes, religious attitudes, intellectual/skill

development, where and how people live (spatial features), technological amenities,
language
Body Size – its impact on architectural space, including clearances and reach
distances
Mobility – agility as dictated by age, size, garments
Strength – tailor fitting architectural features that need to be lifted, pushed, pulled or
twisted to the weakest member of the population
Sensory factors – factors related to vision, hearing and touch which have to be
considered according to the limited capacities of elderly and handicapped individuals
Motor Skills – skills as dictated by training or innate capacity to perform certain
tasks
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Cognitive Skills – understanding of the operational aspects according to age
difference, educational/technological capacity
Human Needs - affects interior design, housing, belonging, personalization, privacy
and control

Belonging – knowing that you can call a place yours and no one else’s; how a person
is influenced by the place in which he lives

Personalization – demonstrating one’s creativity to make a certain place his own; it

also means imprinting personal values upon something, thus making it a part of one’s
self. The portrayal and presentation of self are important aspects of personal
impression.
Privacy – having a place or a method by which one can obtain time for one’s self – to
find out about himself, to develop and become individual
Control – mastery over one’s life and environment; having a place that one can
influence a part of developing self-image

Values - are lifelong guiding forces that govern our actions. They provide a basis for
judgment, discrimination and analysis, and grow out of human desires and interests.
They are the product of interaction between the individual and some object or situation
in his environment.

Folk Architecture– the natural domestic architecture of people including simple

communal buildings such as churches, warehouses and barns. Originality in the
design is minimal and differentiation is mainly a matter of building type, detail and
craftsmanship in decoration.
Vernacular Architecture– designs that are the built equivalent of the common way of
speech. It is a generalized way of design derived from Folk Architecture. It can be used
for spiritual, monumental and utility buildings but are limited by propriety and scale. It
is congenial to people and sympathetic to nature.
Spiritual Architecture – mainly concerned with the aspirations of individuals and
groups. It is accomplished with greater economic provision for higher motivation and
significance.
Monumental Architecture – honorific in its significance and is extended from person
to institution. The distinction between spiritual and monumental architecture is often
blurred though the latter is more concerned with the remembrance of people and the
physical realm rather than non-corporeal things.
Utilitarian Architecture – dedicated to utility, and the expression of function
disregards any spiritual objective

THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3

CULTURE

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Building Traditions during Spanish Period- Houses signify the wealth and rank of
the owner. The bahay na bato retained the usual post and lintel construction of the
bahay kubo with some innovations. Highly flexible interior where rooms may be joined
or separated by opening or closing wide doors. The addition of the azotea at the back
of the house, the caida or antesala at the top of the stairs. Details such as the media
agua, the ventanillas and the tiled roof which gave the bahay na bato an elegant
appearance without losing the airy and light qualities of the bahay kubo.

Building Traditions during the American Period - Chalets - The most prominent
feature is the front porch, which may be extended to the sides of the house.

Bungalow - This house brought the American concept of privacy which encouraged
family to have his/her own room thus introducing hallways and corridor-spaces that
solely as distribution points.

Designed Environment -results when a design problem is approached holistically;

uses the designer’s approach of analyzing the client’s basic need; translating these
needs to architectural terms and to create the best designed environment.

Designing Interior Environment –analyzing user requirements and assessing clients

psychological need.

Ethnic Filipino Building Traditions - Ethnic houses reflect the wisdom of skilled
artisans who intuitively blend aesthetics and utility into a harmonious whole. The
design construction of houses is affected by animistic beliefs and assumptions. These
governed the choice of site, time and season for building, rituals to be observed before
and during construction, the orientation of the house and distribution of the interior
spaces.

Filipino Family Values- the family is the center of the social structures and includes
the nuclear family, aunts, uncles’ grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such
as godparents, sponsors, and close family friends often called aunts and uncles
though they are not. Close familial ties are upheld to the highest extent

Filipino Private Spaces- The Traditional Filipino space is always transparent. This
allows for the open planning requirements of living in a tropical climate and keeps the
house related with the natural environment.

Filipino Public Spaces- Traditional Filipino culture share land communally instead of
having private properties bounded by fences and gates. This suggests that everyone
in the village could share in whatever resources are available from the land. The
responsibility for maintaining the areas, which are designed as communal properties
(shorelines, riverbanks, etc.), rests on all the residents of the area.

Hiya/Shame - is a motivating factor behind behavior. It is a sense of social propriety

and conforming to societal norms of behavior. Filipinos believe they must live up to the
accepted standards of behavior and if they fail to do so, they bring shame not only
upon themselves, but also upon their family.

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Home - Filipinos are hospitable and generous. They will readily invite an acquaintance
into their home; many Filipino building beliefs are based on sound planning practices.
For instance, many Filipinos prefer that their houses face the east.

Material culture- objects and their location in space are fundamental to the study of
spatial relations.

Pakikisama – Filipinos use pakikisama, or camaraderie in English, to maintain a

harmonious relationship.

Social Structures -the network of actually existing relations among human beings
who are connected by a complex structure of social relations.

Spatial Relations- these are expressed in spatial relations or the interplay of the
organization, distribution and categorization of objects and people in space.

ENVIRONMENT BEHAVIOR STUDY

Pre-statement – first step of design process which usually states what space is to be
designed- giving very little information regarding the related requirements

Information Gathering - design process which involves researching information and

details related to the problem through review of related literature, ocular inspection of
the space, direct observation, interview/ survey with the users, secondary information

Problem Statement – part of the design process that identifies and present the
problem based on data gathered

Analysis of the Problem – part of design process that defines and understands the
nature of the design problem which will be essential to the solution

Synthesis - Conceptualization through graphic solutions, matrices and diagrams.

Requires knowledge and understanding gained through experience and research,
intuition and imagination.

Environment-Behavior Studies in architecture - include the systematic examination

of relationships between the environment and human behavior and their application in
the design process. Encompass more than just function. It involves careful study of
the psychology of the user, how he or she perceives the building form, social
interaction needs, subcultural differences in lifestyle, and the meaning and symbolism
of buildings. It also includes aesthetics, combining formal theories with user-based
experimental aesthetics.

Proxemics - is the different distances between people that are considered

comfortable for social interaction.

Privacy - an interpersonal control mechanism that paces and regulates interaction

with others.

Environmental meaning and symbolism - these include the way in which people
use the environment in the presentation of self.

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User Groups- importance of studying behavioral factors from a user standpoint. It
provides understanding that can be applied in any design project involving their users.

Settings - study of settings in relation to behavioral concerns involves a holistic focus

on all the behavioral, social and cultural factors that needs to be considered in the
design of different building types.

Personal space - is a small, invisible, protective sphere or bubble that an organism

carries about and maintains between the self and others. It acts as a body buffer zone
or personal, not shared, space.

Territory and territoriality - refers to a group of behavior settings that a person will
personalize, mark, own, and defend.

Defensible space - aims to restructure the physical layout of communities to allow

residents to control the areas around their homes. On a smaller scale in interiors,
defensible space allows the users to exercise control over their territories and the
space surrounding them.

Privacy - defined as the claim of individuals, groups or institutions to control access

to themselves and to determine for themselves when, how and to what extent
information about themselves will be communicated.

Density - a mathematical measure of the number of people per unit of space.

Crowding- is a psychological or an environment-behavior concept, which refers

to the experience of being bounded or blocked, or frustrated by the presence of too
many people.

User Characteristic Approach - develop from the idea that the users of most
environments are diverse and are likely to have different basic for the same setting.

Social Function Approach - involves focusing on particular processes or functions

which are to varying degrees affected by environment. Concerned with specifying
form characteristics which would facilitate or support (or in certain instances prevent)
a particular social/ psychological/ physiological process such as social interaction,
image formation, crime, or stress, etc.

Behavior Circuit Approach - focuses on the behavior of typical individual users of

the environment. The flow of behavior of an individual is broken into comprehensible
segments or sequences that are related to particular environment settings.

Behavior Setting Approach- Focuses on areas or settings within which there are
relatively stable patterns of recurring behaviors. Identifies the patterns of behavior
within a particular setting or area. Most action settings or behavior settings have
been a particularly enduring form in space and schedule in time. The people, objects
and events inside the settings are ordered in a bounded pattern according to the
recognized needs of the activity going on in it.

Post Occupancy Evaluation- Aims to provide programmatic information to

designers. This form of evaluation research involves a systematic re-examination of a

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design once it has been completed or occupied or used for a reasonable length of
time.

User Participation Approach- Does not rely for the most part on experts to develop
the information. Relies instead on methods which enable the direct user participation
in the process of developing design requirements, perhaps even to the extent of
controlling the process.

Physical Distance- measured linear distance traversed in walking between two

points.

Functional Distance- includes the variables of design and relative position as they
affect the number of involuntary, casual contacts between people

Sociofugal Environments- discourage social contacts and the formation of

friendships.

Sociopetal Environments- encourage social contacts and the development of

friendships.

Friendship Formation- friendships are formed on the basis of shared interests and
backgrounds.

Group Membership - being or not being a part of a definite social group is one-way
people define themselves and is thus a matter of importance to most people.

Personal Space - Strong feelings people have about controlling access to their
persons manifests in the spacing or separation that people maintain when dealing with
other people.

Intimate Distance- ranges from actual contact to a distance of 18”; reserved for
lovers, small children or very close friends.

Personal Distance- ranges from 1.5 to 4 feet (“arm’s length”); protected area where
strangers would not be welcome.

Social Distance- ranges from 4 to 12 feet; range of public interactions

Public Distance- ranges from 12 to 25 feet; range where noninvolvement begins

Personal Status - people use different techniques to establish their own self-
definitions, and for defining themselves to others. They seek an architectural
expression that reflects their self-image.

Territoriality - territorial feelings of human merge with other feelings about personal
space and concern for personal status.

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Person to Person Territory - territorial friction arising over personal belongings
; can be minimized by marking personal possessions clearly and eliminating the
possible causes of friction.

Boundaries ̶ disputes over territorial boundaries can often be traced to ambiguity

lines; indicating clearly what is shared and what is private

Group Territory - the feeling of sharing “ownership” through membership in a group.

No one’s Territory - places for which no one or no group develops territorial feelings
and are subject to misuse and abuse

Individual Possessions ̶ mark them in distinctive ways or give them individual

names.

Group Territory ̶ establish clear boundaries and a clear identity; essential for the
development of specific group territorial feelings.

Transient Territory ̶ it is helpful if objects claimed as transient territories can be

designed and arranged so that the area assigned to each individual is clearly delimited
(dividers between urinals, individual seats in bus terminals, etc.)

Territorial Responsibility -to ensure that a sense of territorial responsibility develops

among users in those projects that actually belong to someone else; the designer
should make an effort to include the users in the planning process to create a bond
between them and the project.

Personal Communications - facilitate communications between people, designers

must recognize that conversations take place wherever people meet.

Communicating with Design- design characteristics of a building are capable of

communicating any message.

Cue Searching - the need to know what is going on in the world around us in order
for us to conduct our personal affairs safely, expeditiously and with a minimum of
wasted effort or embarrassment.

Edifice complex - projection of the rich and powerful of their wealth and authority by
the grandeur and opulence of their buildings.

Personal Safety - People need help in identifying those aspects of their environment
that may be hazardous even though the hazard is not obvious. They need help in
identifying those aspects of their environment that may be safe even though they may
not appear to be safe.

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Space Articulation - can be acquired0 characteristics as a result of a complex
interplay of social, aesthetics, and physical factors of the setting.

Interior Decoration ̶ the process of arranging a room so that its component parts are
independent of each other and the relationship is maintained only with the use of color
harmony and coordinated arrangement of furniture and decorative objects.

Interior Design - shaping and conditioning of space for the optimum physiological and
psychological environment that affects the users of the interior.

Functional Zoning – the need for adjacency.

Architectural Space – a concretization of man’s existential space; space is the most

influential aspect of design problem solving

Circulation and Building Form – circulation may be conceived as the perpetual

thread that links the spaces of a building or any series of interior or exterior spaces
together.

Building forms - are conceived as structures.

Response to Context - depending on the environment and the meaning of the

structure in that environment.

Building Envelope – the imaginary shape of a building indicating its maximum

volume.

Architectural Space- Geometric elements of point, line, plane and volume can be
arranged to articulate and define the space.

Interior Spaces – are formed first by a building’s structural system, further defined by
walls and ceiling planes, and related to other spaces by windows and doorways

Structure – refers to the selection of an arrangement of interior elements such that

the visual relationships define and organize the interior space of a room.

INTERIOR DESIGN ELEMENTS

Floors - are the flat, level base planes of interior space; platforms that support our
interior activities and furnishings, they must one structured to carry these loads safely
and their finishes must be durable enough to withstand continuous uses and wear

Pattern – can be used as simple background (neutral pattern less floor), as an accent,
to define areas, suggest paths of movement, or simply provide textural interest

Hardwood Flooring Materials - Hardwood floors are fast becoming the most popular
flooring material. Wide variety of woods and grains to choose from, such as oak, pine,
maple, cherry, even bamboo.

Wood Strips – thickness: 5/16” to ¾”, width: 1-½” to 2-¼”

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Wood Planks – thickness: ½” to ¾”; width: 3” to 8”

Wood Parquet – usually square, composed of small wood slats joined by adhesive
and fasteners.

Engineered Hardwood Floors – made by gluing up 3-5 thin layers of hardwood.

Long strip Plank Floors or Laminates – are typically a 1/8” prefinished hardwood
veneer glued to a plywood base.

Vinyl- floor covering is a popular resilient flooring available in multiple forms; made
by bonding a protective clear layer, called the wear layer, to a decorative layer and
finally to a felt backing.
Carpet - Carpeting is manufactured in strips and sold by the square meter, cut to fit,
and normally fastened to the floor with adhesives; carpet tiles are modular pieces of
carpet which can be laid to resemble a seamless wall-to-wall installation or arranged
in patterns.

Ceramic and Stone- these tiles may be made of baked ceramic, marble, granite, slate
and other stones as well; beautiful, natural, easy to clean, extremely durable resistant
to moisture, easy to install and available on hundreds of shapes and styles- including
stone patterns that are extremely natural looking.

Concrete -this option provides great durability. Concrete can give an industrial look to
and it is also good for areas that receive hard wear.

Walls -are primary elements with which we define interior space; together with the
floor and the ceiling planes which complete the enclosure, walls govern the size and
shape of the room.

Gypsum Wallboard- a ready-made surface that can be applied on a wall and use as
backing for other treatments such as fabric, paneling, wallpaper, and tile. It is made
from pound gypsum that is encased in paper.

Plank Paneling- applied on walls to make them look like natural wood planks.

Sheet Paneling -a style of paneling that comes in many styles, color, and patterns. It
is made from plywood type material that appears like the planks.

Wainscoting - a method of wood paneling that is typically applied to the bottom third
of a wall, with individual tongue and groove boards or raised panels.

Tiles- Ceramic tile, the cheapest, come in many designs, whether glazed or unglazed,
deep textured, hand-painted, and rugged appearance, and are widely used primarily
for its worry-free maintenance.

Paint: comes in almost all the colors in the spectrum. Custom-made hues could also
be mixed by professionals. It is the most economical way to dress up a wall.

Wall Coverings: available in wide ranges of colors, patterns and sizes; may be used
to articulate, separate or coordinate spaces, to act as focal point, to emphasize or
minimize details.

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Doors and Windows - windows and doorways interrupt the wall planes that give the
building its form and interior definition; they are transitional elements or architectural
and interior design that link both visually and physically one space to another, and the
inside and outside.

Swing Type Door – hinged on the jambs; most convenient for entry and passage;
most effective for isolating sound and for weather tightness; requires space for swing.

Pocket Sliding Door – hung on track and slides into a pocket within width of wall;
used when normal door swing will interfere with use of space; present a finished
appearance when open; for interior use only.

Surface Sliding Door– hung from an exposed track; primarily for interior use

By-pass Sliding Door– doors slide along an overhead track and along guides or
tracks on the floor; opens only to 50% of doorway

Bi-fold Door – consists of hinged door panels that slide on an overhead track; for
interior use only, commonly as a visual screen.

Accordion Folding Door – similar to bi-fold except that the panels are smaller; for
interior use only, commonly to subdivide a large room into smaller space

Special Folding Door – panels slide on overhead tracks which can be configured to
follow a curvilinear path; panels can be stored in pockets or recesses; for interior use
only

Overhead doors – consists of hinged door section that roll upward or an overhead
track; capable of closing off unusually tall or wide openings; for interior and exterior
doors which are not frequently used.

Windows - size, shape and placement affect the visual integrity of a wall surface and
the sense of enclosure it provides. A window can be seen as a bright area within a
wall, an opening framed by a wall, or a void separating two wall planes.

Window Shutters - rigid planes, usually of wood; hinged to open and close like
miniature doors; panels usually have adjustable louvers so that light and view may be
filtered

Grills - decorative screens of wood or metal that can be used to mask views, filter
light, or diffuse ventilation (depending on spacing and orientation of members)

Curtains - are usually of sheer, light material hung close to the window or within the
window frames.

Draperies are usually of heavy fabric, tied back or hung on a rod covered with a
valence or wide cornice.

Roller Blinds – consists of a sturdy or stiffened fabric wound into a wooden roller. The
roller incorporates a spring so that the blind can be lowered into any position and then
released to snap back to its rolled state

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Roman Blinds – attached at the top of a wooden batten, vertical cords threaded
through rings attached to the back of the blinds allow it to be pulled into soft horizontal
folds

Venetian Blinds – made of thin strips of plastic or metal which can be adjusted to
allow varying degrees of light to filter through; when fully open, they can be almost
visible

Vertical Louver Blinds – almost similar to venetian blinds but the slats are wider and
hang vertically.

Color – an inherent visual property of all forms - the most immediately noticeable and
the most adaptable and variable element in decorating.

Color Wheel – offers the easiest way to visualize how hues relate to each other

Color Systems – has been adopted as a tool for defining these basic relationships.

Color Theory – aims to predict or specify the color combinations that would work well
together or appear harmonious

Complementary Colors – colors that lie opposite each other on the wheel; when
paired, each makes the other appear more vivid

Analogous Colors – colors next to each other on the color wheel - tend to produce a
single-hued or a dominant color experience.

Split Complementary – color scheme employs a range of analogous hues, “split”

from a basic key color, with the complementary color as contrast.

Triad Color – color scheme adopts any three colors approximately equidistant around
the hue circle. - This yields a lively yet balanced combination, but the scheme may feel
a little glaring unless one color is allowed to dominate and the other two are used in
lesser amounts or as accents.

Warm Colors - half of the color wheel, from red to yellow-green, stimulating and
advancing

Cool Colors - other half of the wheel, with colors that generally appear to recede.

Hue – the attribute by which we recognize or describe a color (ex. Red, yellow);
designation of the color in the color wheel.

Intensity – the degree of purity or saturation of a color when compared to a gray of

the same value; also brightness of dullness

Value – the degree of lightness or darkness of a color in relation to white or black; also
vividness. - Refers to how light or dark a color is - Yellow – is the lightest/highest value;
Purple – darkest/lowest

Chromatic Schemes – schemes where colors are present

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Achromatic Schemes – schemes that use only white, gray and black.

Related Color Schemes – are generally harmonious and restful, and are used for
rooms wherein a considerable span time is spent (monochromatic scheme,
analogous)

Contrasting Schemes – use opposing rather than related hues are combined; - tend
to be stimulating (complementary, double complementary, split complementary,
triads)

Achromatic Colors – any color that lacks strong chromatic content is said to be
unsaturated, achromatic, or near neutral. Pure Achromatic colors: black, white and all
grays White – can contain or be combined with any color; Black – absorbs color; Gray
– a true neutral shades

Neutral Colors – neutrals are obtained by mixing pure colors with either white or
black, or by mixing two complementary colors.

Red – the color has been shown to raise blood pressure and speed respiration and
heart rate.

Orange - like red, stimulates appetites. May be difficult color to live with. Terra-cotta,
salmon, peach, coral, and shrimp are more popular expressions of the hue.

Yellow – color that captures the joy of sunshine and communicates happiness.

Green- color considered the most restful color of the eye. Combining the refreshing
quality of the blue and the cheerfulness of yellow, green is situated to almost any room
in the house.

Blue- color that brings down blood pressure and slows respiration and heart rate.
Considered calming, relaxing, and serene, and is often recommended for bedrooms
and bathrooms.

Purple - its darkest value (eggplant, for example) is rich, dramatic, and sophisticated.
Associated with luxury as well as creativity, and as an accent or secondary color, it
gives a scheme depth.

LIGHTING

Lighting - Can be considerably change the atmosphere of the room. Because of

the huge impact of the choice of lighting effects in the interior, lighting plan and design.

General or Background Lighting - essentially acts as a replacement for daylight and

provides good, general visibility; typically, supplied by a ceiling-mounted fitting or a
pendant

Task or Local Lighting - an extra level of light provided in areas where specific task
are to be performed; task lighting focuses on a specific spot, and makes working much
more comfortable.

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Accent or Decorative Lighting: creates a sense of drama by conjuring up color,
texture and form, and is designed to spotlight the room’s best features.

Utility or Information Lighting-practical rather than aesthetic, used to illuminate dark

and potentially dangerous areas such as stairways and paths.

Tungsten/ Incandescent - consists of a tungsten filament that glows inside a clear

glass bulb that is filled with inert gas in low concentration. It cast a warm, peasant light
and shows fabrics and paints in their true colors but can make the room uncomfortably
warm if too many are used.

Tungsten Halogen - emits a cool and crisp light that is whiter and brighter than
ordinary tungsten; suggests spaciousness.

Florescent - available in a variety of tones that can significantly affect the color and
the atmosphere of the room.

Wall Lighting - Up-lighting enhances the room; down-lighting brightens specific areas.

Baffle – a device for shielding a light source from view at certain angles.

Baffle Downlight – recessed; baffles also serve to eliminate glare by absorbing all
extraneous light rays reaching the surface.

Eyeball – adjustable spotlight used for accent lighting; may be rotated 360 degrees,
or tilted off the vertical for directional lighting.

Diffuser – any of a variety of translucent materials for filtering glare from a light source
and distributing the light over an extended area.

Louver – a finned or vanned device for controlling the radiation from a light source

Eggcrate – a louvered construction divided into cell-like areas and used for redirecting
the light from an overhead source.

Scoop Wallwasher - produces an offset beam for illumination close to the ceiling

Cutaway Wallwasher – for lighting the wall and the floor

Soft Light – diffuse light that produces little contrast and poorly defined shadows on
the subject.

Hard Light – direct light that produces high contrast and distinct shadows on the
subject.

PLANTS

Bushy – pattern of plants which have several stems growing from potting level, giving
the plant a spread almost equal to its height - Often used alone rather than in group
displays, or as background for trailing plants.

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Climbing/ Trailing – pattern of plants normally grows in any direction that provides
support to which it can cling - Ideal for framing archways and windows, screens, or as
hanging plants.

Grassy – pattern of plants which have slender but tough and wiry stems sheathed
with narrow pointed leaves - Provide graceful contrast in texture and outline to all other
foliage plants - Can be upright, trailing or arching

Rosette – pattern of plants, roughly circular cluster of leaves radiating from a central
growing point. - Best when used with upright plants, trailing plants

Treelike – pattern of plants which has a single, upright trunk topped by a crown of
branches or foliage - Effective when used as isolated focal points in spacious
surroundings

Upright – pattern of plants that extend their growth vertically rather than horizontally;
Often composed of non-woody stems that bear leaves along its length; single
stemmed plants shed lower leaves; Some are stem less while others are leafless;
Perfect with low-growing, spreading rosettes and trailers.

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REFERENCES:

Ching, F.D.K. (2014). Form, Space and Order. New York. Wiley

De Chiara, J and Crosbie, M.J. (2001.) Time Saver Standards for Building Types.
New York. McGraw-Hill

Hall, E. (2019) Hidden Dimension. https://www.academia.edu/5668023/Edward_T._Hall-

_The_Hidden_Dimension

Harris, C. (2006). Dictionary of Architecture and Construction 4th Edition. New York.
McGraw Hill

Leger, E.H. et al., (2005). Complete Building Construction. Indianapolis. Wiley

Vernon. MD, (1971). Psychology of Space, Harmondsworth Penguin

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