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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nanotechnology
The pursuit of nanotechnology comprises a wide variety of disciplines: chemistry,
physics, mechanical engineering, materials science, molecular biology, and computer
science. In order to the miniaturization of integrated circuits well into the present century,
it is likely that present day, nano-scale or nano electronic device designs will be replaced
with new designs for devices that take advantage of the quantum mechanical effects that
dominate on the much smaller nanometer scale .

Fig. 1.1 Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is often referred to as general purpose technology. That is

because in its mature form it will have significant impact on almost all industries and all
areas of society. It offers better built, longer lasting, cleaner, safer and smarter products
for the home, for ammunition, for medicine and for industries for ages. These properties
of nanotechnology have been made use of in solar cells. Solar energy is really an
abundant source that is renewable and pollution free. This form of energy has very wide
applications ranging from small household items, calculators to larger things like two

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wheelers, cars etc. they make use of solar cell that coverts the energy from the sun into
required form.

It is expected that the global energy demand will double within the next 50 years.
Fossil fuels, however, are running out and are held responsible for the increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. Hence, developing
environmentally friendly, renewable energy is one of the challenges to society in the 21st
century. One of the renewable energy technologies is photovoltaic (PV), the technology
that directly converts daylight into electricity. PV is one of the fastest growing of all the
renewable energy technologies, in fact, it is one of the fastest growing industries at
present.

Solar cell manufacturing based on the technology of crystalline, silicon devices is

growing by approximately 40% per year and this growth rate is increasing. This has been
realized mainly by special market implementation programs and other government grants
to encourage a substantial use of the current PV technologies based on silicon.
Unfortunately, financial support by governments is under constant pressure.

At present, the active materials used for the fabrication of solar cells are mainly
inorganic materials, such as silicon (Si), gallium-arsenide (GaAs), cadmium-telluride
(CdTe), and cadmium-indium-selenide (CIS). The power conversion efficiency for these
solar cells varies from 8 to 29% . With regard to the technology used, these solar cells can
be divided into two classes. The crystalline solar cells or silicon solar cells are made of
either (mono- or poly-) crystalline silicon or GaAs. About 85% of the PV market is
shared by these crystalline solar cells. Amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CI(G)S are more
recent thin-film technologies.

Current solar power technology has little chance to compete with fossil fuels or
large electric grids. Today’s solar cells are simply not efficient enough and are currently
too expensive to manufacture for large-scale electricity generation. However, potential
advancements in nanotechnology may open the door to the production of cheaper and
slightly more efficient solar cells. Scientists have invented a plastic solar cell that can turn
the sun's power into electrical energy, even on a cloudy day. The plastic material uses
nanotechnology and contains the first solar cells able to harness the sun's invisible,
infrared rays.

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Chapter 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Plastic Solar Cells

By Christoph J. Brabec, N. Serdar Sariciftci, and Jan C. Hummelen, Christian Doppler
Laboratory for Plastic Solar Cells, Institute for Polymers and Organic Solids at the
University of California.

Abstract: Recent developments in conjugated-polymer-based photovoltaic elements are

reviewed. The photo physics of such photoactive devices is based on the photo-induced
charge transfer from donor-type semiconducting conjugated polymers to acceptor-type
conjugated polymers or acceptor molecules such as Buckminsterfullerene, C60. This
photo-induced charge transfer is reversible, ultrafast (within 100 fs) with a quantum
efficiency approaching unity, and the charge-separated state is metastable (up to
milliseconds at 80 K). Being similar to the first steps in natural photosynthesis, this
photo-induced electron transfer leads to a number of potentially interesting applications,
which include sensitization of the photoconductivity and photovoltaic phenomena.
Examples of photovoltaic architectures are presented and their potential in terrestrial solar
energy conversion discussed. Recent progress in the realization of improved photovoltaic
elements with 3% power conversion efficiency is reported.

2.2 A Review Paper on Infrared Plastic Solar Cell

By Shraddha R. Jogdhanka, Channappa Bhyri, Department of Instrumentation
technology, P D A College of Engineering, Gulbarga, Karnataka, India.

Abstract: As we know we have lived with the sun our entire life and probably most of us
take it for granted, we never use it properly. Electricity is the lifeblood of modern
civilization and we can get as much as we want from the sun. As coal, gas, oil and nuclear
energy fuel prices continue to raise solar energy will become even more cost effective.
Solar panels are active solar devices that convert sunlight into electricity. They come in a
variety of rectangular shapes and are usually installed in combination to produce
electricity. The primary component of a solar panel is the solar cells, or photovoltaic cell
having low efficiency and high cost. Plastic solar cell technology, is based on conjugated
polymers and molecules. Polymer solar cells have attracted considerable attention in the
past few years owing to their potential of providing environmentally safe, flexible,

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lightweight, inexpensive, efficient solar cells. Application of nanotechnology in these

plastic solar cells will helps us to make solar energy more economical. Production of
plastic solar cells using quantum dots could double the efficiency levels currently possible
and reduce costs The transparent solar cells is an advance towards giving windows in
homes and other buildings the ability to generate electricity while allowing to view from
inside. Currently solar energy’s biggest problem is the highest cost compared to other
sources. But introduction of plastic solar cells with the nanotechnology in solar energy
will increase the efficiency and reduce the cost which will give solution to global crisis. If
the solar farms can become a reality, it could possibly solve the planet problem of
depending too much on the fossil fuels, without a chance of even polluting the
environment.

2.3 Infrared Plastic Solar Cell

By Mr. Arun Nath R L and Mr. Sanjeev P, Electrical Engineering Department, Shivaji
College of Engineering and Technology, Manivila, Tamil Nadu.

Abstract: Nanotechnology is the nexus of sciences. Nanotechnology is the engineering of

tiny machines - the projected ability to build things from the bottom up using techniques
and tools being developed today to make complete, highly advanced products. It includes
anything smaller than 100 nanometers with novel properties. As the pool of available
resources is being exhausted, the demand for resources that are everlasting and eco-
friendly is increasing day by day. One such form is the solar energy. The advent of solar
energy just about solved all the problems. As such solar energy is very useful. But the
conventional solar cells that are used to harness solar energy are less efficient and cannot
function properly on a cloudy day. The use of nanotechnology in the solar cells created an
opportunity to overcome this problem, thereby increasing the efficiency. This paper deals
with an offshoot in the advancement of nanotechnology, its implementation in solar cells
and its advantage over the conventional commercial solar cell.

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Chapter 3

CONVENTIONAL SOLAR CELL

3.1 What is Solar Cell?

Solar cell (photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device
that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. The
energy of light is electromagnetic fields, which in turn can make a current of electrons
flow. Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules which are used to capture
energy from sunlight. When multiple modules are assembled together (such as prior to
installation on a pole-mounted tracker system), the resulting integrated group of modules
all oriented in one plane is referred as a solar panel. The electrical energy generated from
solar modules, is an example of solar energy. Photovoltaic is the field of technology and
research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity
from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from
sunlight. Cells are described as photovoltaic cells when the light source is not necessarily
sunlight. These are used for detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the
visible range, for example infrared detectors, or measurement of light intensity.

3.2 History and Development of Solar Cell Technology

The development of solar cell technology began with the 1839 research of French
physicist Antoine-César Becquerel. Becquerel observed the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution when he saw a voltage
develop when light fell upon the electrode. The major events are discussed briefly below,
and other milestones can be accessed by clicking on the image shown below.

3.2.1 First Solar Cell

The first genuine solar cell was built around 1883 by Charles Fritts, who used
junctions formed by coating selenium (a semiconductor) with an extremely thin layer of
gold. The device was only about 1 percent efficient.

3.2.2 Photoelectric Effect

Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in 1905 for which he received
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

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3.2.3 Silicon Solar Cell

Early solar cells, however, had energy conversion efficiencies of under one
percent. In 1941, the silicon solar cell was invented by Russell Ohl.

3.2.4 Efficient Solar Cells

In 1954, three American researchers, Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl
Chapin, designed a silicon solar cell capable of a six percent energy conversion efficiency
with direct sunlight. They created the first solar panels. Bell Laboratories in New York
announced the prototype manufacture of a new solar battery. Bell had funded the
research. The first public service trial of the Bell Solar Battery began with a telephone
carrier system (Americus, Georgia) on October 4 1955.

3.3 Generations of Solar Cells

3.3.1 First Generation: Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Technology

First generation solar cells are the larger, silicon-based photovoltaic cells. Silicon's
ability to remain a semiconductor at higher temperatures has made it a highly attractive
raw material for solar panels. Silicon's abundance, however, does not ease the challenges
of harvesting and processing it into a usable material for microchips and silicon panels.
Solar cells, use silicon wafers consisting of Silicon or Germanium that are doped with
Phosphorus and Boron in a pn-junction. Silicon cells have a quite high efficiency, but
very pure silicon is needed, and due to the energy-requiring process, the price is high
compared to the power output. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells dominate 80-90% of solar
cell market due to their high efficiency, despite their high manufacturing costs.

3.3.2 Second Generation: Thin Film Solar Cell Technology

Second generation solar cell, also known as thin-film solar cell (TFSC) or thin-
film photovoltaic cell (TFPV), is made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin films)
of photovoltaic material on a substrate. They are significantly cheaper to produce than
first generation cells but have lower efficiencies. The great advantage of thin-film solar
cells, along with low cost, is their flexibility and versatility to be used in varied
environments. This has led to aesthetically pleasing solar innovations such as solar
shingles, solar glass and solar panels that can be rolled out onto a roof or other surface.
The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride (CdTe),
copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), amorphous silicon and micro amorphous silicon.

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The thickness range of such a layer is wide and varies from a few nanometers to tens of
micrometers. These materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as
glass or ceramics reducing material mass and therefore costs. It is predicted that second
generation cells will dominate the residential solar market.

3.3.3 Third Generation: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Technology

The electrochemical dye solar cell was invented in 1988 by Professor Graetzel of
Lausanne Polytechnique, in Switzerland. The “Graetzel” dye cell uses dye molecules
adsorbed in nanocrystalline oxide semiconductors, such as TiO2, to collect sunlight. Dye
cells employ relatively inexpensive materials such as glass, Titania powder, and carbon
powder. Graetzel’s cell is composed of a porous layer of titanium dioxide nanoparticles,
covered with a molecular dye that absorbs sunlight, like the chlorophyll does in green
leaves. Third generation solar cells are the cutting edge of solar technology. These solar
cells can exceed the theoretical solar conversion efficiency limit for a single energy
threshold material. Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while
retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.

3.4 Working of Conventional Solar Cell

Solar cells, which largely are made from crystalline silicon work on the principle
of Photoelectric Effect that this semiconductor exhibits. Silicon in its purest form-
Intrinsic Silicon- is doped with a dopant impurity to yield Extrinsic Silicon of desired
characteristic (p-type or n-type Silicon). Working of Solar cells can thus be based on
crystalline structure of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Silicon. When p and n type silicon combine
they result in formation of potential barrier. These and more are discussed below.

3.4.1 Pure Silicon (Intrinsic) Crystalline Structure

Silicon has some special chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An
atom of silicon has 14 electrons, arranged in three different shells. The first two shells-
which hold two and eight electrons respectively- are completely full. The outer shell,
however, is only half full with just four electrons (Valence electrons).

A silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up its last shell, and to do this, it
will share electrons with four nearby atoms. It's like each atom holds hands with its
neighbours, except that in this case, each atom has four hands joined to four neighbours.

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Fig. 3.1 Pure Silicon Crystalline Structure

That's what forms the crystalline structure. The only problem is that pure
crystalline silicon is a poor conductor of electricity because none of its electrons are free
to move about, unlike the electrons in more optimum conductors like copper.

3.4.2 Impurity Added Silicon (Extrinsic): P-type and N-type

Semiconductors

Extrinsic silicon in a solar cell has added impurity atoms purposefully mixed in
with the silicon atoms, maybe one for every million silicon atoms. Phosphorous has five
electrons in its outer shell. It bonds with its silicon neighbour atoms having valence of 4,
but in a sense, the phosphorous has one electron that doesn't have anyone to bond with. It
doesn't form part of a bond, but there is a positive proton in the phosphorous nucleus
holding it in place. When energy is added to pure silicon, in the form of heat, it causes a
few electrons to break free of their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in
each case. These electrons, called free carriers, then wander randomly around the
crystalline lattice looking for another hole to fall into and carry an electrical current. In
Phosphorous-doped Silicon, it takes a lot less energy to knock loose one of "extra"
phosphorous electrons because they aren't tied up in a bond with any neighbouring atoms.
As a result, most of these electrons break free, and release a lot more free carriers than in
pure silicon. The process of adding impurities on purpose is called doping, and when
doped with phosphorous, the resulting silicon is called N-type ("n" for negative) because
of the prevalence of free electrons. N-type doped silicon is a much better conductor than
pure silicon. The other part of a typical solar cell is doped with the element boron, which
has only three electrons in its outer shell instead of four, to become P-type silicon. Instead
of having free electrons, P-type ("p" for positive) has free openings and carries the
opposite (positive) charge.

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3.4.3 Formation of Potential Barrier and Photoelectric Effect

The electric field is formed when the N-type and P-type silicon come into contact.
Suddenly, the free electrons on the N side combine the openings on the P side. Right at
the junction, they combine and form something of a barrier, making it harder and harder
for electrons on the N side to cross over to the P side (called POTENTIAL BARRIER).
Eventually, equilibrium is reached, and an electric field separating the two sides is set up.
This electric field acts as a diode, allowing (and even pushing) electrons to flow from the
P side to the N side, but not the other way around. It's like a hill -- electrons can easily go
down the hill (to the N side), but can't climb it (to the P side).

Fig. 3.2 Working of Conventional Solar Cell Fig 3.3 Electron Flow in a Cell
When light, in the form of photons, hits solar cell, its energy breaks apart electron-
hole pairs (Photoelectric effect). Each photon with enough energy will normally free
exactly one electron, resulting in a free hole as well. If this happens close enough to the
electric field, or if free electron and free hole happen to wander into its range of influence,
the field will send the electron to the N side and the hole to the P side. This causes further
disruption of electrical neutrality, and if an external current path is provided, electrons
will flow through the path to the P side to unite with holes that the electric field sent
there, doing work for us along the way. The electron flow provides the current, and the
cell's electric field causes a voltage. Silicon is very shiny material, which can send
photons bouncing away before energizing the electrons, so an antireflective coating is
applied to reduce those losses. The final step is to install something that will protect the

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cell from the external elements- often a glass cover plate. PV modules are generally made
by connecting several individual cells together to achieve useful levels of voltage and
current, and putting them in a sturdy frame complete with positive and negative terminals.

Conventional solar cells have two main drawbacks: they can only achieve
efficiencies around 20 percent and they are expensive to manufacture. The first drawback,
inefficiency, is almost unavoidable with silicon cells. This is because the incoming
photons, or light, must have the right energy, called the band gap energy, to knock out an
electron. If the photon has less energy than the band gap energy then it will pass-through.
If it has more energy than the band gap, then that extra energy will be wasted as heat.
“These two effects alone account for the loss of around 70 percent of the radiation energy
incident on the cell”(Fig.1) Consequently, according to the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, the maximum efficiency achieved today is only around 25 percent . Mass-
produced solar cells are much less efficient than this, and usually achieve only ten percent
efficiency.

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Chapter 4

INFRARED PLASTIC SOLAR CELL

4.1 Introduction to Plastic Solar Cell

Scientists have invented a plastic solar cell that can turn the suns power into
electric energy even on a cloudy day.

Fig. 4.1 Infrared Plastic Solar Cell

Plastic solar cells are not new .But existing materials are only able to harness the
sun’s visible light. While half of the sun’s power lies in the visible spectrum, the other
half lies in the infrared spectrum. The new material is first plastic compound that is able
to harness infrared portion. Every warm body emits heat. This heat is emitted even by
man and by animals, even when it is dark outside.

The plastic material uses nanotechnology and contains the 1stgeneration solar
cells that can harness the sun’s invisible infrared rays. This breakthrough made us to
believe that plastic solar cells could one day become more efficient than the current solar
cell. The researchers combined specially designed nano particles called quantum dots
with a polymer to make the plastic that can detect energy in the infrared.

With further advances the new PLASTIC SOLAR CELL could allow up to 30%
of sun’s radiant energy to be harnessed completely when compared to only 6% in today
plastic best plastic solar cells. A large amount of sun’s energy could be harnessed through
solar farms and used to power all our energy needs. This could potentially displace other
source of electrical production that produce greenhouse gases like coal.

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Solar energy reaching the earth is 10000 times than what we consume. If we could
cover 0.1% of the earth’s surface with the solar farms we could replace all our energy
habits with a source of power which is clear and renewable. The first crude solar cells
have achieved efficiencies of today’s standard commercial photovoltaic’s the best solar
cell, which are very expensive semiconductor laminates convert at most, 35% of the sun’s
energy into electricity.

4.2 Construction of Plastic Solar Cell

The plastic solar cell is actually a hybrid, comprised of tiny nanorods dispersed in
an organic polymer or plastic. Figure 4.2 shows the hybrid plastic solar cells has
nanorod/polymer layer sandwiched between two electrodes. The active layer, a mere 200
nanometer thick, is a jumble of nanorods embedded in a semiconducting polymer.
Vacuum evaporation and solution processing techniques are the most commonly used
thin film preparation methods in the production of plastic solar cells. Polymers
decompose under excessive heat and have too large molar mass for evaporation.
Therefore, most polymer-based photovoltaic elements are solution processed at low
temperatures. The printing/coating techniques are used to deposit conjugated
semiconducting polymers.

Fig 4.2 Construction of Plastic Solar Cell

Donor-acceptor blends can be prepared by dissolving donor and acceptor

components in a common solvent (or solvent mixture) this is called solution processing
and Solution processing requires soluble polymers. Blends are deposited by using one of
the techniques mentioned above. Sometimes, a soluble monomer is cast as a thin film
using a post deposition polymerization reaction afterward. Soluble precursor polymers

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can also be converted into the final semiconducting form with a post deposition
conversion reaction. The advantage of this latter method is that the resulting conjugated
polymer thin films are insoluble.

For plastic solar cells, spin-coating, doctor blading, as well as screen-printing

methods were applied. Such large scale printing/coating techniques open up the
possibility for an up scaling of the production with low-energy consumption.

The plastic solar cells are fabricated in sandwich geometry. As substrates,

transparent, conducting electrodes (for example, glass or plastic covered with ITO) are
used. ITO (indium tin oxide) electrodes are transparent and conductive but expensive.
Alternatives for ITO are searched for, and nanotube network electrodes potentially work
as well. The substrate electrode can be structured by chemical etching. On the transparent
conducting substrate, PEDOT:PSS, (polyethylenedioxythiophene) doped with
polystyrenesulfonic acid, is coated from an aqueous solution. This PEDOT:PSS layer
improves the surface quality of the ITO electrode as well as facilitates the hole
injection/extraction. Furthermore, the work function of this electrode can be changed by
chemical/electrochemical redox reactions of the PEDOT layer.

Fig. 4.3 Schematic device structure for polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar
cells.

Nanorods are manufactured in a beaker containing cadmium selenide, aiming for

rods of diameter-7 nanometers to absorb as much sunlight as possible. Nano particles
called quantum dots are combined with a polymer as shown in figure 4.3 to make the
plastic that can detect energy in the infrared rays.

The active layers are coated using solution or vacuum deposition techniques such
as spin-coating, doctor blading, as well as screen-printing methods. The nanorods which

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are derived from 1-(3-methoxycarbonyl)propyl-1-phenyl-[6,6]- methanofullerene(PCBM)

are mixed with a plastic semiconductor called (P3HT) p3ht-poly-(3-hexylthiophene) a
transparent electrode is coated with the mixture. An aluminum coating acting as the back
electrode completed the device. The nanorods act like wires. When they absorb light of a
specific wavelength, they generate an electron plus an electron hole-a vacancy in the
crystal that moves around just like an electron. The electron travels the length of the rod
until it is collected by aluminum electrode. The hole is transferred to the plastic, which is
known as a hole-carrier, and conveyed to the electrode, creating a current.

4.3 Working of Infrared Solar Cell

Fig. 4.4 Structure of Plastic Solar Cell

The plastic solar cell is actually a hybrid, comprised of tiny nanorods dispersed in
an organic polymer or plastic. A layer only 200 nanometers thick is sandwiched between
electrodes and can produce at present about 0.7 volts. The electrode layers and
nanorods/polymer layers could be applied in separate coats, making production fairly
easy. And unlike today's semiconductor-based photovoltaic devices, plastic solar cells can
be manufactured in solution in a beaker without the need for clean rooms or vacuum
chambers.

Plastic solar cell (PSC) structure is the most successful structure invented, in
which a blend of donor and acceptor with a bi-continual phase separation can be formed.
When the sunlight getting through the transparent electrode is absorbed by the
semiconducting donor and acceptor materials in the photoactive layer, excitons (bounded
electron–hole pairs) are formed, and then the excitons diffuse to the interfaces of the
donor/acceptor where the excitons dissociate into electrons on the lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital level of the acceptor and holes on the highest occupied molecular
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orbital level of the donor. The dissociated electrons and holes are driven by build-in
electric field and then moved to negative and positive electrode, respectively, and then
collected by the electrodes to realize the photon-to-electron conversion. Figure 4.6 shows
the electronic energy levels of the donor and acceptor in a P3HT/PCBM blend system.

Fig. 4.5 Operation of Infrared Plastic Cell

The absorption band of P3HT/PCBM covers the range from 380 to 670 nm, which
means that the photons with energy between 2.0eV and 3.3 eV can be absorbed by the
active layer, and the excitons will be formed. In order to make better utilization of the
sunlight, active layer materials with broad absorption band is required, and for this
purpose, more and lower band gap (LBG) materials have been developed and great
successes have been made in the past decade.

Since, the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital and the highest occupied molecular orbital
level of P3HT is higher than that of PCBM, the excitons will separate into positive and
negative charges at the interface of the P3HT phase and PCBM phase. The negative
charge will transport through the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of PCBM and the
positive charge will transport through the highest occupied molecular orbital level of
P3HT, and then the charges can be collected by the electrodes.

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Fig. 4.6 Electronic energy level of P3HT and PC60BM

In order to get efficient charge separation, highest occupied molecular orbital level
and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of the donor material should be 0.2–0.3 eV
higher than that of the acceptor material, respectively. If the offset is too small, it would
be hard to get efficient charge separation; if the offset is too big, much energy loss would
be happened. As known, open-circuit voltage (Voc) of BHJ OPV devices are directly
proportional to the gap between highest occupied molecular orbital level of the donor and
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of the acceptor. Although, the energy of the photon
that can be utilized by the P3HT/PCBM system is higher than 2.0 eV, Voc of
P3HT/PCBM based OPV device is typically around 0.6 eV, meaning that more than 70 %
energy loss is taking place during the photoelectric conversion process. Therefore, to
minimize the energy loss, highest occupied molecular orbital level and lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital levels of the donors and the acceptors should be tuned carefully.

4.3.1 Use of Quantum Dots

Fig. 4.7 Quantum Dots Combined With Polymer

For the past few years, researchers have been using quantum dots to increase the
light absorption and overall efficiency of solar cells. Now, researchers have taken a step
further, demonstrating that quantum dots with a built-in electric charge can increase the

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efficiency of InAs/GaAs quantum dot solar cells by 50% or more. The researchers,
Kimberly Sablon and John W. Little (US Army Research Laboratory in Adelphi,
Maryland), Vladimir Mitin, Andrei Sergeev, and Nizami Vagidov (University of Buffalo
in Buffalo, New York), and Kitt Reinhardt (AFOSR/NE in Arlington, Virginia) have
published their study on the increased solar cell efficiency in a recent issue of Nano
letters. In their study, the researchers studied heterostructure solar cells with InAs/GaAs
quantum dots. As photovoltaic materials, the quantum dots allow for harvesting of the
infrared radiation to convert it into electric energy. However, the quantum dots also
enhance the recombination of photocarriers and decrease the photocurrent. For this
reason, up to now the improvement of photovoltaic efficiency due to quantum dots has
been limited by several percent. Here, the researchers have proposed to charge quantum
dots by using selective interdot doping. In their experiments, the researchers compared
doping levels of 2, 3, and 6 additional electrons per quantum dot, which resulted in
photovoltaic efficiency increases of 4.5%, 30%, and 50%, respectively, compared to an
undoped solar cell. For the 6-electron doping level, that 50% increase corresponds to an
overall efficiency increase from 9.3% (for undoped solar cells) to 14%. The researchers
attributed this radical improvement of the photovoltaic efficiency to two basic effects.
First, the built-in-dot charge induces various transitions of the electrons and enhances
harvesting of the infrared radiation. Second, the built-in-dot charge creates potential
barriers around dots and these barriers suppress capture processes for electrons and do not
allow them to return back into the dots. The effect of potential barriers has been
previously used by the researchers to improve the sensitivity of infrared detectors.

In addition, the researchers predict that further increasing the doping level will
lead to an even stronger efficiency enhancement, since there was no evidence of
saturation. In the future, the researchers plan to further investigate how these effects
influence each other at higher doping levels. They predict that further increasing the
doping level and radiation intensity will lead to an even stronger efficiency enhancement,
since there was no evidence of saturation. “The methodology and principles developed
during this research are applicable to a number of photovoltaic devices with quantum dots
and nanocrystals, such as polymer plastic cells and dyesensitized porous metal oxide
Gratzel cells,” Dr. Sergeev told PhysOrg.com. “Effective harvesting and conversion of
infrared radiation due to optimized electron-hole kinetics in structures with quantum dots
and nanocrystals will lead to potential breakthroughs in the area of solar energy
conversion.”

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Chapter 5

COMPARISON AND IMPROVEMENTS

5.1 Comparison between PV Cells and Nano-Solar Cells

Table 5.1 Comparison between Conventional and Infrared Solar Cell

PV Cells Nano-Solar Cells

Made of some special material Constructed using Nano- technology

called semiconductors.

Expensive because of
Cost is less because less material is used
manufacturing process

Requires large space, Efficiency is Compact and require less space,

less Efficiency is more

Nano- solar cell that can turn the suns

It won’t work under cloudy
power into electricity energy even on a
conditioned
cloudy days

It contains the 1st generation solar cell that

It can’t harness the sun’s invisible
can harness the sun’s invisible infrared
infrared rays
rays

5.2 Future Improvements

 Some of the obvious improvements include better light collection and

concentration, which already are employed in commercial solar cells.
 Significant improvements can be made in the plastic, nanorods mix, too, ideally
packing the nanorods closer together, perpendicular to the electrodes, using
minimal polymer, or even none-the nanorods would transfer their electrons more
directly to the electrode.

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 In their first-generation solar cells, the nanorods are jumbled up in the polymer,
leading to losses of current via electron-hole recombination and thus lower
efficiency.
 They also hope to tune the nanorods to absorb different colors to span the
spectrum of sunlight. An eventual solar cell has three layers each made of
nanorods that absorb at different wavelength.

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Infrared Plastic Solar Cell | 2018-2019

Chapter 6
ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS AND
APPLICATIONS
6.1 Advantages
Plastic solar cells are quite a lot useful in the coming future. This is because of the
large number of advantages it has got. Some of the major advantages are:

 They are considered to be 30% more efficient when compared to conventional

solar cells.
 They are more efficient and more practical in application.
 Traditional solar cells are bulky panels. This is very compact.
 Conventional solar cells are only used for large applications with big budgets. But
the plastic solar cells are feasible as they can be even sewn into fabric- thus
having vast applications.
 Flexible, roller processed solar cells have the potential to turn the sun’s power into
a clean, green, consistent source of energy.

6.2 Limitations

 The biggest problem with this is cost effectiveness. But that could change with
new material. But chemists have found a way to make cheap plastic solar cells
flexible enough to paint onto any surface and potentially able to provide electricity
for wearable electronics or other low power devices.
 Relatively shorter life span when continuously exposed to sunlight.
 Could possibly require higher maintenance and constant monitoring.

6.3 Applications

 Silicon possesses some nanoscale properties. This is being exploited in the

development of a super thin disposable solar panel poster which could offer the
rural dwellers a cheap and an alternative source of power. Most people living in
remote areas are not linked to national electricity grid and use batteries or run their
own generator to supply their power needs. Disposal solar panels can be made in
thin sheets with about 6-10 sheets stacked together and made into a poster can

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Infrared Plastic Solar Cell | 2018-2019

help them to some extent in this regard. This poster could be mounted behind a
window or attached to a cabinet.

Fig. 7.1 Solar Panel as Poster

 Like paint the compound can also be sprayed onto other materials and used as
portable electricity.
 Any chip coated in the material could power cell phone or other wireless devices.

Fig. 7.2 Solar Cells as Chip

 A hydrogen powered car painted with the film could potentially convert energy
into electricity to continually recharge the car’s battery.

Fig. 7.3 Hydrogen Powered Car With Solar Cells Painted.

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CONCLUSION
The prospect that light weight and flexible polymer solar cells can be
produced, has spurred interests from research institutes and companies. In the last
five years there has been an enormous increase in the understanding and
performance of polymer-fullerene bulk hetero junction solar cells. Comprehensive
insights have been obtained in crucial materials parameters in terms of
morphology, energy levels, charge transport, and electrode materials.
Plastic solar cells help in exploiting the infrared radiation from the sun's
rays. They are more effective when compared to the conventional solar cell. The
major advantage they enjoy is that they can even work on cloudy days, which is
not possible in the former.
They are more compact and less bulky. Though at present, cost is a major
drawback, it is bound be solved in the near future as scientists are working in that
direction. As explained earlier, if the solar farms can become a reality, it could
possibly solve the planets problem of depending too much on the fossil fuels,
without a chance of even polluting the environment.

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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Plastic Solar Cells, by Christoph J. Brabec, N. Serdar Sariciftci, and Jan
C. Hummelen, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Plastic Solar Cells,
Institute for Polymers and Organic Solids at the University of California.
[2] A Review Paper on Infrared Plastic Solar Cell, by Shraddha R.
Jogdhanka, Channappa Bhyri, Department of Instrumentation technology,
P D A College of Engineering, Gulbarga, Karnataka, India.
[3] Infrared Plastic Solar Cell, by Mr. Arun Nath R L and Mr. Sanjeev P,
Electrical Engineering Department, Shivaji College of Engineering and
Technology, Manivila, Tamil Nadu.
[4] Conjugated Polymer-Based Organic Solar Cells: Serap Gunes, Helmut
Neugebauer, and Niyazi Serdar Sariciftci, Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 1324-
1338.
[5] Modeling the optical absorption within conjugated polymer/fullerene-
based bulk-heterojunction organic solar cells: H. Hoppea, N. Arnoldb, N.S.
Sariciftcia, D. Meissner, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 80 (2003)
105–113.
[6] Active Layer Materials for Organic Solar Cells, Jianhui Hou and Xia Guo
W. C. H. Choy (ed.), Organic Solar Cells, Green Energy and Technology,
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4471-4823-4_2, _ Springer-Verlag London 2013.
[7] Organic solar cells with carbon nanotube network electrodes, Michael W.
Rowell,Mark A. Topinka, and Michael D. McGehee, applied physics letters
88, 233506 _2006.

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