Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742

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Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives

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research-interdisciplinary-perspectives

Using the extensions of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) for behavioral
intentions to use public transport (PT) in Kanazawa, Japan
Nazam Ali a, *, Shoichiro Nakayama b, Hiromichi Yamaguchi c
a
Division of Environmental Design, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
b
Faculty of Transdisciplinary Sciences, Kanazawa University, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
c
Faculty of Geosciences and Civil Engineering, Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Public Transport (PT) systems play an essential role in fulfilling the travel needs of the commuters’ specially in
Travel Behavior the urban settings. However, with varying attitudes, beliefs, and satisfaction levels of commuters, it is imperative
Public Transport to check if the current PT system is able to fulfill the needs of the commuters. In order to extract the underlaying
Mode Choice
factors which might affect the use of PT, a questionnaire survey was administrated in the city of Kanazawa,
Theory of Planned Behavior
Commuter Satisfaction
Ishikawa, Japan. The intentions of the residents of the city were predicted using the theoretical backgrounds of
the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), based on their attitudes, Subjective Norms (SN), Perceived Behavioral
Control, Moral and Environmental Concerns, Access by Public Transport (APT), and Travel Cost Consciousness
(TCC), the intentions and public transport behavior (PT behavior) was predicted. The results of Personal Norm
(PN) and Environmental Concern (EC) factor shows that respondents place high belief on moral obligations to
protect environment and prefer using PT for traveling. The APT has a positive and significant estimate with PT
behavior variable. The results of TCC factor depict that the traveler’s consciousness about cost and travel time
elements of their journey would cause significant impact on their travel choices. The findings of this research
study can offer valuable insights for the government as well as PT service operators for policy making in
Kanazawa and other cities with similar socio-economic demographics in the country.

Introduction
One of the prime objectives of any of the PT system is to provide
travelers (car users or non-users) with a good substitute for traveling
(Gardner, 2009). This can be challenging as many of the times PT sys­
tems may not offer a good alternative keeping in view the demands of
the travelers pertinent to the level of service which can convince the
travelers for traveling with affordable prices. This can be way easier if
the information of the commuters’ demands is available. However, the
mode choice is influenced by many of the factors which include the
socio-economic demographics of the commuters, trip length, modes
availability, spatial coverage and level of service (LOS) offered by
various available modes. Many of the research studies indicated that
different factors such as trip cost, travel time, convenience, scheduling,
access to transport system, moral and environmental concerns, and
proper infrastructure at or around the place of residence or work can
impact the decision of the commuters for the selection of the transport
systems (Bordagaray et al., 2014; Donald et al., 2014; Mouwen, 2015;
Sumaedi et al., 2016).
For a public transport system, it is very necessary to provide a
reasonable level of service if the main objective is to attract a reasonable
number of car users. Many of the planners, policy makers, governments,
and service operators are trying to find the trade-offs between different
modes, trying to explore the ways by which the use of PT can be
increased, and car usage can be reduced, especially in the urban areas. A
questionnaire survey is usually used to investigate the factors such as
travel time, service availability, ease in use and comfortability of the
service which affect the selection of public transport modes. (Liu et al.,
2017) inferred that public transport system quality is directly related
with the service frequency, waiting time, spatial coverage and walking
distance to the station from residence and workplace location. It is also
reported that more waiting time for public transport leads to an increase

Abbreviations: PT, Public Transport; TPB, Theory of Planned Behavior; SN, Social Norm; PN, Personal Norm; EC, Enviornmental Concern; APT, Access by Public
Transport; TCC, Travel Cost Concisiousness; EFA, Explanatory Factor Analysis; SEM, Structural Equation Model; LOS, Level of Service.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nazamali755@gmail.com (N. Ali), nakayama@staff.kanazawa-u.ac.jp (S. Nakayama), hyamaguchi@se.kanazawa-u.ac.jp (H. Yamaguchi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100742
Received 29 June 2022; Received in revised form 30 November 2022; Accepted 24 December 2022
Available online 17 January 2023
2590-1982/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
N. Ali et al.
in the stress level (Cantwell et al., 2009). Different studies used different
theories for the prediction of the behavior of the users and found out that
selection of the transit mode is mainly reasoned and decided because of
the attitudes and behaviors towards perceived barriers of the services
offered (Chen & Chao, 2011; Jen et al., 2011). A study conducted in
Hanoi (Ng & Phung, 2021) reported that the influence of social norms
reduces when they are used in an integrative model. (Dong et al., 2021)
investigated the public transport satisfaction in COVID-19 and inferred
that passengers pay more attention to the psychological factors which
are more relevant to the pandemic and less attention is given to the
factors which are related with the safety of PT. (de Oña, 2021) explored
the role of mediator on the satisfaction of PT and found out that in big
cities intramodality of PT along with service frequency and punctuality
plays an important role for the appraisal of PT.
The decision to use PT is complex and is influenced by many factors,
which turn into more complicated in a rich country like Japan, where
the rate of using car is high in relatively small-sized cities such as
Kanazawa. Travelers have a sense of freedom, power and ease in
commuting when using personalized transport such as private cars. The
main purpose of this research study is to investigate the potential use of
the PT using the theoretical backgrounds of the TPB with the help of a
questionnaire survey in order to explore how the intentions and attitude
of people are related with their stated manifestations to use the service.
The findings of this paper might help policy makers, local government,
and service operators with some important information about how the
use of PT can be encouraged. The findings can also help to devise in­
terventions which can be aimed at increasing the intentions of the res­
idents for the use of PT in the city of Kanazawa.
Research gap
Literature related with the use of TPB for modeling the behavior
about the use of PT was comprehensively studied. As per the best
knowledge of the authors, the behavioral intentions to use PT has not
been studied in the city of Kanazawa, specially using the theoretical
backgrounds of the TPB. This is the first study of its kind which is being
conducted in the city to extract the factors affecting PT use from com­
muters’ perspectives. One of the objectives of this study is to investigate
the psychological factors in order to explain the behavior of PT use, with
special focus on accessibility of the service (APT) and travel cost (TCC),
which can be achieved by using the theoretical backgrounds of the TPB
for a small-sized Japanese city. In this study, we examined up to what
extent the factors of APT and TCC influence the extended model of the
TPB for behavioral intention to use PT. Though, the model has been
extensively studied by many researchers to model the travel behavior
(Bamberg et al., 2007; Fu & Juan, 2017a; Lo et al., 2016; Ng & Phung,
2021; Zailani et al., 2016), however, to the best knowledge of the au­
thors, none of the previous studies have investigated the influence of
APT and TCC, as determinant factors of the TPB for modeling PT
commuting behavior. In order to fill the gap in the body of the literature,
this study is aimed to develop Structural Equation Model (SEM) based on
extracted factors for PT use in Kanazawa city. In this research study,
behavior intentions to use PT considering PN & EC, APT and TCC are
studied along with constructs of the TPB, which represent the loyalty of
the commuters about the satisfaction of the PT system. This research
study is different from the existing studies carried out in the city since it
uses the theoretical backgrounds of the TPB and explores the anteced­
ents of intentions to use PT and explain the influence of normative and
rational factors to use PT considering PN & EC, APT and TCC. The better
understanding about how these factors influence PT travel behavior
could confirm the design of more effective commuting behavior change
interventions in order to improve PT service ridership (PT behavior)
among the residents. In this way, the government and service operators
would be able to make better policy interventions to countermeasure the
rise of private commuting in the city.
2
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742
Methods
Kanazawa city – A case study
Kanazawa is a capital city of the Ishikawa prefecture, Hokuriku re­
gion with a population of 465,699 people. Kanazawa is considered as
one of the leading tourist cities in the country because of its beautiful
landscape and castle. The city of Kanazawa was developed as a castle
town during the region of Kaga Domain, which is also known as Kana­
zawa domain back in the Edo period in 1603. The city of Kanazawa was
not affected during World War II bombing; therefore, it remained as a
leading tourist destination in the country. Some of the famous tourist
attractions in the city are Kanazawa Castle, Kenrokuen Garden, Samurai
House Site, Higashichaya Town, and Ninjadera Temple. The PT system
in the city is solely covered with the bus system, which is operated by
private operator. At present, the modal share of different transit modes
stands at; 67.2 %, 4.6 % and 1.8 %, for private car, public bus, and rail
system, respectively. The high use of private car can be attributed
because of convenience, cheaper travel costs and freedom to travel in the
city as compared with the PT. This high share of private car in the
transport system is the main motivation behind this study to investigate
the factors which might help in behavioral intention of PT use in the city.
Fig. 1 shows the location of Kanazawa city and the PT route network in
the city.
Theory of planned behavior (TPB)
In this research study, TPB is used to understand the intentions of the
commuters about PT use in Kanazawa city. TPB is one of the commonly
used theory which is used to investigate the mode choice behaviors of
the commuters in transport-related research studies (Chen & Chao,
2011; Fu & Juan, 2017b; Huang et al., 2013; Yuda Bakti et al., 2020).
TPB is a powerful and commonly employed tool which is widely used to
assess, model, and investigate the behavior of people associated with a
certain activity, product, or service (Ajzen, 1991). TPB explains the in­
dividuals’ behavior about certain scenarios, how an individual behaves
in a particular way, for example, in this research study the use of PT in
Kanazawa city, which can be affected by three factors. First, the belief
(attitude) which can likely affect the behavior, it includes the overall
evaluation of an individual about an outcome (either positive or nega­
tive). Second, the normative expectations which depict the perception of
an individual under societal support or pressure to manifest or not to
manifest specific behavior (subjective norms). Third, the set of internal
or external beliefs which might affect factors which can assist or hinder
individual’s behavior (perceived behavior control), which depict an
individual’s difficulty or ease with which one can perform a particular
behavior. In TPB, the intentions are viewed as the intermediate deter­
minant of the pertinent explicit action. In other words, the intentions
capture the motivational factors which might influence the behavior of
the respondents, which indirectly are the indicators that how hard re­
spondents are going to try or planning to put an effort to perform a
behavior (Sheeran, 2002). It can be said that intentions are very closely
related with the behavior (Sheeran, 2002). Hence, it is assumed that if
intentions (PT intentions) can be predicted, then behavior (PT behavior)
can also be predicted using the TPB.
In the TPB, it is assumed that people behave in a particular and
rational way in which they consider the implications of their performed
actions. As per the framework of the TPB, the individual human
behavior is guided by the positive and negative consequences of their
specific behaviors. A comparison is added of different research studies
which employed the extended models of the TPB by including new
factors which can influence the intentions and ultimately behavior from
the perspectives of norming effects (Table 1). Based on the findings of
these studies, it can be predicted that the psychological factors are better
at explaining the mode choice behavior of the individuals instead of
infrastructural and socio-demographic factors. However, the main focus
N. Ali et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742

Fig. 1. Location of Kanazawa city and PT route network (© Open Street Contributor).

Table 1
Selected studies which use TPB/Extended TPB on public transportation use.
Paper Country Main theory/approach Factors studied Important findings

(Ng & Phung, Vietnam Integrated model combined Environmental Concern (EC), Attitude, SN, Attitude, PBC, PN, EC and DN influence the use of PT.
2021) with TPB PBC, PN, Service Satisfaction, and Behavioral
Intention (BT)
(Lo et al., 2016) Netherlands Extended TPB Attitude, PBC, Descriptive Norm (DN), PN, DN, PBC, and Attitude are associated with the intention of
and Habit travel mode regardless of the travel distance.
(Bamberg et al., Germany Extended TPB PN, SN, PBC, DN, and Attitude PN has significant relationship as a predictor with the use
2007) of public transport (PT).
(Chen & Tung, Taiwan Integrated model combined PBC, PN, Attitude, and Habit The habit to use private vehicle is a main hinder to switch
2014) with TPB to the use of PT.
(Fu & Juan, China TPB Attitude, SN, Satisfaction, and Habit Attitude, SN, Satisfaction, and Habit are the important
2017a) predictors which influence the mode choice behavior of
PT.
(Donald et al., United Extended TPB Attitude, SN, PBC, Moral Norms (MN), DN, Attitude, SN, and PBC influence the use of PT.
2014) Kingdom and EC
(Zhang et al., China TPB SN, PN, DN, and SN PN and SN are important factors which influence the
2016) usage of PT.
(Zailani et al., Malaysia Extended TPB, overall image Attitude, SN, PBC, and Past behavior Attitude, PBC & overall image are important predictors,
2016) containing past behavior of but attitude and PBC describe the 34.6 % and 49.8 %
respondents intentions variance, respectively.
(Eriksson & Sweden Extended TPB with included Attitude, SN, PBC, and added DN Attitude, SN, PBC, and DN are significant predictors to
Forward, separate norms influence the use of PT.
2011)
This study Japan Extended TPB Attitude, SN, PN & EC, PBC, APT, and TCC Attitude, SN, PBC, PN & EC, and APT are important
predictors which influence the use of PT.

of these studies revolves around psychological predictors of attitude,
descriptive and subjective norms, environmental concerns, habit, and
perceived control behaviors. Likewise, the study conducted by Bamberg
et al., (2007), we assume that Social Norm (SN), Personal Norm (PN),
attitude, and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) are significant pre­
dictors which influence the intention to use PT. Though PN is the only
predictor which influence the use of PT in their study. However, it has
been confirmed that other factors of the TPB framework such as attitude,
SN, and PBC also are important (Donald et al., 2014). PN are not found
to have any significant impact on the use of PT (Chen & Tung, 2014;
Zailani et al., 2016), however, some of the studies reported that they
have significant impact on PT use (Ng & Phung, 2021; Zhang et al.,
2016). Some of the important findings and the factors studied in the
selected studies are summarized in the following Table 1. With respect to
these studies, in this study we have explored the role of attitude, SN, PN
& EC, APT, and TCC for explaining the role of predictors of extended TPB
in relation to PT behavior.
Though, in TPB it is assumed that intentions are the determinants of
behavior, which is solely influenced by attitudes, SN, and PBC. But many
of the research studies have shown that intentions and behaviors can be
influenced by some of the additional factors as well which are not pre­
sent in the model (Conner & Armitage, 1998). These factors can be
related with the pro-environmental activism (Fielding et al., 2008),
moral norms (Armitage & Conner, 2010), social responsibility (Conner
& Armitage, 1998; Gardner & Abraham, 2010) etc., which can add
additional identity factors to the TPB. However, it is important to
carefully examine the factors for modeling behavior in relation with the
TPB, as this can affect the underlaying decision to act or not act in a
certain way (like in this case the PT behavior). Likewise in this study, as
it is can be seen in Fig. 2, the theoretical framework of the TPB is used to
predict the intentions of the residents of the Kanazawa city about PT use
based on their beliefs (attitudes), subjective norms (SN), perceived
control (PBC), personal norms and environmental concerns (PN & EC),
access by public transport (APT), and travel cost consciousness (TCC).
Research hypothesis
A structural model was developed using results of the factor analysis
of Table 4. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is an important tech­
nique which is used for multivariate analysis and many of the re­
searchers have used it in transportation engineering for the exploration
of travel behaviors (de Oña et al., 2013; Golob, 2003; Klein, 2016; Wen
et al., 2005). It enables the researchers to test multiple hypothesis in a
single structural model. This SEM analysis was conducted using AMOS

3
N. Ali et al.
Attitudes
SN
Intentions
PBC PN & EC
Fig. 2. Theoretical model.
software which is a component of the IBM SPSS Statistics software
package. In this study, the questionnaire items were designed consid­
ering the theoretical background of the TPB and it was required to
conduct a confirmatory analysis on the collected data. Therefore, the
AMOS statistical package was preferred as it uses a confirmatory
approach to test the research hypotheses (Samuels, 2017). Compared to
the conventional regression analysis, the SEM has many advantages. In
SEM, it is possible to incorporate several observed variables (indicators)
and unobserved (latent) variables in a single model. It also provides an
opportunity to identify direct and indirect effects between the variables.
Initially, measurement models are developed and correlations between
observed and latent variables are confirmed. Then, the measurement
models were combined to develop the structural model. A structural
model is a path diagram which elaborates the measurement and struc­
tural equations.
This structural model was constructed to test the following
hypothesis:
1. The traveler’s attitudes may influence their intentions to use public
transport under given circumstances.
2. The traveler’s subjective norms may influence their intentions to use
public transport under given circumstances.
3. The traveler’s perceived difficulty in using a specific mode may in­
fluence their intentions to use public transport under given
circumstances.
4. The peoples’ beliefs on environmental values and concerns may have
a direct influence on their intentions.
5. The perceived difficulty might have a direct and negative influence
on the intentions of the commuters towards public transport.
6. The perceived difficulty in using public transport such as increase in
travel time and cost and reduced service frequency may have a
negative and direct impact on PT behavior.
7. The direct access by public transport to residence and workplace and
travel cost consciousness may have an influence on their PT
behavior.
8. The intention variable plays a role of mediator to explain indirect
influence of attitudes, SN, PBC and other variables on public trans­
port behavior.
Data collection
A questionnaire survey was used in the present study for the sake of
data collection. The questionnaire survey was designed based on the
theoretical framework of the TPB. The first section comprised of the
Socio-economic Demographics (SEDs) of the respondents such as
gender, age, education, profession, car ownership, monthly income, and
4
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742
PT Behavior
APT
nationality. In the second section, different statements of the TPB were
designed about the attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral
control, personal norms and environmental concerns, PT use intensions
and behavior considering access by public transport and travel cost
consciousness. The respondents were asked to rate their agreement
against five-point Likert scale system; strongly disagree (1) to strongly
agree (5) with the intensions to use PT.
A total of 377 usable responses were collected through online (92.30
%) and face-to-face (7.69 %) sampling strategy. Since the responses
against different statements were asked on numeric ranking from 1 to 5,
therefore, the variables were averaged to create different variables. The
Cronbach’s alpha value for the defined variables was determined, which
is ranged from 0 to 1 reflecting the internal consistency of the variables.
If the variables are entirely independent of each other, then the value of
Cronbach’s alpha is 0. But, if the variables have high covariance, then
the value of Cronbach’s alpha approaches 1. Cronbach’s alpha value for
all of the variables is high as shown in Table 4, which exceeds the
acceptable recommend values (Taber, 2018).
Results
Socio-economic demographics (SEDs) of the respondents
The summary of the SEDs of the respondents is shown in Table 2.
There was a total of 217 (57.56 %) male, 152 (40.32 %) female and 8
(2.12 %) people who preferred not to reveal their gender. A good per­
centage of the respondents is young (70.29 %) and student (61.01 %),
which shows a great agreement that young people are more active on­
line. Among the respondents 92 (24.4 %) people reported that they own
a car, while 285 (75.6 %) manifested that they don’t own a car. Addi­
tionally, 120 (31.83 %) of the respondents were Japanese national,
while the remaining 257 (68.17 %) were non-Japanese national. It is
pertinent to mention here that the number of non-Japanese respondents
is more because the questionnaire was designed in English and posted
via Social Networking System (SNS) in different groups in the city. The
details about the rest of the SEDs are shown as follows:
Modal shift
In the survey, the respondents were asked about their present
frequent mode of transport and their preferred mode of transport in the
future. The results of the responses are plotted in a Sankey diagram as
shown in Fig. 3. The results reported that PT is the most used mode of
transport for the respondents (40.58 %), which is followed by bicycle
(27.85 %) and car (24.13 %), respectively. The share of walking is least
among given alternative modes of transport, which constitute around
N. Ali et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742

Table 2 transport among the respondents with 27.58 %, 13.79 %, and 4.24 % for
SEDs of the respondents. PT, bicycle, and walking, respectively. By looking at the results of the
Variable Category Frequency Percentage modal share, almost half of the PT and bicycle users intend to shift their
(%) preferred mode of transport as private car in the future. Therefore, it is
Gender Male 217 57.56 very important to mention that there is an urgent need of policy in­
Female 152 40.32 terventions which can improve the use of PT and active transit modes
Prefer not to say 8 2.12 (such as bicycle and walking) in the city from the sustainability
Age (Years) <20 71 18.83 perspectives.
21–40 265 70.29
41–60 38 10.08
>60 3 0.80
Education High School 72 19.10 Survey results and explanatory factor analysis (EFA)
Bachelor 84 22.28
Masters 109 28.71 An explanatory factor analysis was conducted to confirm the asso­
Above Masters 112 29.71 ciation of observed variables with their corresponding latent variables
Car Ownership Yes 92 24.40
No 285 75.60
according to the framework of the TPB. This factor analysis was con­
Profession Student 230 61.01 ducted using Maximum Likelihood (ML) method and Varimax rotation.
Researcher 45 11.94 Besides variables of the TPB, this factor analysis also resulted in three
Business 7 1.86 additional factors. These three factors were named seeking the nature of
Employee 95 25.20
their observed variables. They are Personal Norm and Environmental
Nationality Japanese 120 31.83
International 257 68.17 Concern (PN & EC), Access by Public Transport (APT), and Travel Cost
Distance from Residence Place <5 179 47.48 Consciousness (TCC). The KMO and Bartlett’s test was also done on
to Workplace (Km) 5–10 90 23.87 factor analysis (Table 3). The estimated value of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
>10 108 28.65 Measure of Sampling Adequacy is more than 0.7 which shows good
Individual Monthly Income 123 32.63
adequacy of the collected samples (Taber, 2018). The reliability of the
<100,000
100,000–200,000 160 42.44
200,001–300,000 65 17.24 factors was checked using Cronbach’s alpha value. The estimated values
>300,000 29 7.69 of Cronbach’s alpha for most of the factors are more than 0.7 which
shows an acceptable level of reliability of factors and internal consis­
tency among the respondents in the evaluation of observed variables.
7.42 % and 4.24 % for present and future preferred mode of transport,
The Cronbach’s alpha value of SN and TCC factors are also near to 0.7
respectively. However, in the future preferred mode of transport, a
(Garcia-Santillan et al., 2012).
significant portion of the respondents (54.37 %) prefer to use private car
The Cronbach’s Alpha value for the PN and EC is 0.933, which shows
for traveling, which can be attributed because of the freedom and con­
acceptable level of reliability and internal consistency among the re­
venience of use in a city like Kanazawa, where the PT system is not very
spondents (Table 4). The factor loadings of PN and EC factor shows that
well integrated in some parts of the city. It is important to mention that
the respondents placed a high belief on moral obligations to protect the
the share of other modes of transport is decreased as a preferred mode of
environment and environmental concerns in travelling. The travelers

Fig. 3. Shift between present and future preferred mode choice.

5
N. Ali et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742

Table 3 frequency and incentives or subsidies from the government on use of

KMO and Bartlett’s test results of factor analysis.
KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square
Degree of freedom
Significance
who have high belief would have more preferences to adopt environ­
mental friendly travel modes such as PT. In other words, they consider it
as a moral responsibility to preserve the environment and work for the
betterment of the society. The factor loadings of the indicators of
behavioral variable are also more than 0.7 which shows good internal
consistency among respondents in the evaluation. The respondents
would consider public transport with reduce travel time and cost, direct
access to workplace and residence by public transport, better service
transit facilities. The results of PBC factor show that the travelers believe
that an increase in travel time and waiting time, poor infrastructure and
absence of incentives would reduce their ability to use PT. They manifest
0.812
5274.900 that current level of service (frequency) is not sufficient and is making it
378 difficult for them to use PT for commuting. The respondents showed
0.000 positive attitudes to use PT with reduced travel time and waiting time
and increased level of service frequency. The service quality attributes
such as travel time, service frequency and access by transit modes in­
fluence the travelers’ intentions as shown by the results (Cronbach’s
Alpha value is 0.74) of intention variable. The results of SN factor show
that the people get influenced with travel experience of others and
practice in the society. It shows that the mode choice behavior of the
respondents is also influenced by the surrounding practice in the society.
In addition, change in cost and time elements may affect their mode
choice preference. The factor loadings of APT variable are more than 0.7

Table 4
Rotated factor loadings of latent variables or factor.
Observed Variables Mean Factors
PN & Behavior PBC Attitudes Intentions SN APT TCC
EC

I feel more obligation to use public transport for saving environment. (PN & EC 3.66 0.918
– 1)
I feel moral obligations to use public transport to reduce the air pollution. (PN & 3.61 0.910
EC – 2)
I feel moral obligations to use public transport for the preservation of natural 3.43 0.808
resources. (PN & EC – 3)
I feel moral obligations to use public transport for betterment of the society. (PN 3.57 0.793
& EC – 4)
How often you would use public transport considering better service frequency? 3.687 0.850
(PTB – 1)
How often you would use public transport considering travel cost reduction? 3.668 0.769
(PTB – 2)
How often you would use public transport when there are incentives from the 3.326 0.742
government? (PTB – 3)
How often you would use public transport considering travel time reduction? 3.552 0.702
(PTB – 4)
How often you would use public transport considering direct access to 3.687 0.678
workplace and residence place? (PTB – 5)
I believe that more waiting time to access public transport makes it difficult to 3.976 0.776
use it. (PBC – 1)
I believe that more travel time by public transport make it difficult to use it. 3.819 0.767
(PBC – 2)
I believe the existing infrastructure (frequency/Level of service) makes it 3.318 0.510
difficult to use public transport. (PBC – 3)
I believe that no incentive from the government makes it difficult to use public 3.259 0.507
transport. (PBC – 4)
I like to use public transport if transport frequency is improved. (Attitude – 1) 4.066 0.798
I like to use public transport if waiting time for public transport is reduced. 4.103 0.754
(Attitude – 2)
I like to use public transport if travel time by public transport is reduced. 3.986 0.446
(Attitude – 3)
I believe that accessibility to my workplace and residence place will affect my 4.185 0.671
intension to use public transport. (Intention – 1)
I believe that travel time will affect my intension to use public transport. 3.994 0.668
(Intention – 2)
I believe that my intension to use public transport depend upon the availability 3.893 0.542
(frequency) of the service. (Intention – 3)
I prefer to choose public transport as it is related with my travel time. (SN – 1) 3.721 0.829
I prefer to choose public transport as it reduces my travel cost. (SN – 2) 3.549 0.647
I prefer to use public transport as it has become norm of the society. (SN – 3) 3.273 0.423
I prefer to use public transport as it is recommended by my colleague or friends. 3.111 0.406
(SN – 4)
I like to select my workplace which is easily accessible by public transport. (APT 3.931 0.772
– 1)
I like to select my residence place which is easily accessible by public transport. 4.124 0.762
(APT – 2)
I believe that travel cost will affect my intension to use public transport. (TCC – 4.061 0.729
1)
I believe that high fares make it difficult to use public transport. (TCC – 2) 3.949 0.579
I like to use public transport if public transport fare is lowered. (TCC – 3) 3.984 0.452
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.933 0.872 0.764 0.793 0.740 0.697 0.794 0.681

Note: Personal Norm and Environmental Concern (PN & EC), Access by Public Transport (APT), Travel Cost Consciousness (TCC).

6
N. Ali et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742

which shows that spatial coverage of transit modes and high level of
access would have significant influence on altering the travel behavior
of people. The travelers are willing to modify their behavior if they have
direct access to their workplace and residence place by PT. It means
better spatial coverage of public transport may encourage the com­
muters to alter their traveling behavior. The value of Cronbach’s Alpha
for TCC variable is also near 0.7. The results of TCC factor depict that the
traveler’s consciousness about cost and time elements of their journey
would cause significant impact on their travel choices.
Categorical analysis of commuters’ perceptions
coverage of the service between workplace and residence place of
commuters can encourage the use of PT. The results of Fig. 4(d) shows
that the international residents in the city, which are mostly students
showed their positive attitude and behavior towards public transport
and their average response scores are more for almost all domains except
SN, and PBC. The average scores of TCC, APT, PT Intentions and atti­
tudes are higher in this category in case of international people residing
in the city. The overall trend of Fig. 4 showed that the average scores of
TCC and APT are higher, which confirms the need that PT should be
made cheaper, spatial coverage and service frequency of the PT should
be improved to attract more commuters.

A cross-analysis of some of the SEDs of the commuters and their
corresponding response about latent variables of attitude, APT, SN, PBC,
PN and EC, PT, TCC, and PT behavior was done. The average scores were
calculated and comparisons among different categories are drawn using
radar diagram. Fig. 4(a) shows that respondents with lower salary put
more emphasis on TCC, which is obvious as PT in Japan is relatively
expansive as compared with the other Southeast Asian countries in the
region and there is no subsidy from the government on PT in Kanazawa
city. Fig. 4(b) shows that respondents who do not own a car put more
emphasize on TCC and APT, while the respondents who own a car
showed least interest in PT behavior. The average scores of PBC are high,
which depict that it is difficult for them to use PT, inferring that it is
difficult to modify their travel behavior unless some concrete in­
terventions are not introduced to change their behavior. The overall
manifestations of respondents who own a car have less average score in
almost all the domains except PBC. Which again confirms that it is
difficult for them to switch to PT.
Fig. 4(c) shows the categorization of average mean score with respect
to profession. It shows that students are more concerned about TCC,
which can be because of the fact that most of the students are having low
income, therefore, they are more concerned about the travel cost con­
sciousness. The average score of PT intention of employees shows that
they have higher intentions to switch to PT if proper infrastructure is
provided. The average scores for APT are relatively higher for almost all
group of respondents in this category, which confirms that the spatial
Structural equation modeling (SEM)
Fig. 5 shows a developed structural model of this research study. This
structural model confirms the measurement equations of observed var­
iables (in rectangular shape) with their corresponding latent variables
(in ellipse shape). All the measurement equations were significant at a 1
% level of significance. The correlations between variables of attitudes,
SN and PBC are significantly and positively associated. The structural
estimate between attitudes and intentions variables is positive and sig­
nificant at a 1 % level of significance. It shows that the presence of
positive attitudes among travelers significantly influence their in­
tentions to use PT under the local circumstances. The structural rela­
tionship between SN and intentions is significant at a 5 % level of
significance which depicts that the social normative beliefs are impor­
tant to determine the behavioral intentions. The PBC has a significance
structural relationship with intentions which shows that despite
perceived difficulty in using PT due to various service quality re­
strictions still people possess positive behavioral intentions towards PT.
The PBC also has a direct significant and negative structural relationship
with PT behavior. It shows that the people who perceived difficulty in
using PT due to high travel cost and waiting time, poor infrastructure
and low or no incentives for PT users would not use PT under given
circumstances. The TCC factor did not form any significant relationship
with variables of intentions and PT behavior; therefore, it was excluded
from the model. The PN and EC variable has only direct relationship

Attitude Attitude
4.4 4.2
4.2 4
PT Behavior 4 APT PT Behavior APT
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.6
3.4
3.4
3.2 3.2

TCC 3 SN TCC 3 SN

PT Intention PBC PT Intention PBC

MN & EC MN & EC
< 100,000 100,001 - 200,000 200,001 - 300,000 > 300,000 Yes No

(a) Distribution by monthly salary (b) Distribution by car ownership

Attitude Attitude
4.2 4.2
4
4
PT Behavior APT
3.8 PT Behavior APT
3.8
3.6
3.6
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.2
TCC 3 SN
TCC 3 SN

PT Intention PBC
PT Intention PBC

MN & EC
MN & EC
Student Researcher Business Employee
Japanese International

(c) Distribution by profession (d) Distribution by nationality

Fig. 4. Distribution of commuters’ average responses across different segments.

7
N. Ali et al.
Fig. 5. Structural model of respondents’ public transport intentions and behavior.
with intentions whereas it did not form a significant correlation with PT
behavior. The significant correlation between PN & EC and intentions
variable shows that the people who have high moral obligations and
environmental friendly beliefs possess high intentions to use PT. The
APT variable has a significant structural estimate with PT behavior
variable. This relationship is positive which depicts that more spatial
coverage or high level of access by PT would be helpful in improving PT
usage behavior. The value of Chi-sq./DF falls in range of 2 to 5, the
values of CFI, GFI, and AGFI are more than 0.8 and near to 0.9, and value
of RMSEA is <0.08. These values show that the developed structural
model has an acceptable level of reliability in predicting the behavioral
intentions and PT behavior under the framework of the TPB.
Discussions and policy implications
The factors which are adopted to profile the quality of the PT system,
i.e., attitudes, SN, PBC, PN & EC, APT has significant and positive
relationship with the intensions of the users. It means that this infor­
mation can play an important role to improve the use of PT and improve
the overall framework of the service system. It can be implied from the
findings that improving the accessibility and level of service of the PT
system will improve the PT behavior. Based on the findings of the above
study, some of the policy implications are suggested which can be used
as interventions to promote the use of PT in Kanazawa city. By making
PT more accessible, improving the service frequency, and rescheduling
the routes to connect the residential and business CBDs will increase the
use of PT in the city. It has been observed by the authors as well that
some parts of the city are not connected via direct PT, which makes it
infeasible mode of transport as compared with the personalized car. By
expanding the transit coverage to the different parts of the city by
introducing new transit lines and rescheduling service frequency, which
conveniently reduce the travel and wait time of traveling by PT can
contribute positively to the use of PT. As it is confirmed from Fig. 3,
almost half of the current user of PT wants to shift their transit mode as
private or personalized car. The possible reason of this modal shift can
be attributed towards the insufficient coverage and service frequency of
PT which is not able to meet the desired needs of the commuters. So, it
can be inferred from the findings that the current PT infrastructure needs
modifications so that it can be adjusted according to the requirements of
8
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742
the commuters so that they should prefer environmental friendly modes
(public bus or train) for their daily commuting to work. In other words,
the government agencies and public transport operators should re-
evaluate their strategies of current PT infrastructure in the city, which
should be improved to provide better access at lower fare. The govern­
ment can provide some subsidy for the promotion of PT in the city
because it will help in altering the behavior of the commuters in the long
run as indicated by (Mouwen, 2015).
Next, the significant impacts of SN and PBC on the PT intensions and
PT behavior can improve the overall satisfaction of traveling by PT and
help in developing the pro-PT use social behavior among the com­
muters. The current traveling trend in the city shows strong dependence
of commuters on private car for their daily commuting (Fig. 3). The
government should focus on changing the social behavior of the com­
muters and encourage the use of PT. It suggests that a norm to adopt PT
behavior is yet to be achieved in the city. This can be accomplished by
providing some cheaper travel schemes or discounts and campaigns
which urge the people to give up their personalized vehicles and adopt
to PT behavior. The initiation of different initiatives from city govern­
ment and service operators which encourage the use of PT and urge
users to switch to PT from private cars are required. The relationship of
PBC is negative with PT behavior, it means that under the current cir­
cumstances, the wait time and PT infrastructure is making it difficult for
commuters to use PT. Reducing the travel fare, reducing the waiting
time, and improving the service frequency can provide a highly user-
friendly PT service system. It suggests that improvements in the cur­
rent PT system are required, which can be associated with the in-depth
analysis of existing transit lines, service scheduling and their spatial
coverage for the sake of making it more accessible to commuters be­
tween their residence and workplace choices. With these circumstances,
the commuters are more likely to have strong intensions to use PT even if
the other quality parameters such as cleanliness, convenience and safety
remain same. With the improvement of said measures, it is expected that
commuters will have positive intentions to use PT.
Given the PN and EC, it is important to develop the habit of using PT
among the commuters instead of private vehicles, therefore, creating the
habitual use of PT among the travelers is desired and wished in the first
place. It means that the self-concept and internal principles about
environmental concern could strengthen the intentions of the
N. Ali et al.
commuters to use PT. It suggests that service operators, government and
policy makers can run campaigns to create more awareness about
environmental concern for the promotion of PT and reduction of private
car usage. However, to elaborate the principles for the promotion and
maintaining such habits would go beyond the scope of this research
study. Yet, some of the points as elaborated by different researchers are
put forward. ( Chen & Chao, 2011; Donald et al., 2014) reported that
enduring cognitive orientation for the development of PT use takes
relatively longtime. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce interventions
step by step to modify the behavior of the commuters. (De Oña & De
Oña, 2015) said that one of the first and foremost thing which needs to
be done is to improve the service quality of PT according to the needs of
the commuters for the promotion of its use. On similar lines, it is
imperative to take into account the service attributes such as reducing
travel and wait time compared with the private vehicles for commuting
similar distance length. Introduction of all these measures may
contribute positively to develop the habit of using PT in new travelers
and retaining the current users, which can be a great way to start and
create PT use habit among travelers. It is important to mention that the
success of this habitual change might depend upon some of the other
factors as well such as controlling the use of private vehicles, increasing
parking costs in the city, and improving general social atmosphere etc.,
However, it is hoped that if these policy interventions are applied in
their best spirits, they might improve the PT use in the city.
Conclusion
In this study, we tried to explore the intensions and attitude of people
about how their stated intensions are related with the use of PT in the
Kanazawa city. This research study is focused on the behavioral inten­
sion of travelers to use PT using the theoretical background of the TPB.
To achieve this purpose, a questionnaire survey was conducted via on­
line and face-to-face methods. A total of 377 usable responses were
collected. Initially, exploratory factor analysis was carried out to extract
some of the useful information. The findings show that four important
factors; attitude, SN, PBC, and PN and EC influence the intention of
travelers about PT. The factor of APT has positive relationship with PT
behavior, while TCC do not constitute any significant relationship with
PT behavior, therefore, it is omitted from the SEM model. The analysis of
the factor loading shows that respondents place high belief moral obli­
gations to protect the environment and environmental concerns in
travelling. The findings of this study also confirm the investigations
carried out by (Eriksson & Forward, 2011) in Sweden which stated that
respondents who place high belief on environmental concern would
adopt sustainable transit modes such as PT and bicycle over private car.
Similarly, in this study, the travelers who have high belief would have
more preferences to adopt environmental friendly travel modes such as
PT. The results of PBC factor show that the travelers believe that an
increase in travel time and waiting time, insufficient infrastructure
(service frequency / level of service) and absence of incentives would
reduce their ability to use PT, which indicates that their ability to drive a
car can be the main hinderance in the adoption of PT behavior (Fu &
Juan, 2017a). The results of SN factor are in agreement with the findings
of (Zailani et al., 2016) which shows that the people may get influenced
with the travel experience of others and practices in the society. In
addition, change in travel cost and time elements may affect their mode
choice preferences. The factor loadings of APT variable are more than
0.7 which shows that the spatial coverage of transit modes and high
level of access would have significant influence on altering the travel
behavior of the people. The results of TCC factor depict that the trav­
eler’s consciousness about cost and time elements of their journey would
cause significant impact on their travel choices.
A SEM model was developed using the factors extracted based on the
extensions of the TPB, which organizes factors which shows that people
behave in a certain way, based on the influence of their own attitudes,
the influence of perceived control, and influence of people around them.
9
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 17 (2023) 100742
The results of this influence were used to provide in-depth insights about
how the people will use PT considering the effect of APT and TCC, which
distinguishes this research study from the previous research works such
as (Bamberg et al., 2007; Donald et al., 2014; Eriksson & Forward, 2011;
Lo et al., 2016; Ng & Phung, 2021; Zailani et al., 2016). The negative
relationship of PBC with PT behavior shows that the people who
perceived difficulty in using PT due to high travel cost and waiting time,
poor infrastructure and low or no incentives for PT users would not use
PT under given circumstances. The APT has strong and direct relation­
ship with PT behavior, which depict that a better and improved access
by PT to the workplace and residence place of commuters can signifi­
cantly affect their behavior to shift their commuting habits to PT.
However, the results of TCC do not form any significant relationship
with PT behavior, therefore, they are not included in the model. It can be
concluded that improving the access (spatial coverage), improving ser­
vice frequency, reducing waiting time and travel cost would help in
developing positive attitude towards the use of PT in the city.
Likewise, many of the studies, this research study also bears certain
limitations. First, the reported results are solely based on the stated
survey (preferences) from the respondents. Furthermore, the opinion
from local government, city hall and service operators can help in
devising more comprehensive view about encouraging PT use in the
city. However, this research study has significant agreement with the
findings of previous studies which explored the relationship between
intentions and actual PT behavior (Eriksson & Forward, 2011; Zailani
et al., 2016). Based on the findings of this study, subsidized PT services
with better spatial coverage and improved LOS should be offered to
observe the actual behavior of the commuters in the future.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nazam Ali: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Formal
analysis, Supervision, Supervision, Resources. Shoichiro Nakayama:
Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Supervi­
sion, Resources. Hiromichi Yamaguchi: Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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