Analysis of Brittle Intergranular Crack Failure in a

Pinion Gear
Group: Ziyad Alturki (G202311050),
Saleh Alatwah (G202311790),
Nasser Almohammed.(G202311870)
Proffessor: Dr. Nesar Merah
King Fahad University of Petrulume
and Meniral
(KFUPM)
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Abstract—This paper investigates a failure case of a pinion

gear within a mud washer system, where a brittle intergranular
crack led to unexpected downtime and significant operational However, washer "1004" experienced a setback when one
disruption. The failure was characterized by a fracture through of its pinion gears failed due to a brittle intergranular crack.
the gear tooth, precipitated by the critical stresses at play during This failure abruptly interrupted the washing process,
normal operation. A detailed analysis encompassing load cell highlighting the mechanical demands placed on the
data, torque transmission profiles, and advanced metallurgical equipment. The breakdown of the pinion gear necessitated a
inspection was conducted. The key culprit identified was the thorough analysis to understand the underlying causes of the
presence of manganese sulfide (MnS) inclusions within the gear failure and to prevent future incidents. The reliability of these
material, which intensified stress concentration and contributed gears is vital, as any downtime directly affects the efficiency
to the intergranular cracking mechanism. By employing of the alumina production line and the overall yield.
standard industry equations for contact and tensile stress,
alongside careful examination of the gear's operational load
moments, the study determined that the gear's load-bearing
capacity was surpassed, instigating the failure. This paper posits
that the addition of a fourth pinion gear could distribute the load
more evenly, mitigate stress concentration, and enhance the
system's overall resilience. The implementation of a fourth gear
is thus advocated as a strategic measure to augment the
longevity and reliability of gearsets in similar industrial
applications. The abstract concludes with an emphasis on the
integration of thorough microstructural assessment in gear
design and the proactive adjustment of mechanical systems to
forestall analogous mechanical failures.

Keywords— Overload, Crack Initiation, Contact Stress,

Bending Stress, AGMA.

I. BACKGROUND

Gears are ubiquitous in mechanical systems, tasked with

Figure 1: Mud Washing System in Series
transmitting power reliably across countless applications.
Despite advances in design and material science, gear failures
remain a critical concern, often leading to costly operational
impacts. Among the various modes of gear failure, brittle
intergranular cracking stands out for its sudden onset and
potentially catastrophic consequences. This failure type is of
particular interest due to its association with microstructural
weaknesses within the gear material.

A. The Mud Washing System .

In the alumina refining process, the mud washing
area is where the crucial separation of alumina from the
bauxite residue, or red mud, occurs. This section houses a
series of washers, each integral to the extraction and
processing of alumina. One such washer, designated "1004",
is driven by three pinion gears that are essential for its
operation. These pinions engage with a larger central gear to Figure 2: Rake system of a Mud Washer
rotate the rake assembly, which stirs the mud and aids in the
separation process.

Alturki, Alatwah, Almohammed

 C. Process Parameters and Their Impact on Equipment
Figure 3: 3 Pinion/Drives setup for mud washer
B. Observation of Gear Cracking in Mud Washer "1004".
Within the high-stress environment of the mud washing
area, the robustness of mechanical components is non-
negotiable. The unexpected failure in mud washer "1004"
drew immediate attention to the dependability of such
equipment. During a routine dye penetrant inspection, the
gears designated for examination exhibited distinct cracks.
These observations were made on the pinion gear's tooth
flank — a critical point of contact where the force
transmission occurs.
The cracks were not superficial but had propagated deeply
along the gear teeth, a clear indication that the gear material
had experienced stresses beyond its capacity to absorb
without failure. Such fractures are typically indicative of
excessive loading conditions that can arise from operational
anomalies or inherent weaknesses in the gear material, such
as defects or inclusions.
Figure 4: Dye-penetrate test showing crack propagation.
Loading
The operational stability of the mud washing area in
the Ras Al-khair Alumina Refinery is critical for
maintaining the integrity of the pinion gears that drive the
rakes in the mud washers. Two process parameters that
directly influence the load experienced by these gears are
the mud level and the total solids content within the
washers.
As demonstrated in Figure 5, the mud level within
the washer (shown by the pink line) is expected to remain
within a specified range for efficient operation. The
desired operational range for the mud bed is between
10.5 and 12.0 meters. However, the historical data
indicates instances where the actual mud level has
exceeded these bounds. The corresponding torque
measurements, indicated by the red and blue lines, show
a distinct increase in torque when the mud level is outside
the desired range. This suggests that the pinion gears are
subjected to additional load as they work against the
increased resistance of the mud. Higher torque demands
can lead to overloading of the pinion gears, which is a
primary concern for potential mechanical failures.
Figure 5: Mud level Vs Torque values
Figure 6 provides insight into the consistency of the
total solids content within the mud. The desired total
solids content is represented by the straight black line,
while the actual content is depicted by the fluctuating
black line. The total solids content directly impacts the
viscosity of the mud and, consequently, the torque
required to move it. Deviations from the desired total
solids content line correlate with peaks in torque demand.
Notably, when the actual total solids content is higher
than desired, the pinion gears are likely to experience
increased load, leading to a higher risk of wear, fatigue,
and eventual fracture due to overloading.
 Symbol Name Formula or Source
𝜎𝑏 Bending Given in (1)
Stress
𝜎𝑐 Contact Given in (2)
Stress
𝑊𝑡 Is the 𝑝
tangential 𝑇 𝜔
𝑡
𝑊 = =
transmitted 𝑟 𝐷
load, 2
𝐾0 Is the This factor is based on expected
overload overloads. If no overloads are expected,
factor Ko is typically set to 1.
𝐾𝑣 Is the 𝐵
dynamic 𝐴 + √200𝑉
𝐾𝑣 = ( )
factor 𝐴
Figure 6: Total solid Content vs Torque 𝐾𝑠 Is the size
factor

The fluctuations in both mud level and total solids 𝑏 Is the face Measured or given from OEM
width of the
content have direct implications for the operational load narrower
on the pinion gears. A sustained or significant departure member
from the desired mud level or total solids content can 𝐾𝐻 Is the load- 𝐾𝐻 = 1 + 𝐶𝑚𝑐 (𝐶𝑝𝑓 𝐶𝑝𝑚 + 𝐶𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑒 )
contribute to a condition of overloading. This distribution
factor
overloading is evident in the torque demand spikes and is 𝐾𝐵 Is the rim- Assume one for this application
a contributing factor to the brittle intergranular fracture thickness
observed in the failed pinion gear. The interplay between factor
these process parameters and the mechanical load on the 𝑌𝐽 Is the Extracted directly Form Figure 14-6 of
geometry Shigley’s book
pinion gears underscores the need for stringent factor for
monitoring and control within the mud washing process bending
to prevent mechanical failures. strength
𝑚𝑡 Is the
transverse
D. Inclusions as stress concentrator. metric
module
𝑍𝐸 Is an elastic Extracted directly Form Table 14-8 of
The microstructure of gear materials plays a pivotal role in coefficient Shigley’s book
their performance and failure characteristics. Material 𝑍𝑅 Is the surface As per AGMA standerd
properties such as toughness, hardness, and fatigue resistance condition
are heavily influenced by the alloy composition and heat factor
treatment processes. Inclusions, specifically manganese 𝑑𝑤1 Is the pitch Measured or Given by the OEM
sulfide (MnS), can be detrimental, acting as stress diameter of
the pinion
concentrators and initiation points for cracks. Understanding
𝑍𝐼 Is the
the interplay between these material properties and the geometry
operational stresses endured by gears is essential for factor for
preventing failure. pitting
resistance
Table 1: Symbol definitions, Formulas and source.

E. AGMA Stress Equations on Pinion Gears

In gear design, predicting stresses with accuracy is key to
preventing failures. The American Gear Manufacturers
Association (AGMA) provides a standard formula for
calculating the bending and contact stress on gear teeth, which
is pivotal for understanding gear endurance and identifying
potential failure points due to stress concentration. The
AGMA bending and contact stress formulas for gears under
load in SI units is given respectively by:

1 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐵
𝜎𝑏 = 𝑊 𝑡 𝐾0 𝐾𝑣 𝐾𝑠 (1) Figure 7: Tangential load acting on gear tooth.
𝑏𝑚𝑡 𝑌𝐽

𝐾𝐻 𝑍𝑅
𝜎𝑐 = 𝑍𝐸 √𝑊 𝑡 𝐾0 𝐾𝑣 𝐾𝑠 (2)
𝑑𝑤1 𝑏 𝑍𝐼
 II. FAILURE ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY AND
RESULTS

The objective of the failure analysis was to determine the

failure mechanism of the fracture of the pinion gear in the mud
washing system. The investigation involved a series of
methodical tests to examine the microstructure and the
presence of inclusions that could have influenced the gear's
integrity. The detailed methodologies and their significant
findings are discussed below:

A. Background Data .
The failed pinion gear belongs to mud washer #3200-
TKWS-1004. The component is commissioned on 28th august
2013. The recent component inspection revealed several
cracks on the teeth of pinion gears. The information on the
component is as follows:
• Component design life: long life.
• Operating temperature: Ambient
• Operating pressure: Atmospheric
B. Visual observation .
The photographs of the failed pinion gear in as received
condition are presented in Figure 8(a-c). Several longitudinal
cracks were observed on multiple teeth of the pinion gear. To
further identify cracks and confirm their exact locations, it is
decided to carry out dye penetrant on all teeth of the pinion
gear.
Figure 9: Several cracks on flank and datum face of gear teeth.
D. Stereo Binocular Observation.
The cracked pinion gear tooth is sectioned perpendicular
to the flank crack, and a small sample containing cracks is
separated by cutting. The separated sample is cold mounted,
as shown in Figure 10a. The mounted sample is
metallographically polished, and macro etched to observe
under the stereo-binocular low-magnification microscope
(Apollo Stereo Zoom Microscope) to understand the crack
initiation, propagation, and morphology.
The hardened layer can be seen clearly in Figure 10b, and
the hardened layer depth of around 3mm was observed. The
cracks are initiated at the tooth surface and propagated
towards the thickness of the teeth; it is also observed that most
of the cracks are present only in the hardened region and not
propagated into the tooth body.
The crack deflection at the end of the hardened region can
be seen in Figure 10d. The deflection of cracks might be due
to the toughness of the inner core.

Figure 8: Photographs of the failed pinion.

C. Dye penetrant test.

The component was cleaned thoroughly, and the dye
penetrant test was carried out as per the standard operating
procedures. Several identical long longitudinal cracks were
observed on the right flank surface and datum faces of
multiple teeth, as shown in Figure 9. All the crack locations
were marked carefully. Suitable samples were extracted from
the component by cutting for further metallurgical analysis.
This test validated the presence of surface cracks, Figure 10: Stereo binocular images showing fracture surface at
different low magnifications.
providing an initial indication of the nature of the failure.

E. Optical Microscopy.
The cross-section sample taken from the crack region was
cold for microstructure analysis under the optical microscope.
The sample was grinded & metallographically polished as per The microstructures away from the crack location are
ASTM standards [1]. The etchant reagent (2% Nital) was represented in Figure 13. The microstructure of the hardened
prepared freshly following the ASTM standard [2], and the region revealed the martensitic microstructure as seen in
samples were etched in the prepared solution. The etched Figure 13(a-b), and the normal region showed bainitic
sample surface was observed under the inverted optical microstructure Figure 13(c-f). Several MnS-type inclusions
microscope (Leica DMi8) at different magnifications. were observed in the hardened region, as represented with
arrows in Figure 13(b), these inclusions were further analyzed
Figure 11 shows the optical microstructures of the sample using SEM-EDS, and results were discussed in the later
in unetched conditions; several elongated MnS inclusions sections.
were seen, as shown in Figure 11(a-c). Figure 11 (d-f) shows
the crack at different magnifications. It is understood that the
crack initiated at the outer surface (hardened region) and
propagated along the thickness in a zig-zag path. The crack
propagation seems to be intergranular.
The optical microscope revealed several elongated MnS
inclusions in the unetched condition, suggesting their role in
stress concentration and crack initiation.

Figure 13: : The optical microstructure at the location away from the
Figure 11 : The optical microstructures at the crack location in unetched crack after etching with 2% Nital, indicating (a-b) Martensitic microstructure
conditions indicate (a-c) MnS inclusions and (d-f) zig-zag crack propagation. of the hardened region and (c-f) Bainitic structure of the normal region..

F. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

The metallographically prepared crack sample was
analyzed in the scanning electron microscope (JEOL IT 200)
at a high voltage of 20kV under high vacuum conditions at
different locations with low - high magnifications. The SEM
images of the crack samples are presented in Fig. 8; zig-zag
propagation of the crack can be seen from the images. High
magnification images in Figure 14(c-d) indicate the
intergranular crack propagation mode. Crack branching is also
seen in some locations.

Figure 12: : The optical microstructure at crack after etching with 2%

Nital.

Figure 12(a-b) shows the crack propagation path from the

hardened region to the normal region (core). Microstructural
variation between the hardened and normal regions can be
seen in Figure 12(a-b). From the high-magnification
microstructures shown in Figure 12 (c-d), crack propagation
seems to be in intergranular mode.

Figure 14: : The SEM microstructure of the crack sample indicating the
crack propagation.
The crack portion of the component is opened to observe
the fracture surface under SEM. Before observing under SEM,
the fracture surface is carefully cleaned without affecting the
fracture features. The fractography images obtained from
SEM were presented in Figure 15. The grains with smooth
surface and grain boundaries were observed on the fracture
surface, indicating the brittle intergranular fracture.
Figure 15: SEM microstructure of fracture surface.
G. Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy analysis by
(SEM).
The elemental compositions were analyzed at the
microscopic level on the fracture surface, inclusions, hardened
region, and normal region of the failed component using JEOL
IT 200 at a high voltage of 20kV under high vacuum
conditions.
The EDS analysis on the fracture surface (Figure 16)
revealed the presence of C, Cr, Mn and Fe. No detrimental or
corrosive elements were detected.
Figure 16: : SEM-EDS elemental analysis of fracture surface.
The EDS analysis on the elongated inclusion (Figure 17)
revealed high amounts of manganese and Sulphur,
confirming it as Manganese Sulphide inclusion (MnS)
Figure 17: : EM-EDS elemental analysis of inclusion.
the EDS elemental analysis of the hardened region and
normal region of the teeth. Both regions showed similar
elemental composition with approximately 1% Mn and 1%
Cr.
The EDS analysis performed concurrently with SEM did
not detect significant detrimental elements that could
contribute to the failure, indicating that the material
composition was within specified limits.
H. Chemical Analysis by (OES / PMI).
The pinion tooth was quantitatively analyzed by PMI/OES
using Oxford Instrument Germany MASTER SMART to
check the material specification. The sample surface was
cleaned by polishing at a minimum level before testing. The
chemical composition details are presented in Table 2, which
reveals that the material is a low-carbon, low-alloyed steel
with 1% Mn and 1% Cr.
 The hardened region showed a maximum hardness of 651
HV1, and followed a decreasing trend along the thickness of
teeth, as shown in Figure 19. shows the hardness variation
from the hardened region to the normal region. The hardness
of 275 HV1 is observed in the normal region of teeth.

Figure 19: Vickers hardness of gear tooth at various locations

J. Failure Analysis Discussion.

The predominant failure mode observed was a brittle
intergranular fracture. This type of fracture indicates that the
crack propagation followed along the grain boundaries of the
Table 2: Chemical composition of the pinion tooth at different locations as material. The stereobinocular and SEM observations
measured with OES/PMI. corroborated this, showing a zig-zag crack path characteristic
of intergranular fractures. Such a fracture mode is typically
associated with high-stress scenarios where the material's
inherent toughness is exceeded.
A significant aspect of the failure was the presence of
elongated MnS inclusions, as revealed by optical microscopy
and SEM analysis. These inclusions likely acted as stress
concentrators, particularly under high load conditions. The
stress concentration effect of MnS inclusions is well-
documented in metallurgical literature, and in this case, it
appears to have played a critical role in the initiation of the
cracks. The inclusions provided initiation sites for cracks
under overloading conditions, exacerbating the material's
susceptibility to brittle failure
The chemical analysis confirmed that the gear material
was a low carbon, low alloy steel with a specified
composition, which was consistent with design requirements.
Figure 18: Reference image showing chemical analysis locations. The micro hardness measurements across the tooth profile
showed a hardness gradient typical for gears designed to bear
I. Micro Hardness. heavy loads, with higher hardness on the surface to resist wear
and a tougher core to absorb shocks.
The microhardness was measured on the
metallographically polished cross-section sample surface An important consideration in this failure is the
using a DV-2AT-8P digital display. The hardness tester was operational context. The pinion gear was subjected to
checked by standard block before measuring the hardness test conditions that likely exceeded its designed load capacity.
on the tested sample, which follows the ASTM procedure [3]. While the material and heat treatment were appropriate for
The room temperature was about 23.4 ºC during hardness typical operational stresses, the presence of MnS inclusions
testing. and the resultant stress concentration significantly reduced the
gear's tolerance to overload. This suggests that the
overloading was not within the anticipated operational
parameters and highlights the need for stringent control over
operational conditions.
III. APPLIED STRESS ANALYSIS ON PITCH POINT
A. Pinion & Gear Properties.
This subsection documents the properties of the pinion and
gear, which are foundational to the stress analysis in
adherence to AGMA standards. Notably, the gear set
comprises three pinions, each powered by an individual
motor, that engage with a single gear. Both the pinion and the
gear are crowned to improve contact geometry and load
distribution. They are designed with a service life expectancy
of 10 years under normal operating conditions
1- Pinion Properties:
• Material: AISI 4130, a chromium-molybdenum
alloy steel known for its strength and toughness.
• Pitch Diameter: 275 mm, allowing for a
compact design while transmitting significant
torque.
• Face Width: 190 mm, providing a broad contact
surface area for load distribution.
• Addendum: 15 mm, determining the height of
the tooth above the pitch circle.
• Dedendum: 35 mm, defining the depth of the
tooth below the pitch circle.
• Number of Teeth: 12, a count that affects the
gear ratio and torque transmission.
• Motor Speed: 1765 RPM, the operational speed
at which the motor drives the pinion.
• Installed Power: 13 kW per pinion, indicating
the power capacity of each motor.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: 670 MPa, the
maximum stress the material can withstand
before failure.
• Tensile Yield Strength: 435 MPa, the stress at
which the material begins to deform plastically.
• Poisson's Ratio: 0.3, a measure of the material's
volumetric response to loading.
• Modulus of Elasticity: 205 GPa, representing
the stiffness of the material.
• Pitch Angle: 20 degrees, which influences the
gear's contact ratio and strength.
• Design (Alarm Torque): 100% - 1,125.000 Nm,
the torque level at which the system will signal
an alarm.
• Cut-Off Torque: 180% - 2,025.000 Nm, the
torque level at which the system will shut down
to prevent damage.
• Crowning: Both gears are crowned, a feature
that enhances load distribution and mitigates
edge stress concentration.
• Service Life: Designed for a 10-year service life,
assuming proper maintenance and operation
within design specifications.
2- Gear Properties:
• Material: AISI 8620, a low-carbon nickel-
chromium-molybdenum alloy steel with good
strength and toughness.
• Pitch Diameter: 1975 mm, facilitating a large
gear capable of meshing with multiple pinions.
• Face Width: 190 mm, matching the pinion to
ensure uniform load distribution.
• Number of Teeth: 89, contributing to the gear
ratio and the overall size of the gear.
• Ratio: 1: 21.19, which is the gear ratio
determined by the number of teeth on the gear
relative to the pinion.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: 530 MPa, indicating
a high capacity to resist breaking under tension.
• Tensile Yield Strength: 385 MPa, the threshold
for permanent deformation under stress.
• Modulus of Elasticity: 210 GPa, slightly higher
than the pinion, suggesting a slightly stiffer
material.
• Crowning: Implemented to improve contact
conditions, especially useful in applications with
potential misalignments.
• Service Life: Engineered for longevity, with a
target operational lifespan of 10 years under
normal conditions.
B. AGMA Bending Stress Equation.
For this section will delve into the calculation of the
bending stress on the pinion teeth using the AGMA bending
stress equation. Each term of the equation will be defined and
calculated step by step, referring to the methodologies and
formulae outlined in "Shigley's Mechanical Engineering
Design" and AGMA.
𝟏 𝑲𝑯 𝑲𝑩
𝝈𝒃 = 𝑾𝒕 𝑲𝟎 𝑲𝒗 𝑲𝒔 𝒃𝒎
𝒕 𝒀𝑱
𝝈𝒃 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟕𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟑 𝑷𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
• Tangential Load (𝑊 𝑡 ): The Tangential Load can be
𝑝
𝑇
calculated using the formula: 𝑊 𝑡 = = 𝜔
𝐷 where 𝜔
𝑟
2
is the rotational speed is given in radians per second
(rad/s). 𝑊 𝑡 = 510.11 𝑁
• The Overload Factor (𝑲𝟎 ): in AGMA calculations
accounts for non-uniform load conditions such as
 shock and vibration. Its value is selected based on the
operational profile of the machinery, with typical
values ranging from 1.0 for uniform loads to higher • Bending Stress Geometry Factor ( 𝒀𝑱 ): The
numbers for intermittent shock loads. For moderate Bending Stress Geometry Factor, is determined from
shock conditions often found in machinery like mud standardized charts that correlate gear tooth counts
washers, a 𝐾0 value around 1.25 might be with the geometry factor. For our gear set, with a
appropriate. pinion possessing 12 teeth meshing with a gear of 89
teeth, the factor has been ascertained to be 0.2 by
• Dynamic Factor (𝑲𝒗 ): as per the book. use the SI referencing the appropriate graph. This factor is
equation. We will start by calculating the Pitch line critical in the calculation of bending stress, as it
velocity and assume quality number of 7 suitable for reflects the influence of tooth form and the number
mud washer application of teeth on stress distribution. By integrating this
𝑩 geometry factor, the stress analysis can accurately
𝑨+√𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑽 reflect the gear's capacity to withstand operational
𝑲𝒗 = ( ) = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟕𝟓
𝑨 loads. Figure 20 shows the graph as per the Shigley's
𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝜋 𝑋 0.275 𝑚 𝑋 1765𝑅𝑃𝑀 book.
𝑉= = = 25.4141 m/s
60 60

𝐵 = 0.25(12 − 𝑄𝑣 )2/3 = 0.731

𝐴 = 50 + 56(1 − 𝐵) = 65.06
• Size Factor (𝑲𝒔 ): For our gear system, with a face
width of 190 mm for both the pinion and gear, we
utilize a Size Factor ( 𝑲𝒔 ) of 1.0, conforming to
AGMA standards for gears with face widths less than
8 inches (203.2 mm). This simplifies our stress
calculations and is appropriate for the expected
service conditions and the 10-year service life of the
mud washer.
• Load-Distribution Factor ( 𝐾𝐻 ): The load-
distribution factor modified the stress equations to
reflect nonuniform distribution of load across the line
of contact. The ideal is to locate the gear “midspan”
between two bearings at the zero slope place when Figure 20: Geometry factor at different number of teeth
the load is applied. The Following formula
represents the 𝐾𝐻 :
• Transverse Metric Module (𝒎𝒕 ): The transverse
𝑲𝑯 = 𝟏 + 𝑪𝒎𝒄 (𝑪𝒑𝒇 𝑪𝒑𝒎 + 𝑪𝒎𝒂 𝑪𝒆 ) = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟒 metric module is a fundamental dimensional
parameter in gear design, representing the ratio of the
The 𝐶𝑚𝑐 for crowned teeth is equal to 0.8 and
pitch diameter to the number of teeth. It defines the
𝐶𝑝𝑓 is going to 0.106 based on equation (14-32) from
size of the gear teeth and is instrumental in
the book. For a straddle-mounted pinion, you will establishing the gear's pitch circle. Expressed in
use 𝐶𝑝𝑚 = 1 as default value. millimeters, the transverse metric module serves as a
Using the values of A, B and C for Commercial key determinant in the compatibility and
Enclosed units from Table (14-9) from the book, we intermeshing of gear pairs, ensuring synchronized
operation. This metric is central to the gear's ability
can solve for 𝐶𝑚𝑎 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐹 + 𝐶𝐹2 = 0.2398
to transmit force effectively and is a critical factor in
𝑪𝒆 is typically 1 unless otherwise stated.
the design process for achieving desired gear
• Rim Thickness Factor (𝐾𝑩 ): For our gear design, performance and longevity. 𝑚𝑡 = 22.916 𝑚𝑚
the consideration of a rim thickness factor, is deemed
unnecessary. The design does not incorporate a thin
rim that would require adjustment of the gear tooth C. AGMA Bending Strength Analysis.
stress calculations. The absence of a rim, or the
The AGMA bending strength equation provides a
presence of a sufficiently thick rim, ensures that the
methodology to ascertain the permissible bending stress
bending stress on the gear teeth is not artificially
within gear teeth, ensuring long-term performance without
increased by rim flexibility. Consequently, in our
failure. It comprehensively incorporates material properties,
AGMA stress calculations, we will use a rim
operational cycles, temperature effects, and desired reliability
thickness factor of 1. This reflects the confidence in
into the determination of gear strength. The equation aligns
the gear's structural integrity and its capacity to
the gear's stress cycle factor with the temperature and
handle the applied loads without additional stress
reliability factors to calculate the allowable stress that can be
considerations due to rim deflection.
sustained by the gear material while maintaining an adequate
safety margin. This aligns the design with the AGMA
standards, which are critical for achieving the required gear
performance, especially in applications with stringent
durability criteria.
𝑺 𝒀𝑵
𝝈𝒃,𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = 𝑺 𝒕 ∗ , 𝑺𝑭 = 1.3
𝑭 𝒀𝜽 ∗𝒀𝒁
Where 𝑆𝑡 the allowable stress for the gear
material under bending estimated at the hardened
region of 651 HV1 as per the failure analysis. 𝑆𝐹 is
the safety factor for bending strength. 𝑌𝑁 is the
stress cycle factor for bending strength, which
corrects the allowable stress for the number of
cycles the gear is expected to experience. 𝑌𝜽 is the
temperature factor, which accounts for the
reduction in material strength at high temperatures.
𝑌𝑍 is the reliability factor, which accounts for the
desired reliability level of the gear.
D. AGMA Contact Stress Equation..
The contact stress, is a critical metric in gear design, quantified
using the AGMA formula to ensure gears withstand contact
pressures without surface failure. It is calculated by:
𝑲𝑯 𝒁𝑹
𝝈𝒄 = 𝒁𝑬 √𝑾𝒕 𝑲𝟎 𝑲𝒗 𝑲𝒔 = 𝟕𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟐𝟎𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝒅𝒘𝟏 𝒃 𝒁𝑰
*Ze is derived from the table as 191 Square root Mpa, Zi is
calculated as 0.16069
Figure 21: Pitch point of contact stress
E. AGMA Contact Strength Analysis.
The AGMA Contact Strength Analysis crucially evaluates
gear teeth's ability to withstand surface fatigue, preventing
failures like pitting or spalling. Key components of this
analysis include the Elastic Coefficient reflecting material
properties, and the Geometry Factor , detailing gear teeth
profiles. It also considers the Load Distribution and Dynamic
Factors to account for load sharing and dynamic forces.
Surface conditions, operational environments, and safety
margins are integrated to ensure gears are designed for real-
world endurance and reliability. This analysis culminates in
gears that are robustly engineered to meet their intended
service life requirements.
𝑺𝒄 𝒁𝑵 ∗ 𝒁𝑾
𝝈𝒄 ,𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = ∗
𝑺𝑯 𝒀𝜽 ∗ 𝒀𝒁
𝑺𝑯 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗
F. Discussion on The Stress Analysis.
The analysis at the pitch point, where gear teeth are in
maximal contact, reveals critical stress dynamics under
operational loads. Material properties, notably hardness and
resilience, significantly influence stress distribution at this
juncture. Factors like gear speed, load, and torque further
augment the stress experienced. Notably, the pinion gear's
failure correlates with high stress concentration at the pitch
point, underscoring the need for meticulous gear design.
Recommendations include adding a fourth and design
alterations focusing on tooth profile and pitch diameter to
mitigate stress concentration and accommodate for the
mineral processing harsh and unstable environment , thereby
enhancing gear longevity and reliability. This comprehensive
stress analysis at the pitch point is crucial for understanding
gear performance and guiding improvements in gear systems.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper's comprehensive analysis of the pinion gear
failure in a mud washing system has synthesized historical,
material, and operational aspects to provide a detailed
understanding of the failure mechanism. Historically, gear
design has evolved significantly, yet this study underscores
that challenges in material selection, load distribution, and
operational stresses persist. The failure, initiated at the pitch
diameter due to excessive contact stress, is emblematic of
broader issues in mechanical design - balancing load, material
properties, and operational realities. Our findings offer a
microcosmic view of these challenges, emphasizing the need
for continuous innovation in material science and stress
analysis techniques in gear design. This research not only
highlights the complexities inherent in gear system operations
but also sets a precedent for future studies focused on
enhancing gear longevity and reliability in demanding
industrial applications.
V. FUTURE WORK
A. Enhanced Design Optimization with FEA.
Utilizing Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to simulate the
addition of a fourth pinion gear, this research should aim to
optimize gear tooth geometry and pitch for improved load
distribution and minimized stress concentration.
B. Operational Efficiency Studies:
Detailed studies on the operational parameters, such as
speed variations and load changes, can provide insights into
achieving higher efficiency and reduced operational wear.
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