nanomaterials
Article
Simulation of Solar Cells with Integration of
Optical Nanoantennas
Inês Margarida Pinheiro Caetano 1 , João Paulo N. Torres 2,3






Citation: Pinheiro Caetano, I.M.; N.
Torres, J.P.; Marques Lameirinhas,
R.A. Simulation of Solar Cells with
Integration of Optical Nanoantennas.
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911. https://
doi.org/10.3390/nano11112911
Academic Editor: Elias Stathatos
Received: 30 September 2021
Accepted: 26 October 2021
Published: 30 October 2021
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4.0/).
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11112911
and Ricardo A. Marques Lameirinhas 1,2, *
1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal;
ines.p.caetano@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
2 Instituto de Telecomunicações, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal; joaotorres@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
3 Academia Militar, Avenue Conde Castro Guimarães, 2720-113 Amadora, Portugal
* Correspondence: ricardo.lameirinhas@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
Abstract: The evolution of nanotechnology has provided a better understanding of light-matter
interaction at a subwavelength scale and has led to the development of new devices that can possibly
play an important role in future applications. Nanoantennas are an example of such devices, having
gained interest in recent years for their application in the field of photovoltaic technology at visible
and infrared wavelengths, due to their ability to capture and confine energy of free-propagating
waves. This property results from a unique phenomenon called extraordinary optical transmission
(EOT) where, due to resonant behavior, light passing through subwavelength apertures in a metal
film can be transmitted in greater orders of magnitude than that predicted by classical theories.
During this study, 2D and 3D models featuring a metallic nanoantenna array with subwavelength
holes coupled to a photovoltaic cell are simulated using a Finite Element Tool. These models present
with slight variations between them, such as the position of the nanoantenna within the structure, the
holes’ geometry and the type of cell, in order to verify how its optical response is affected. The results
demonstrate that the coupling of nanoantennas to solar cells can be advantageous and improve the
capture and absorption of radiation. It is concluded that aperture nanoantennas may concentrate
radiation, meaning that is possible to tune the electric field peak and adjust absorption on the main
layers. This may be important because it might be possible to adjust solar cell performance to the
global regions’ solar spectrum by only adjusting the nanoantenna parameters.
Keywords: optics; optoelectronic devices; nanoantenna; photovoltaics; plasmonics; semiconductors;
solar cells
1. Introduction
Energy demand has been steadily increasing since the Industrial Revolution and
should continue to increase, accompanied by global population growth [1–5]. Although re-
newable energy use is increasing globally, as of 2018 these sources of energy only accounted
for less than 20% of the world’s primary energy consumption [5]. Fossil fuels such as oil,
coal and natural gas still meet much of the world’s energy demands [3–5]. Concerns over
climate change and the energy demand of a rapidly growing global population require an
urgent shift towards renewable resources for energy production. Renewables are forecast
to become the leading source of primary energy consumption by 2050, with wind and solar
representing 70% of total renewable generation [3–5].
Nowadays, photovoltaic (PV) cells can directly convert the power associated with
solar radiation into DC electric power at a relatively low cost (in comparison with other
renewable energies, such as hydro or wind) [3,4]. In addition, the fact that PV cells are
robust structures that require very little maintenance makes them an extremely attractive
technology, which is rapidly expanding throughout the global energy market [6]. However,
PV solar cells have some limitations. Only a small fraction of the incoming solar radiation
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 2 of 15

can be converted to electricity by semiconductors due to the materials’ characteristics and

electrical properties.
Even though many research efforts have been put into place to improve the efficiency
rates of PV solar panels, the optimization of these efficiency rates has yet to be achieved.
Most panels present efficiency rates of around 20% or less, usually requiring a mechanical
sun-tracking system to optimize the conversion. Nanotechnology can be part of the solution
to this problem [7]. The nanotechnology and optical materials fields have experienced
a rapid development, leading to the emergence and development of new systems and
devices such as the nanoantenna. With the implementation of this technology, PV solar
devices are expected to become more efficient and low-cost [8].
In this research paper, the connection between nanotechnology and photovoltaics
is going to be studied through numerical simulation of a 2D and 3D nanoantenna struc-
ture coupled to the solar cells. The optical response of such structures is going to be
discussed and compared. Finally, based on that analysis, the main goal is to understand
if nanoantennas integration into solar cell systems can actually bring advantages or addi-
tional improvements to the solar energy harvesting process and, among of all the models
simulated, which one is the best suited for such a purpose. Nanoantenna integration
into solar cells could eventually constitute a breakthrough in solar energy harvesting on
PV panels, due to the solar irradiance concentration and amplification resulting in more
incident energy and, therefore, more output power generation. If so, it could be possible to
obtain different absorption spectra using the same materials.

1.1. Nanoantennas for Solar Energy Harvesting

Photovoltaic panels are currently the most used technology for converting solar energy
into electricity. Although PV technology has improved a lot in recent years, it is still not
able to fully utilize the abundance of solar energy reaching the earth in the visible and
infrared regions and the reradiated infrared energy [9]. Moreover, as a quantum device,
the efficiency of PV is a function of the bandgap and the match of the bandgap to the solar
spectrum [10]. Furthermore, PV materials are typically only operational during daylight
hours and require direct solar radiation for optimal efficiency.
Optical antennas are devices that convert propagating optical radiation into localized
energy and vice versa; as a periodic array [11] they could act as a frequency-selective surface
(FSS) [11]. They can control and manipulate optical radiation at subwavelength scales [11].
Thus, if coupled with PV solar panels, their overall system efficiency is expected to be
higher than current solar panel efficiency. Optical nanoantennas are similar to microwave
and radiofrequency (RF) antennas and can couple electromagnetic radiation in the visible
and infrared, just like other antennas do at their corresponding wavelengths [9]. Although
similar, there are crucial differences between optical antennas and their microwave and RF
counterparts due to their nano size and the resonant metal nanostructures’ properties [12].

1.1.1. Theory of Operation

Electromagnetic waves induce time-varying electric fields in metals that apply a
force on the electron gas of electrons inside the material, causing the charge carriers to
oscillate in a collective movement [13]. This phenomenon is known as surface plasmon
and it constitutes the basis for the optical phenomena that gives rise to the unique optical
properties associated with nanoantennas, being extremely valuable for the harvesting and
absorption of solar energy.
If the resonant frequency of the designed nanoantenna matches the incoming wave
length frequency, it leads to the absorption of the incoming electromagnetic (EM) radia-
tion [13]. The efficiency in the absorption of the incident radiation depends on the antenna
design and the impedance matching of the antenna. Nevertheless, modelling and ex-
perimental measures performed in [9] show that nanoantennas can eventually absorb
close to 90% of the available energy [13]. Furthermore, nanoantennas can utilize both the
visible and the near IR regions of the spectrum light, as well as the reradiated near IR
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 3 of 15

energy, capturing the sun’s energy during the day but also the radiation of the Earth at
night [1,9,14–20].

1.1.2. Technical Framework

During recent years, a lot of research has been developed regarding different configu-
rations and properties of nanoantennas for various applications. However, these devices
still face some challenges and there is a need for improvements. Some of the challenges
associated with nanoantennas concern the physical creation of the device, since its dimen-
sions are of the order of nanometers—which is 10−6 times smaller than typical RF antennas.
Additionally, the device must be capable of efficiently capturing all the incident radiation
polarization [21–23]. To do this successfully without the need for a sun tracking system
means that the acceptance angle must always be as wide as possible. It is also important to
consider the impedance and capacitance of the antenna. Furthermore, in order to create an
efficient nanoantenna, the choice of materials and design of the device are crucial.
In this study, the analysis will be focused on the implementation of a metallic aperture
nanoantenna. More specifically, a metallic subwavelength aperture nanoantenna array.
Aperture nanoantennas are able to increase coupling efficiency of nearby light by focusing
it onto an aperture region which enables light confinement and better control of the
radiation pattern [24]. Since the practical use of subwavelength apertures to enhance light–
matter interactions first took place, the interest in the extraordinary optical transmission
(EOT) phenomenon has continued to increase, and has already led to ample research
on the origin of the phenomenon, the influence of several design parameters (aperture
shape and dimensions, metal permittivity, metal adhesion layer) and the development
of practical applications type of aperture. Arranging the apertures in a subwavelength
array with a periodic pattern, it can provide extra coupling capabilities. However, there
are dependencies regarding hole size, lattice spacing, metal film thickness and angular
dispersion. Several other parameters also have significant importance such as type of
metal, symmetry in the dielectric–metal–dielectric layer stack, finite-size effects of the
lattice and the hole shape [15,25]. The transmission peaks observed in the far-field and the
intensity enhancement in the near-field, characteristic of the aperture array, are consequent
of two different resonant phenomena: the resonant excitation of surface plasmon waves
at the metal–dielectric interface and the localized plasmon modes on properly shaped
apertures [25].

2. Theoretical Foundations
Classic diffraction theories do not predict the existence of extraordinary optical trans-
mission (EOT), nor the generation and propagation of surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs),
which give rise to the unique optical properties that nanoantennas are associated with.
Hence, these phenomena cannot be analyzed or supported by such theories. Wave prop-
agation theories regarding light–matter interactions can better describe the overall phe-
nomenon.

2.1. Light–Matter Interactions

2.1.1. Surface Plasmon
A plasmon is defined as a quantum of a plasma oscillation. In the same way that
light consists of photons, plasmon oscillation consists of plasmons. Thus, plasmons are
collective oscillations of the electrons in a plasma. These oscillations are traveling waves
with a well-defined frequency and wave vector; when such oscillations exist at the interface
between a conductor and a dielectric, such as a dielectric–metal interface, they are called
surface plasmons (SPs). Plasmon oscillations can couple light in the form of a surface wave,
creating surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs). A polariton is the result of strong coupling
between electromagnetic waves and an electric or magnetic dipole [16–18]. For a dipole
structure, such as an array of slits, an aperture or even a corrugation on the surface, upon
which light is incident, the photons can excite coherent fluctuations of free electron charges
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 4 of 15

at the metal boundary, creating plasmon oscillations. Such oscillations can couple with the
incident light, creating polaritons that propagate at the interface [16–18].
The resonant interaction between the surface charge oscillation and the electromag-
netic field of the light gives rise to unique properties. The presence of SPPs helps to
concentrate and channel light using subwavelength structures, which leads to an electric
field enhancement that can be used to manipulate interactions between light and matter
and improve the transmission of light by the structure [19,26]. However, for polaritons to
be created, the metal needs to exhibit an electric permittivity with a negative real part at
the frequency of the incident light. Hence gold, silver, platinum, or aluminum are typically
the materials of choice, since all of them satisfy this condition. Additionally, the vector
component of the incident light parallel to the interface should be matched with the wave
number of the SPP [19].

2.1.2. Extraordinary Optical Transmission

The Bethe–Bouwkamp theory predicted that the power transmitted through the slit
would decrease as the diameter of the slit decreased far below the radiation wavelength.
However, these predictions were refuted in 1998 when Ebbesen observed the so-called
extraordinary optical transmission (EOT) phenomenon for the first time [19]. Extraordinary
optical transmission (EOT) is defined as an optical phenomenon in which a structure
containing subwavelength apertures in an opaque screen transmits more light than would
be expected. In EOT, the nanostructure enables a several orders of magnitude larger
transmission efficiency than that predicted by the classical aperture theory [22]. In Ebbesen
experiments, this nanostructure was an array of cylindrical holes, with a certain periodicity
constant, hole diameter and thickness. The array displayed sharp peaks in transmission
for wavelengths as large as ten times the hole’s diameter. For these wavelengths, the
transmission efficiency (normalized to the total holes area) could even exceed unity. These
unique optical properties are due to plasmons coupling with light on the metal surface, thus
creating polaritons (SPPs) [27]. The EOT phenomenon offers the possibility of a variety of
applications due to the high transmission efficiencies and the high local field enhancements
that can be achieved [15].

3. Model Structure and Configuration

To analyze the problem, 2D and 3D simulations of different solar cell structures were
computed. All these simulations were developed using a finite element tool, which simu-
lates a physics-based systems described by partial differential equations (PDEs) [1,2,17,18].
All the simulations use FEM to solve Maxwell’s equations in the frequency domain, with
the total electrical field being the dependent variable governed by the following equation:
 
∇ × µr−1 ∇ × E − k20 × ε rc × E = 0 (1)

where µr is the relative permeability, erc is the relative permittivity, k0 is the wave number,
and E is the electric field. In 2D models, the electric field varies with the out-of-plane wave
number kz as presented in Equation (2):

E(x, y, z) = Ee (x, y)e− ikzz (2)

3.1. 2D Model
The 2D model geometry simulated is represented in Figure 1 and is constituted by
an amorphous silicon (a-Si) cell and by a dielectric layer on top, which in this case is air.
Although a typical solar cell has n-type and p-type layers, the three layers represented in the
nanostructure are all composed of intrinsic amorphous silicon, since at room temperature all
the impurities of n- and p-type materials are ionized, and from an optic point of view, these
two materials act similarly to the behavior of the intrinsic material. The light absorption in
a solar cell occurs mainly in the intrinsic region of the cell; hence, it can be assumed that the
 The 2D model geometry simulated is represented in Figure 1 and is constituted by
an amorphous silicon (a-Si) cell and by a dielectric layer on top, which in this case is air.
Although a typical solar cell has n-type and p-type layers, the three layers represented in
the nanostructure are all composed of intrinsic amorphous silicon, since at room temper-
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 ature all the impurities of n- and p-type materials are ionized, and from an optic point of 5 of 15
view, these two materials act similarly to the behavior of the intrinsic material. The light
absorption in a solar cell occurs mainly in the intrinsic region of the cell; hence, it can be
assumed that the n-type and p-type doped layers do not contribute to the generation of
n-type andinp-type
photocurrent doped
the solar layers do
cell [1,2,20]. not contribute
Therefore, for thetopurpose
the generation of photocurrent
of simplifying the follow-in the
ing simulations, the nanostructure illustrated in Figure 1 is considered as an actual a-Si the
solar cell [1,2,20]. Therefore, for the purpose of simplifying the following simulations,
solarnanostructure illustrated
cell. An aperture in Figure
aluminum (Al) 1nanoantenna
is consideredwasas an actual a-Sionsolar
introduced top cell.
of theAn aperture
silicon
cell, as illustrated in Figure 1, to study the differences in the optical response of the cell in
aluminum (Al) nanoantenna was introduced on top of the silicon cell, as illustrated
withFigure 1, to study
and without the differences in the optical response of the cell with and without a
a nanoantenna.
nanoantenna.

Figure 1. Layout of the 2D a-Si solar cell, with the thickness of each layer and the exact location of
each probe.
Figure 1. Layout of the 2D a-Si solar cell, with the thickness of each layer and the exact location of
In frequency domain analyzes it is necessary to characterize the optical constants
each probe.
n and k of each material, where n is the refractive index and k the extinction coefficient.
The models used
In frequency for each
domain material
analyzes it is are retrieved
necessary from an online
to characterize the database [28]. In nboth
optical constants
andversions
k of eachofmaterial,
the 2D model,
wherethe n isincident electricindex
the refractive field, and
defined
k thebyextinction
|E0 | = 1 µV/m, is generated
coefficient. The
on top
models offor
used theeach
structure.
materialThe
areelectric
retrievedfield amplitude
from an online should be parallel
database to theversions
[28]. In both horizontal
nanoantenna
of the 2D model, thearray in order
incident to reach
electric thedefined
field, nanoantenna’s
by |E0| =apertures
1 µV/m, isingenerated
a tangential onmanner.
top
Forstructure.
of the a metal The
nanoantenna in the
electric field visible should
amplitude and near-infrared
be parallel to regions, the EMnanoan-
the horizontal field wave
tennavector
arraymust haveto
in order a parallel
reach the component
nanoantenna’s to theapertures
metal surface in order for
in a tangential polaritons
manner. For to
a be
metal nanoantenna in the visible and near-infrared regions, the EM field wave vector must the
originated and, therefore, for the EOT phenomenon to take place [1,16–18]. Hence,
haveincident electric
a parallel field amplitude
component is defined
to the metal in the
surface x axis direction,
in order as |Eto
for polaritons x |be
= |E 0 | V/m and
originated
and,|E y | = |Ez |
therefore, for= the
0 V/m.
EOTThe EM field amplitude
phenomenon to take placevaries in the Hence,
[1,16–18]. x direction, but the EM
the incident elec-field
tric wave propagatesisin
field amplitude the y axis
defined direction.
in the x axis direction, as |Ex| = |E0| V/m and |Ey| = |Ez| =
0 V/m. The EM field amplitude varies in the x direction, but the EM field wave propagates
3.2. 3D Model
in the y axis direction.
3.2.1. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cell Structure
To further deepen the study of a solar cell coupled with a nanoantenna it is important
3.2. 3D Model
to analyze
3.2.1. Amorphous the Silicon
performance of theCell
(a-Si) Solar 3D Structure
models. The environment and conditions defined
in a 3D model resemble actual reality in a more realistic way, so the optical response
To further
given by thedeepen
cell andthethe
study of a solar
occurrence ofcell
thecoupled with a nanoantenna
EOT phenomenon it is important
can be examined in a more
to analyze the performance of the 3D models. The environment and conditions
detailed and accurate way. Similar to what was established in 2D, two versions defined of
in the
a 3D3D model resemble actual reality in a more realistic way, so the optical
model were created: without and with a nanoantenna (Figure 2). The materials of response given
by the
thecell
3Dand the occurrence
model were the same of theasEOT phenomenon
those implemented canin
bethe
examined in a more
2D model. detailed
An electric field,
and defined
accuratebyway. Similar to what was established in 2D, two versions of the
|E0 | = 1 µV/m, was generated on the top of the 3D model external dielectric 3D model
werelayer
created: without
boundary. Theand
EMwithfielda was
nanoantenna (Figure
perpendicular 2). The
to the materials of
nanoantenna, the 3D
having themodel
opposite
√
direction of the z axis, and it was defined in the generation port by |Ex | = |Ey | = (Eo / 2)
V/m and |Ez | = 0 V/m. The remaining simulation requirements and specifications were
equivalent to the ones applied in both versions of the 2D model, as previously described.
Additionally, those requirements and specifications were the same for both 3D models,
with and without the nanoantenna.
 EMEM field was
field wasperpendicular
perpendiculartotothethenanoantenna,
nanoantenna, having the the opposite
oppositedirection
directionofofthe thez z
axis, and
axis, it was
and defined
it was definedininthe
thegeneration
generationport by ||E
portby Exx| = |Ey| = (E
(Eoo/√2)
/√2)V/m and|E|Ez|z|==0 0V/m.
V/mand V/m.
The
The remaining
remainingsimulation
simulationrequirements
requirements and
and specifications
specifications werewere equivalent
equivalenttotothe theones
ones
applied in both versions of the 2D model, as previously described. Additionally,
applied in both versions of the 2D model, as previously described. Additionally, those those
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 requirements
requirements and
and specificationswere
specifications werethe
thesame
same for
for both 3D models,
models,with
withand
andwithout
6 of 15 the
without the
nanoantenna.
nanoantenna.

Figure 2. Layout of the 3D a-Si solar cell with the inclusion of an aluminum nanoantenna.
Figure 2. 2.
Figure Layout
Layoutofofthe
the3D
3D a-Si
a-Si solar cellwith
solar cell withthe
theinclusion
inclusion of aluminum
of an an aluminum nanoantenna.
nanoantenna.
3.2.2. CIGS Solar Cell Structure
3.2.2.
3.2.2. CIGS
CIGS SolarCell
Solar CellStructure
Structure
The study and assessment of the output optical response of a 3D model using a dif-
The study and assessment of the output optical response of a 3D model using a
The types
ferent studyofand assessment
solar cell would ofbe
thenoteworthy
output optical response of
[2]. Therefore, a 3Don
based model using a3D
the original dif-
different types of solar cell would be noteworthy [2]. Therefore, based on the original 3D
ferent
model, a 3D model with a CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide) solar cell structure was 3D
types
model, a of
3D solar
model cell
withwould
a CIGSbe noteworthy
(Copper [2].
Indium Therefore,
Gallium based
Selenide) on
solarthe original
cell structure
was
model, developed,
a 3D as
developed, modelas shown
shownwith ain Figure
CIGS
in Figure 3.specifications
The specifications
(Copper
3. The Indiumand and conditions
Gallium Selenide)
conditions that
solar
that were were
cellimposed
imposed structure
on
wason this model
developed, and
as corresponding
shown in Figure simulation
3. The were the
specifications same
and as those
conditions defined
that
this model and corresponding simulation were the same as those defined for the previous for
were the pre-
imposed
vious
onmodels. models.
this model and corresponding simulation were the same as those defined for the pre-
vious models.

3. Layout
Figure 3.
Figure Layoutside
sideview
viewofof
thethe
3D3D
CIGS solar
CIGS cell cell
solar structure with with
structure the composition and thickness
the composition of
and thickness
each
of layer.
each layer.
Figure 3. Layout side view of the 3D CIGS solar cell structure with the composition and thickness
4. Simulation Results
of each layer.
4. Simulation Results
The simulations that follow were accomplished using four different boundary probes,
one atThe
the simulations that of
end of each layer follow were accomplished
the structure. using four
Those probes analyzed the different
maximumboundary
ratio
4. Simulation
probes, Results
between the electric field norm and the incident electric field norm, |E/E0 |. the
one at the end of each layer of the structure. Those probes analyzed maximum
If the sim-
Thebetween
ratio
ulated simulations
structure the
had that
electric
the follow
field
ability tonormwere andaccomplished
transmit the incident
more using
electric
light than four norm,
field
its incidence, different boundary
|E/Evalue
then the 0|. If the

probes, onefor
simulated
obtained at theratio
the endhad
structure of each
was the layer
ability
greater thanof the structure.
to1,transmit theThose
more
indicating light probes
than
occurrence its analyzedthen
ofincidence,
extraordinarytheoptical
maximum
the value
obtained for the ratio
transmission.
ratio between wasfield
electric greater
norm than and1, indicating the electric
the incident occurrence of norm,
field extraordinary
|E/E0|. opti-
If the
cal transmission.
simulated structure had the ability to transmit more light than its incidence, then the value
4.1. 2D Simulations
obtained for the ratio was greater than 1, indicating the occurrence of extraordinary opti-
In Simulations
Figure 4a, 2D a-Si simulation was performed for two situations: (a) without a
cal4.1. 2D
transmission.
nanoantenna and (b) with the inclusion of a nanoantenna. As seen in Figure 4a, the
maximum ratio did not reach values above or even equal to 1, meaning that the EOT
4.1.phenomenon
2D Simulationsdid not take place. However, this result was expected, since without the
presence of any subwavelength aperture, SPPs will not be generated, and extraordinary
transmission cannot happen. It is important to underline that SPPs constitute the main
agents of the EOT phenomenon in metallic nanoantennas functioning in the visible and
near-infrared region of the light spectrum. Finally, since the electric field amplification is
not verified in any layer, the electric field will simply decay along the propagation distance.
When analyzing Figure 4b, it is possible to verify that the EOT phenomenon did in fact
 did not take place. However, this result was expected, since without the presence of any
subwavelength aperture, SPPs will not be generated, and extraordinary transmission can-
not happen. It is important to underline that SPPs constitute the main agents of the EOT
phenomenon in metallic nanoantennas functioning in the visible and near-infrared region
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 of the light spectrum. Finally, since the electric field amplification is not verified in7 of 15
any
layer, the electric field will simply decay along the propagation distance. When analyzing
Figure 4b, it is possible to verify that the EOT phenomenon did in fact occur, since values
of |E/Esince
occur, 0| greater than 1 were obtained for boundary probe 1. This will be the boundary
values of |E/E0 | greater than 1 were obtained for boundary probe 1. This
that presents the bestthat
will be the boundary results, since
presents theit best
wasresults,
locatedsince
directly underneath
it was the nanoantenna
located directly underneath
array, which is where surface plasmon polaritons were generated
the nanoantenna array, which is where surface plasmon polaritons were generated and propagated. How-
and
ever, the EOT
propagated. phenomenon
However, the EOT occurrence
phenomenon didoccurrence
not influence the influence
did not results ofthe
the remaining
results of the
boundary
remaining probes.
boundary In probes.
fact, theIn
values obtained
fact, the valuesby these probes
obtained by these were quite
probes similar
were quitetosimilar
those
obtained without the nanoantenna. In order for the results of those probes
to those obtained without the nanoantenna. In order for the results of those probes that that monitored
the second the
monitored andsecond
third layer of the
and third a-Siofcell
layer thetoa-Si
be cell
almost
to beunaltered, the majority
almost unaltered, of the ab-
the majority of
sorption had to have occurred in the first layer of the
the absorption had to have occurred in the first layer of the cell. cell.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Normalized
Normalized electric
electric field
field as
as aa function
function of
of the
the wavelength
wavelength for for aa 2D
2D a-Si
a-Si solar
solar cell
cell structure.
structure.
Measures
Measures were
were performed
performed in four different
in four different positions:
positions: P P11,, P
P22,, PP33 and
and PP44 for
fortwo
two different
different situations:
situations:
(a)
(a) without
without aa nanoantenna
nanoantenna and
and (b)(b) with
with aa nanoantenna.
nanoantenna.

The above results

The above resultsshow
showthe the electric
electric field
field thatthat
waswas not absorbed
not absorbed in theinsolar
the cells.
solar These
cells.
These
valuesvalues
shouldshould
be as lowbe asas possible.
low as possible. It istocrucial
It is crucial establishto establish that, the
that, the greater thegreater the
difference
difference
between the between the input
input electric fieldelectric
in the field
cell orininthe cell or layer
a certain in a certain
and its layer
output and its output
electric field,
electric field,the
the greater theabsorption
greater theis.absorption
Thus, one is. canThus,
assumeonethat
can the
assume thatthe
greater thegap
greater
betweenthe gap
the
between
normalized the electric
normalizedfieldelectric
values field
from values
one probefromtoonetheprobe
next, to
thethe next, the greater
greater absorption the
is, bound by
absorption is,those
bound probes.
by those In other
probes. words, more
In other photons
words, moreare absorbed
photons arein the layerinand,
absorbed the
consequently,
layer more electric
and, consequently, morepower can power
electric be generated.
can be generated.
In Figure
In Figure 5, the absorption
absorption is shown as a function of the wavelength for the several
layers in the solar cells.
layers in the solar cells. In In Figure
Figure 5, 5, the
the absorption
absorption in in each
each layer
layer ofof the
the cell
cell is
is also
also shown.
shown.
Thus, for layers
Thus, for layers where absorption occurs, these values
absorption occurs, these values will be will be less than zero. Therefore,
Therefore,
according to
according to Figure 5, photons are essentially absorbed in the first layer of the cell (Layer
particularly for
1), particularly for the incident wavelength
wavelength regions regions where field amplification is shown
(Figure 4b),
(Figure 4b), such
such asas for
for the
the wavelengths
wavelengths of of 600
600 nm
nm and
and 1000
1000 nm.
nm. These
These results
results corroborate
corroborate
the conclusions found by the analysis of Figure 4b. Taking
the conclusions found by the analysis of Figure 4b. Taking into account the factinto account the fact that, due
that, dueto
field amplification, the nanoantenna inclusion implies that more
to field amplification, the nanoantenna inclusion implies that more electrons were availa-electrons were available
in the
ble firstfirst
in the layer of the
layer of cell, and and
the cell, sincesince
the majority of theofabsorption
the majority the absorptiontakestakes
place place
in thisinlayer,
this
then more electrons will be absorbed, resulting in higher electric current
layer, then more electrons will be absorbed, resulting in higher electric current generation. generation.
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials2021,
2021,11,
11,x2911
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of815of 15

Figure
Figure 5. Absorption as
as aa function
functionofofthe
thewavelength
wavelengthforfor
thethe
2D2D
a-Sia-Si solar
solar cellcell structure
structure withwith
the the
inclusion of a nanoantenna.
inclusion of a nanoantenna.

4.2. 3D
4.2. 3D Simulations
Simulations
The procedures
The procedures and
andconditions
conditionsapplied
appliedtotocarry
carryoutout
thethe
3D3D simulations, withwith
simulations, andand
without the inclusion of a nanoantenna into the cell, are identical to those considered for
without the inclusion of a nanoantenna into the cell, are identical to those considered for
the 2D model simulations.
the 2D model simulations.
4.2.1. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cell Structure
4.2.1. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cell Structure
As expected, for the amorphous silicon solar cell model without the nanoantenna
As 4a),
(Figure expected, for the results
the simulation amorphous
in Figuresilicon solar
6a show cell
that EOTmodel without
did not occur. the
Thisnanoantenna
situation
(Figure
was already observed in the 2D models; due to losses suffered throughout the air layersituation
4a), the simulation results in Figure 6a show that EOT did not occur. This and
was already observed
the absorption in the 2D models;
suffered throughout duethe
the a-Si cell, to electric
losses suffered throughout
field decays the air layer
along the structure.
On the
and theother hand, the
absorption resultsthroughout
suffered in Figure 6bthe clearly
a-Si showed
cell, thethe presence
electric fieldofdecays
EOT, though
along the
only for boundary probe 1, located below the nanoantenna array,
structure. On the other hand, the results in Figure 6b clearly showed the presence at the beginning ofof
the
EOT,
solar cell—possibly due to the reduced propagation distance of the SPPs
though only for boundary probe 1, located below the nanoantenna array, at the beginning (around nm). This
boundary
of the solaralso shows two peaks
cell—possibly due to inthe
the reduced
normalized electric field
propagation values,ofwhich
distance were(around
the SPPs not
present in the optical response of the model without the nanoantenna. These peaks were
nm). This boundary also shows two peaks in the normalized electric field values, which
obtained for the incident wavelengths of 700 nm and 1000 nm, located in the visible and
were not present in the optical response of the model without the nanoantenna. These
near-infrared regions, respectively. However, the extraordinary transmission verified in
peaks were obtained for the incident wavelengths of 700 nm and 1000 nm, located in the
boundary probe 1 did not affect the remaining boundary probes, as the obtained electric
visible andvalues
field ratio near-infrared
were quiteregions, respectively.
small, never reachingHowever, the extraordinary transmission
unitary values.
verified in boundary probe 1 did not affect the remaining
In Figure 7a, it was possible to see the difference in the electric boundary probes,
field values as the ob-
between
tained electric field ratio values were quite small, never reaching unitary
the two structures; with and without the inclusion of a nanoantenna. In this last situation, values.
EOT was observed all over the wavelength range, from the visible to the near infrared
region. On the other hand, Figure 7b shows that, although EOT was not verified, there
was still a field amplification for the wavelength range between 600 nm and 1400 nm.
Figure 7c,d, shows a higher field absorption along the solar cell in the model with the
nanoantenna inclusion, when compared with the results acquired for the model without
the nanoantenna included.
 nm). This boundary also shows two peaks in the normalized electric field values, which
were not present in the optical response of the model without the nanoantenna. These
peaks were obtained for the incident wavelengths of 700 nm and 1000 nm, located in the
visible and near-infrared regions, respectively. However, the extraordinary transmission
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 9 of 15
verified in boundary probe 1 did not affect the remaining boundary probes, as the ob-
tained electric field ratio values were quite small, never reaching unitary values.

Nanomaterials 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 6. Normalized electric field as a function of the wavelength for a 3D a-Si solar cell structure.
Measures were performed in four different positions: P1, P2, P3 and P4 for two different situations:
(a) without a nanoantenna and (b) with a nanoantenna.

In Figure 7a, it was possible to see the difference in the electric field values between
the two structures; with and without the inclusion of a nanoantenna. In this last situation,
EOT was observed all over the wavelength range, from the visible to the near infrared
region. On the other hand, Figure 7b shows that, although EOT was not verified, there
was still a field amplification for the wavelength range between 600 nm and 1400 nm.
Figure
Figure 7c,d, shows a electric
6. Normalized higherfield
fieldasabsorption
a function ofalong the solar for
the wavelength cella 3D
in the model
a-Si solar cellwith the
structure.
nanoantenna inclusion, when compared with the results acquired for the model without
Measures were performed in four different positions: P1 , P2 , P3 and P4 for two different situations:
the
(a) nanoantenna included.
without a nanoantenna and (b) with a nanoantenna.

Normalizedelectric
Figure7.7.Normalized
Figure electricfield
fieldasasa afunction
functionofofthe
thewavelength
wavelengthfor fora a3D3Da-Si
a-Sisolar
solarcell
cellstructure.
structure.
Measureswere
Measures wereperformed
performedininfour
fourdifferent
different positions:
positions: (a)
(a) PP11, ,(b)
(b)PP22, ,(c)
(c)PP3 3and
and(d)
(d)PP44 fortwo
for twodifferent
different
situations:(i)(i)without
situations: withouta ananoantenna
nanoantennaand and(ii)
(ii)with
witha ananoantenna.
nanoantenna.

Thisconclusion
This conclusionisissupported
supportedby
byFigure
Figure8a,b,
8a,b,where
whereabsorption
absorptioncurves
curvesforforboth
bothsitua-
situa-
tions(with
tions (withand
andwithout
withoutnanoantennas)
nanoantennas)are
areshown.
shown.ByByanalyzing
analyzingthese
thesefigures,
figures,ititbecomes
becomes
clear that for the model with the nanoantenna, the absorption was higher. The absorption
increases was noticed in all the layers of the solar cell, but was especially accentuated in
the first layer, where EOT occurred. Moreover, absorption peaks were directly related to
the field amplification peaks observed in Figure 6b.
 Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 10 of 15

clear that for the model with the nanoantenna, the absorption was higher. The absorption
Nanomaterials 2021,
Nanomaterials 2021, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
increases 10 of
of 15
was noticed in all the layers of the solar cell, but was especially accentuated
10 15 in

the first layer, where EOT occurred. Moreover, absorption peaks were directly related to
the field amplification peaks observed in Figure 6b.

Figure 8. Absorption
Figure
Figure 8. Absorption as aaasfunction
8. Absorption
as function of the
a function
of the wavelength
of the for for
wavelength
wavelength for thethe
the simulated
simulated
simulated 3D 3D
3D a-Sia-Si
a-Si solar cellcell
solar
solar cell structure.
structure.
structure.
Measures
Measures were
were performed
performed in three
in three different
different positions:
positions: P 1, P2 and P3 for two different situations: (a)
P1, P2Pand P for two different situations: (a)
Measures were performed in three different positions: 1 , P 2 and
3 P 3 for two different situations:
without aa nanoantenna
without nanoantenna and
and (b)(b) with
with aa nanoantenna.
nanoantenna.
(a) without a nanoantenna and (b) with a nanoantenna.

4.2.2.
4.2.2. Amorphous
4.2.2. Amorphous
Amorphous Silicon
Silicon (a-Si)
Silicon
(a-Si) Solar
(a-Si)
Solar Cell
Solar
Cell Structure:
Cell Structure:
Structure: Nanoantenna
Nanoantenna
Nanoantenna Inclusion
Inclusion
Inclusion within
within
within thethe
the
Solar
Solar Cell
Solar Cell
Cell
TheThe
The nanoantenna
nanoantenna
nanoantenna location
location
location inside
inside
inside the
the the nanostructuremay
nanostructure
nanostructure maybe
may bebean
animportant
an importantfactor
important factorwhen
factor when it
when
is
it is concerned
is concerned
concerned to to the system optical
to the system optical response.
optical response. Due
response. Due to
Due to this,
to this,a study
this, aa study regarding
study regarding the
regarding the nanoantenna
the nanoan-
nanoan-
it
inclusion
tenna in the
inclusion in solar
the cell, cell,
solar between the a-Si
between the layers,
a-Si was carried
layers, was out. Itout.
carried is important
It is to mention
important to
tenna inclusion in the solar cell, between the a-Si layers, was carried out. It is important to
that inthat
mention orderin to include
order to the nanoantenna
include the into theinto
nanoantenna structure,
the the solarthe
structure, cellsolar
dimensions
cell had to
dimen-
mention that in order to include the nanoantenna into the structure, the solar cell dimen-
be had
sions changed,
to be which means
be changed,
changed, which that the system
means theoptical
that the systemresponses cannot be
optical responses
responses directly
cannot compared.
be directly
directly
sions had to which means that system optical cannot be
The model
compared. The inmodel
question in is shownisinshown
question Figurein9.Figure 9.
compared. The model in question is shown in Figure 9.

Figure
Figure
Figure 9. Side
9. Side view
9. Side
view of of
view
of the
the 3D
the3D a-Si
3Da-Si solar
a-Sisolar cell
solarcell structure with
cell structure with the
with thenanoantenna
the nanoantennainclusion
nanoantenna inclusion within
within
inclusion the
thethe
within solar
solar cell.
cell.
solar cell.

In In
In FigureFigure
Figure 10a,
10a,10a, theoptical
the
the opticalresponse
optical responsesimulation
response simulation is
simulation is shown
is shownas
shown asa aafunction
as function
function ofofthethe
of wavelength
the wave-
wave-
of the
length
length ofabove
of the structure
the above
above for each
structure
structure for layerlayer
for each
each (P1 , P(P
layer 2 ,11P
(P 3P22and
,, P P33 P
,, P 4 ), and
and
and P44),
P in
), and
and Figure 10b, the
in Figure
in Figure 10b,absorption
10b, the ab-
the ab-
sorption for the same layers and structure is shown as a function of the wavelength. Ac- to
for
sorptionthe same
for the layers
same and
layersstructure
and is shown
structure is as
shown a function
as a of the
function wavelength.
of the According
wavelength. Ac-
Figureto
cording
cording to10, the extraordinary
Figure
Figure 10, the
10, optical transmission
the extraordinary
extraordinary optical transmission
optical transmissionwas evident at boundaries
was evident
was evident P1 , P2 and
at boundaries
at boundaries P11,, P3 .
P
P 2 Although
and P the nanoantenna
3. Although the was located
nanoantenna was between
located probes
between 2 and 3, probe
probes 2 1 was
and 3, also influenced
probe 1 was
P2 and P3. Although the nanoantenna was located between probes 2 and 3, probe 1 was
alsobyinfluenced
the EOT phenomenon.
by the
the EOT It was also noticed
EOT phenomenon.
phenomenon. was that
It was also this phenomenon
noticed that this was confinedwas
this phenomenon
phenomenon to the
also influenced by It also noticed that was
near
confined toinfrared
to the
the nearregion. Due
near infrared to the
infrared region. nanoantenna
region. DueDue to to the location,
the nanoantenna the
nanoantenna location, incident
location, the light that
the incident reached
incident light
light
confined
thatthe nanoantenna
reached the had already
nanoantenna had passes
already through
passes one layerone
through of a-Si
layer (the
of first
a-Si layerfirst
(the of the
layercell),
that reached the nanoantenna had already passes through one layer of a-Si (the first layer
meaning
of the
the cell), that
cell), meaning photons
meaning that with energy
that photons
photons with equal
with energy to or
energy equal higher
equal to than
to or the
or higher Si energy
higher than than thebandgap
the Si energyeV
(1.6
Si energy
of
bandgap (1.6
bandgap (1.6 eV
eV corresponding
corresponding to to 775
775 nm),
nm), had
had already
already been been absorbed.
absorbed. This This means
means that
that
only the light in the wavelength higher than 775 nm would
only the light in the wavelength higher than 775 nm would pass thought the nanoantenna. pass thought the nanoantenna.
Figure 10b
Figure 10b supports
supports thisthis conclusion,
conclusion, where
where aa substantial
substantial absorptionabsorption increaseincrease in in the
the second
second
 Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 11 of 15

Nanomaterials 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Nanomaterials 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
corresponding to 775 nm), had already been absorbed. This means that only the light in the
wavelength higher than 775 nm would pass thought the nanoantenna. Figure 10b supports
and
thisthird layers (layer
conclusion, where2 and layer 3) was noticed in the near
ininfrared region
andofthird
the spec-
and third layers (layer 2aand
substantial absorption
layer 3) was noticedincrease
in the nearthe second
infrared region of thelayers
spec-
trum.
(layer 2 and layer 3) was noticed in the near infrared region of the spectrum.
trum.

Figure 10. (a) Optical response of the simulated 3D a-Si solar cell structure as a function of the wave-
10. (a)Optical
Figure 10.
Figure Optical response of
thethe simulated 3D a-Si
solarsolar cell structure as a function of the
length with a(a)nanoantenna
response
withinof the simulated
solar 3D (b)
cell and a-Si cell structure
Absorption curves ofasthe
a function of the
simulated 3Dwave-
a-Si
wavelength
length with a nanoantenna within the solar cell and (b) Absorption curves of the simulated 3D
solar cellwith a nanoantenna
structure within
as a function thewavelength.
of the solar cell and (b) Absorption curves of the simulated 3D a-Si
solar cell structure
a-Si solar as a function
cell structure of the
as a function ofwavelength.
the wavelength.
4.2.3. Amorphous
4.2.3. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
Silicon Solar
(a-Si) Cell
Solar Cell Structure:
Structure:Inclusion
Inclusion ofof
a Nanoantenna
Nanoantennawith
4.2.3. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cell Structure: Inclusion of aa Nanoantenna with
with
Conical
ConicalHoles
Holes
Conical Holes
The
Thenanoantenna
nanoantennahole’shole’sgeometry
geometry is also an an important
importantparameter
parameterwhen
whenanalyzing
analyzingthe
The nanoantenna hole’s geometry is also an important parameter when analyzing
the outputoptical
output opticalresponse
responseofofaasolar
solarcell.
cell. In order to
toanalyzed
analyzedthe theinfluence
influenceofofthis feature,
this feature,
the output optical response of a solar cell. In order to analyzed the influence of this feature,
conical
conicalholes
holes(see
(seeFigure
Figure11)
11)were
wereconsidered
consideredand andoptical
opticalresponse
responseasasa afunction
functionofofthe
the
conical holes (see Figure 11) were considered and optical response as a function of the
wavelength was studied.
wavelength was studied.
wavelength was studied.

Figure
Figure 11.11. Side
Side view
view ofof
thethe
3D3D a-Si
a-Si solar
solar cell
cell structure
structure with
with nanoantennawith
nanoantenna withconical
conicalholes.
holes.
Figure 11. Side view of the 3D a-Si solar cell structure with nanoantenna with conical holes.
InInFigure
Figure12,
12,the
theresults
resultsofofthe
thesolar
solarcell
celloptical
opticalresponse
responsewith
withnanoantennas
nanoantennaswith with
In Figure
cylindrical holes12,
andtheconical
results of the
holes are solar cell optical
compared. Since response
the with nanoantennas
nanoantenna hole geometry with
may
cylindrical holes and conical holes are compared. Since the nanoantenna hole geometry
cylindrical
eventually holes andthe
influence conical holes of
occurrence arethecompared.
EOT Since the the
phenomenon, nanoantenna
results at hole geometry
boundary probe
may eventually influence the occurrence of the EOT phenomenon, the results at boundary
may
1 are1eventually
particularlyinfluence
relevant, the occurrence
since of theisEOT
this boundary phenomenon,
located directly the results
beneath at boundary
the nanoantenna,
probe are particularly relevant, since this boundary is located directly beneath the nano-
probe
where 1 are
EOT particularly
takes place. relevant,
According since
to this
Figure boundary
12a, is located
nanoantennas directly
with beneath
conical holes,theinstead
nano-
antenna, where EOT takes place. According to Figure 12a, nanoantennas with conical
antenna, where
of cylindrical EOT takes place. According to Figure 12a, nanoantennas with conical
holes, instead ofones, did notones,
cylindrical resultdidinnot
a higher
result extraordinary transmission,
in a higher extraordinary since for the
transmission,
holes, instead of cylindrical ones, did notclearly
result in a higher extraordinary transmission,
since for the model with cylindrical holes, the results clearly showed a greater field ampli-in
model with cylindrical holes, the results showed a greater field amplification
since for the
boundary model
probe withincylindrical
1, and the remainingholes,boundary
the resultsprobes,
clearlyboth
showed a greater
models field similar
produced ampli-
fication in boundary probe 1, and in the remaining boundary probes, both models pro-
fication in boundary
output optical spectra.probe 1, and in the remaining boundary probes, both models pro-
duced similar output optical spectra.
duced similar output optical spectra.
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 12 of 15
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Figure 12. Normalized electric field as a function of the wavelength for a 3D a-Si solar cell structure
Figure 12. Normalized electric field as a function of the wavelength for a 3D a-Si solar cell structure
for two
for two different
different configurations
configurations ofof nanoantenna
nanoantenna hole
hole apertures:
apertures: (i)
(i) conical
conical structures;
structures; (ii)
(ii) cylindrical
cylindrical
structures. The
structures. Thenormalized
normalizedelectric
electricfield
field was
was measured
measured between
between layers
layers as shown
as shown in probe
in (a) (a) probe 1;
1; (b)
(b) probe
probe 2;probe
2; (c) (c) probe 3 and
3 and (d) probe
(d) probe 4. 4.

4.2.4. CIGS Solar Cell Structure

4.2.4. CIGS Solar Cell Structure
The adopted methodology used to simulate this structure is similar to those defined
The adopted methodology used to simulate this structure is similar to those defined
previously. In the following simulations, the maximum normalized electric field absolute
previously. In the following simulations, the maximum normalized electric field absolute
values for five different boundary probes located at the end of each layer were measured.
values for five different boundary probes located at the end of each layer were measured.
Through the inspection of Figure 13a, it is possible to notice that, for the first three boundary
Through the inspection of Figure 13a, it is possible to notice that, for the first three bound-
probes, the normalized electric field reached values equal to 1 or higher, even without the
ary probes, the normalized electric field reached values equal to 1 or higher, even without
nanoantenna in the system—especially in the near infrared spectrum region.
the nanoantenna in the system—especially in the near infrared spectrum region.
This amplification was directly related to a positive imaginary component of the
This amplification was directly related to a positive imaginary component of the di-
dielectric function of the two first CIGS solar constituents: ZnO and Cds. However, it is
electric function of the two first CIGS solar constituents: ZnO and Cds. However, it is
important to note that almost no absorption occurred throughout these first two layers of
important to note that almost no absorption occurred throughout these first two layers of
the cell, as verified in Figure 13a. In fact, the results in this figure also showed that the
the cell,
third as (P
layer verified in Figure 13a. In fact, the results in this figure also showed that the
3 ) was the only layer where absorption occurred in a significant way. In these
third layer (P 3) was the only layer where absorption occurred in a significant way. In these
solar cells, the absorption typically occurred in the infrared region, since CIGS cells absorb
solar cells,in
radiation the
theabsorption typically
infrared region of occurred in the infrared
the spectrum—as region, band
their energy since CIGS cells
gap can beabsorb
tuned
radiation
roughly fromin the1.01
infrared
eV to region
1.68 eV,ofcorresponding
the spectrum—as their energytoband
approximately 1230gap
nmcan
andbe tuned
740 nm,
roughly from 1.01 eV to 1.68 eV, corresponding approximately to 1230 nm and 740 nm,
respectively.
respectively.
 Nanomaterials 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials 11, 11,
2021,
2021, 2911PEER REVIEW
x FOR 13 of1315
of 15

Figure 13. Normalized electric field as a function of the wavelength for a 3D CIGS structure.
Figure 13. Normalized electric field as a function of the wavelength for a 3D CIGS structure. Mea-
Measures
Figure were performed
13. Normalized in four
electric fielddifferent positions:
as a function P1, Pwavelength
of the 2, P3, P4 and P 5 for
for a two
3D different situations:
CIGS structure.
sures were
wereperformed
(a) without
Measures aperformed in
infour
nanoantenna anddifferent
four (b) with positions:
different P11,,PP22, ,PP3,3,P4Pand
a nanoantenna.
positions: P 4 and
P5 Pfor
5 for
twotwo different
different situations:
situations:
(a) (a) without
without a nanoantenna
a nanoantenna andand(b) (b) with
with a nanoantenna.
a nanoantenna.
With the nanoantenna inclusion on top of the CIGS solar cell, the behavior of the solar
With the nanoantenna inclusion on top of the CIGS solar cell, the behavior of the solar
With the nanoantenna
cells’ optical response toinclusion on top ofshown
the wavelength, the CIGS solar cell,
in Figure 13b,the behavior
was of the solar
quite different when
cells’ optical response to the wavelength, shown in Figure 13b, was quite different when
cells’ optical response
compared to the case to without
the wavelength, shown In
a nanoantenna. in the
Figure
near13b, was quite
infrared different
region, when
the normalized
compared to the case without a nanoantenna. In the near infrared region, the normalized
compared
electric to thevalues
field case without
were quitea nanoantenna.
low for all the In the near when
probes infrared region, the
compared normalized
to those obtained
electric field values were quite low for all the probes when compared to those obtained
electric
withoutfielda values were quite
nanoantenna. low for all
An increase in the
the probes
normalized whenelectric
compared fieldtowas
thosealsoobtained
noticed in
without a nanoantenna. An increase in the normalized electric field was also noticed in
without
boundarya nanoantenna.
probe 1 as the Anwavelength
increase in decreased
the normalized electric
for values nearfield
the was also noticed
UV region, around inthe
boundary probe 1 as the wavelength decreased for values near the UV region, around the
boundary probe 1 as the wavelength decreased for values near
wavelength of 250 nm in the UV zone, and the EOT phenomenon was exhibited between the UV region, around the
wavelength of 250 nm in the UV zone, and the EOT phenomenon was exhibited between
wavelength
the rangeof of 250
250 nm in and the
400UV nm.zone, and theto
According EOT
Figurephenomenon was exhibited
14b, the absorption in thebetween
CIGS layer
the range of 250 nm and 400 nm. According to Figure 14b, the absorption in the CIGS
the(layer
range3) ofwas
250 nm and 400 nm.
significantly lowerAccording
in this to Figure
cell when 14b, the absorption
compared to the case inwithout
the CIGS layer
a nanoan-
layer (layer 3) was significantly lower in this cell when compared to the case without a
(layer 3) was significantly lower in this cell when in compared to the caseofwithout a(Cds
nanoan-
nanoantenna. Nevertheless, absorption did increase in the second layer of the celllayer),
tenna. Nevertheless, absorption did increase the second layer the cell (Cds
tenna.
and Nevertheless,
especially absorption
in the first layer did increase
of the in the
cellof(ZnO second
layer). layer of the
Additionally, mostcellof(Cds
themostlayer),
absorption
layer), and especially in the first layer the cell (ZnO layer). Additionally, of the
andabsorption
especially
of photons of in the first
throughout layer of the
all the layers
photons throughout cell (ZnO
allconcernedlayer). Additionally,
photons inphotons
the layers concerned most
the UV region of the
in the UV absorption
of the lightof
region spec-
the
of photons
trum. throughout
light spectrum. all the layers concerned photons in the UV region of the light spec-
trum.

Figure 14. Absorption

Figure 14. curves of
Absorption curves of the
the simulated
simulated 3D
3D CIGS
CIGS structure:
structure: (a)
(a) without
without the
the inclusion
inclusion of
of aa
nanoantenna;
nanoantenna;
Figure (b) with
(b) with
14. Absorption the inclusion
the inclusion
curves of a nanoantenna.
of a nanoantenna.
of the simulated 3D CIGS structure: (a) without the inclusion of a
nanoantenna; (b) with the inclusion of a nanoantenna.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The main goal of this investigation was to study the behavior of a solar cell when
5. Conclusions
coupled with an optical nanoantenna. The coupling of these devices on solar cells could
eventually constitute a breakthrough regarding solar energy harvesting on PV panels,
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 14 of 15

due to the concentration and amplification of solar irradiance—resulting in more incident

energy and, therefore, more generation of output power. The 2D and 3D simulations of
different solar cell structures, with and without a nanoantenna, allowed the observation
and assessment of how the optical response of such structures is influenced by the presence
of the nanoantenna, and if extraordinary optical transmission (EOT) occurs.
Based on 2D and 3D results regarding the a-Si solar cell structure, it can be confirmed
that EOT does always occur when an aluminum nanoantenna is present in the solar
cell structure, which ultimately implies that these structures are able to transmit more
light than its incidence. The results also proved that this phenomenon was linked to the
generation and propagation of SPPs, since high amplification and concentration of the
electromagnetic field near the dielectric–metal interfaces was always verified, constituting
clear evidence of the presence of surface plasmon polaritons—as expected by [1,16–18],
and by the same order of values. Additionally, an increase in absorption was noticeable
when the nanoantenna was coupled to the cell, especially in the first layer (between
boundary probe 1 and boundary probe 2). It is also noteworthy that in both 2D and 3D
simulation, the obtained optical responses for the models with nanoantennas showed a
peak in the normalized electric field in the visible and infrared regions. These indicate that
the implementation of nanoantennas in solar cells could be pertinent for applications using
different parts of the light spectrum.
Furthermore, the results suggest that the location of the nanoantenna inside the cell
structure affected the light spectrum region where EOT took place. This peculiarity might
prove to be useful for certain applications—for example, for converting light into electricity.
Regarding the impact of the nanoantenna hole shape in the structure’s optical response,
the obtained results produced quite similar spectra to those obtained by the 3D model
with a nanoantenna with cylindrical holes—except when it came to the normalized electric
field values, mainly in boundary probe 1, located directly beneath the nanoantenna, for
which the model with cylindrical holes did present, for the entire wavelength range, higher
electric field values. This signals to the fact that EOT is more accentuated in this type
of model, therefore leading to the conclusion that the conical hole’s geometry is perhaps
unsuitable.
Finally, simulations regarding the CIGS solar cell structure illustrated underwhelm-
ing results regarding the occurrence of EOT in this particular model, where evidence of
extraordinary transmission was only found in boundary probe 1 for a very small range of
the incident wavelength. Nevertheless, the field amplification that did occur was seen in
the UV region of the light spectrum, which can prove the nanoantenna’s benefit for certain
applications within that range of incident wavelengths. Overall, it was demonstrated that
extraordinary optical transmission (EOT) does occur when an aluminum nanoantenna is
coupled with a solar cell and, more importantly, that the structure produces promising
results regarding field amplification and increases in the absorption of photons throughout
the solar cell.

Author Contributions: I.M.P.C. was responsible for writing the original draft, J.P.N.T. is her supervi-
sor, J.P.N.T. and R.A.M.L. analyzed the results and were responsible for reviewing and editing, as
well as for providing to support with software. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported in part by FCT/MCTES through national funds and in part by
cofounded EU funds under Project UIDB/EEA/50008/2020. Additionally, this work was supported
by FCT under the research grant UI/BD/151091/2021.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2911 15 of 15

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