Predicate Logic

Nested Quantifiers
1. Nested quantifiers are used to make a proposition when we have

more than one variable in a predicate.
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Nested Quantifiers
1. Nested quantifiers are used to make a proposition when we have

more than one variable in a predicate.
2. When nested quantifiers are used the order in which they are
used is important.
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Symbolize the Following Statements
1. Somebody loves everybody.
2. Everybody loves Dr A P J Abdul Kalam.
3. Everybody loves somebody.
4. There is somebody whom everybody loves.
5. There is somebody who SK doesn’t love.
6. There is somebody whom no one loves.
7. A girl loves SK.
8. No one is happy.
9. Everyone is happy.
10. Every student is happy.
11. Some students are happy.
12. No student complained.
13. Not every student complained.
14. Every student of section C has visited Hyderabad or Delhi.
15. Every CSE student must study Discrete Mathematics.
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1. Somebody loves everybody.
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1. Somebody loves everybody. ∃x∀yL(x, y )
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2. Everybody loves Kalam.
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2. Everybody loves Kalam. ∀xL(x, Kalam)
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3. Everybody loves somebody.
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3. Everybody loves somebody. ∀x∃yL(x, y )
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4. There is somebody whom everybody loves.
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4. There is somebody whom everybody loves. ∃x∀yL(y , x)
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5. There is somebody whom SK doesn’t love.
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5. There is somebody whom SK doesn’t love. ∃x¬L(SK , x)
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6. There is somebody whom no one loves.
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6. There is somebody whom no one loves. ∃x∀y ¬L(y , x)
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7. A girl loves SK.
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7. A girl loves SK. ∃xL(x, SK )
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8. No one is happy.
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8. No one is happy. ∀x(P(x) → ¬H(x)) or ∀x¬H(x)
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9. Everyone is happy.
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9. Everyone is happy. ∀x(P(x) → H(x)) or ∀xH(x)
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10. Every student is happy.
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10. Every student is happy. ∀x(S(x) → H(x)) or ∀xH(x)
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11. Some students are happy.
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11. Some students are happy. ∃x(S(x) ∧ H(x)) or ∃xH(x)
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12. No student complained.
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12. No student complained. ∀x(S(x) → ¬C (x)) or ∀x¬C (x)
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13. Not every student complained.
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13. Not every student complained. ¬∀x(S(x) → C (x))
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14. Every student of section I BTech CSE has visited Hyderabad or Delhi.
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14. Every student of section I BTech CSE has visited Hyderabad or Delhi.
15. Every BTech CSE student must study Discrete Mathematics.

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Mixing Quantifiers - Examples
1. There are infinite number of integers.
2. There is a number x such that when it is added to any number,

the result is that number, and if it is multiplied by any number,
the result is x.
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Mixing Quantifiers - Examples - Solutions
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Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the statement that x < y .

Also let the universe of discourse be the set of integers.
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Then the statement can be expressed as ∀x∃yP(x, y ).
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the result is x.
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the result is x.
Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the expression x + y = y .

Also let Q(x, y ) be the expression xy = x.
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the result is x.
Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the expression x + y = y .

Also let Q(x, y ) be the expression xy = x.
Then the expression is ∃x∀y (P(x, y ) ∧ Q(x, y )).
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Truth Values of Quantifiers
1. ∀xP(x) is true when
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1. ∀xP(x) is true when P(x) is true for all values of x.
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1. ∀xP(x) is true when P(x) is true for all values of x.
2. ∀xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
3. ∃xP(x) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−
4. ∃xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
5. ¬∀xP(x) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−
6. ¬∀xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
7. ¬∃xP(x) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−
8. ¬∃xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
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Truth Values of Mixed Quantifiers
1. ∀x∀yP(x, y ) is true when P(x, y ) is true for all possible values

of x and y .
2. ∀x∀yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
3. ∀x∃yP(x, y ) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−
4. ∀x∃yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
5. ∃x∀yP(x, y ) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−
6. ∃x∀yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
7. ∃x∃yP(x, y ) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−
8. ∃x∃yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−
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Free and Bound Variables
1. Scope of a quantifier is the formula immediately following the
quantifier.
2. If the scope is an atomic formula then no parentheses are are

used to enclose the formula; otherwise, parentheses are needed.
3. A variable is a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the

scope of the quantifier.
4. A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs
within the scope of the quantifier.
Note: In the bound occurrence of a variable, the letter which is used
to represent the variable is not important.
5. The bound occurrence of a variable cannot be substituted by a
constant; only a free occurrence of a variable can be.
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Symbolize the Following
1. Only one student failed history.

2. No person likes a professor unless the professor is smart.
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Symbolize the Following - Solutions

Solution:
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Solution:
∃x∀y ((Student(x) ∧ Fails(x, History) ∧ Student(y ) ∧ Fails(y ,
History)) → (x = y))
Solution:
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Solution:
∃x∀y ((Student(x) ∧ Fails(x, History) ∧ Student(y ) ∧ Fails(y ,
History)) → (x = y))
Solution: ∀x((Professor (x) ∧ ¬Smart(x)) → ∀y ¬Likes(y , x)),

where Likes(x, y ) is x likes y .
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Example
Q) What does the following predicate formula represent?
∀x((Student(x) ∧ Takes(x, Biology )) → ∃y (Student(y ) ∧

Takes(y , History )∧Greater (Score(History , y ), Score(Biology , x)))).
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Example
Q) What does the following predicate formula represent?
∀x((Student(x) ∧ Takes(x, Biology )) → ∃y (Student(y ) ∧

Takes(y , History )∧Greater (Score(History , y ), Score(Biology , x)))).
Answer:
The best score in History is better than the best score in Biology.
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Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers
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Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equiv-

alent if and only if they have the same truth value no matter which
predicates are substituted into these statements and which domain
of discourse is used for the variables in these propositional functions.
Examples:
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Examples:
1. ∀x (P(x) ∧ Q(x)) is logically equivalent to ∀x P(x) ∧ ∀x Q(x).
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Examples:
1. ∀x (P(x) ∧ Q(x)) is logically equivalent to ∀x P(x) ∧ ∀x Q(x).
2. ¬∃x P(x) is logically equivalent to ∀x ¬P(x).
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Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
Rule of Inference Name

∀xP(x) Universal Specification (US)
− − −−
∴ P(c) for all c
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Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

∀xP(x) Universal Specification (US)
− − −−
∴ P(c) for all c
∃xP(x) Existential Specification (ES) (or)

Existential Instantiation (EI)
− − −−
∴ P(c) for some constant c
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Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements (Contd.)

P(c) for all c Universal Generalization (UG)
− − −−
∴ ∀xP(x)
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Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements (Contd.)

P(c) for all c Universal Generalization (UG)
− − −−
∴ ∀xP(x)
P(c) for some c

− − −−
∴ ∃xP(x) Existential Generalization (EG)
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Inferences - Example 1
Test the Validity of the Following Argument

1. All students are good.
2. No teacher is an Indian.
3. Good people are Indians.
4. Therefore students are not teachers.
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Example 1 - Solution
Let S(x) : x is a student; G (x) : x is good; T (x) : x is a teacher;

and I (x) : x is an Indian.
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Let S(x) : x is a student; G (x) : x is good; T (x) : x is a teacher;

and I (x) : x is an Indian.
1. All students are good. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))

2. No teacher is an Indian. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. Good people are Indians. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. Therefore students are not teachers. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
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Example 1 - Solution (Cont.)
1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
1.∀x (S(x) → G (x)) Premise 1
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
2. S(a) → G (a) Step 1 and US Rule
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
3.∀x (G (x) → I (x)) Premise 3
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
4. G (a) → I (a) Step 3 and US Rule
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
5. S(a) → I (a) Steps 2 & 4 and Transitive Rule
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
6.∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x)) Premise 2
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
6.∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x)) Premise 2
7. T (a) → ¬I (a) Step 6 and US Rule
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
6.∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x)) Premise 2
8. I (a) → ¬T (a) Step 7 : Equivalent Formula
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
6.∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x)) Premise 2
9. S(a) → ¬T (a) Steps 5 & 8 and Transitive Rule
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1. ∀x (S(x) → G (x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x))
3. ∀x (G (x) → I (x))
4. ∴ ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
6.∀x (T (x) → ¬I (x)) Premise 2
9. S(a) → ¬T (a) Steps 5 & 8 and Transitive Rule
10. ∀x (S(x) → ¬T (x)) Step 9 and UG Rule
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Test the validity of the following argument.

(Taken from Joe L.Mott’s textbook)
1. Babies are illogical.

2. Nobody who can tame a crocodile is despised.
3. Illogical persons are despised.
4. Therefore babies can‘t tame crocodiles.
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Let T (x) = x can tame a crocodile; B(x) = x is a baby; D(x) =

x is despised and L(x) = x is logical”.
1. Babies are illogical. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))

2. Nobody who can tame a crocodile is despised.
∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. Illogical persons are despised. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. Therefore babies can‘t tame crocodiles. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
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Example 2- Solution (Cont.)
1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
1.∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x)) Premise 1
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
2. B(a) → ¬L(a) Step 1 and US Rule
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
3.∀x (¬L(x) → D(x)) Premise 3
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
4. ¬L(a) → D(a) Step 3 and US Rule
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
5. B(a) → D(a) Steps 2 & 4 and Transitive Rule
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
6.∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x)) Premise 2
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
7. T (a) → ¬D(a) Step 6 and US Rule
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
8. D(a) → ¬T (a) Step 7 : Equivalent Formula
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
9. B(a) → ¬T (a) Steps 5 & 8 and Transitive Rule
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1. ∀x (B(x) → ¬L(x))
2. ∀x (T (x) → ¬D(x))
3. ∀x (¬L(x) → D(x))
4. ∴ ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x))
Assertion Reasons
9. B(a) → ¬T (a) Steps 5 & 8 and Transitive Rule
10. ∀x (B(x) → ¬T (x)) Step 9 and UG Rule
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Is the following statement true?
If politicians are not money-minded and some money-minded

persons are not honest then there are some persons who are
neither politicians nor honest.
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Let P(x)=x is a politician;M(x) = x is not money-minded and
H(x) = x is not honest.
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Let P(x)=x is a politician;M(x) = x is not money-minded and
H(x) = x is not honest.
Then the given statement is
((∀x(P(x) → M(x))) ∧ ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))) → ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
i.e.,
1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
1.∀x (P(x) → M(x)) Premise 1
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
2. P(a) → M(a) Step 1 and US Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
3. ¬M(a) → ¬P(a) Step 2 : Equivalent Formula
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
4. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x)) Premise 2
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
5. ¬M(a) ∧ H(a) Step 4 and ES Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
6. ¬M(a) Step 5 and Simplification Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
7. ¬P(a) Steps 3 & 6 and Modus Ponens Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
8. H(a) Step 5 and Simplification Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
9. ¬P(a) ∧ H(a) Steps 7 & 8 and Conjunction Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
10. ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x)) Step 9 and EG Rule
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1. ∀x(P(x) → M(x))
2. ∃x(¬M(x) ∧ H(x))
3. ∴ ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x))
Assertion Reasons
10. ∃x(¬P(x) ∧ H(x)) Step 9 and EG Rule
Hence the statement is true.
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Predicate Logic

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Predicate Logic

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Nested Quantifiers

1. Nested quantifiers are used to make a proposition when we have

1. Nested quantifiers are used to make a proposition when we have

15. Every BTech CSE student must study Discrete Mathematics.

1. There are infinite number of integers.

2. There is a number x such that when it is added to any number,

1. There are infinite number of integers.

1. There are infinite number of integers.

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the statement that x < y .

1. There are infinite number of integers.

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the statement that x < y .

1. There are infinite number of integers.

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the statement that x < y .

2. There is a number x such that when it is added to any number,

1. There are infinite number of integers.

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the statement that x < y .

2. There is a number x such that when it is added to any number,

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the expression x + y = y .

1. There are infinite number of integers.

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the statement that x < y .

2. There is a number x such that when it is added to any number,

Solution: Let P(x, y ) be the expression x + y = y .

1. ∀xP(x) is true when

1. ∀xP(x) is true when P(x) is true for all values of x.

1. ∀xP(x) is true when P(x) is true for all values of x.

2. ∀xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

3. ∃xP(x) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−

4. ∃xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

5. ¬∀xP(x) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−

6. ¬∀xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

7. ¬∃xP(x) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−

8. ¬∃xP(x) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

1. ∀x∀yP(x, y ) is true when P(x, y ) is true for all possible values

2. ∀x∀yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

3. ∀x∃yP(x, y ) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−

4. ∀x∃yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

5. ∃x∀yP(x, y ) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−

6. ∃x∀yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

7. ∃x∃yP(x, y ) is true when − − − − − − − − − − −−

8. ∃x∃yP(x, y ) is false when − − − − − − − − − − −−

2. If the scope is an atomic formula then no parentheses are are

3. A variable is a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the

1. Only one student failed history.

1. Only one student failed history.

1. Only one student failed history.

1. Only one student failed history.

Solution: ∀x((Professor (x) ∧ ¬Smart(x)) → ∀y ¬Likes(y , x)),

Q) What does the following predicate formula represent?

∀x((Student(x) ∧ Takes(x, Biology )) → ∃y (Student(y ) ∧

Q) What does the following predicate formula represent?

∀x((Student(x) ∧ Takes(x, Biology )) → ∃y (Student(y ) ∧

Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equiv-

Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equiv-

Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equiv-

2. ¬∃x P(x) is logically equivalent to ∀x ¬P(x).

Rule of Inference Name

Rule of Inference Name

∃xP(x) Existential Specification (ES) (or)

Rule of Inference Name

Rule of Inference Name

P(c) for some c

Test the Validity of the Following Argument

Let S(x) : x is a student; G (x) : x is good; T (x) : x is a teacher;