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Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium

portulacastrum L. to arrange in advance the requirements for the successful
growth of a glycophytic crop

Article in Bioresource Technology · September 2010

DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097 · Source: PubMed

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 BITE 6838 No. of Pages 8, Model 5G
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Bioresource Technology xxx (2010) xxx–xxx

1

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium

F
2

3 portulacastrum L. to arrange in advance the requirements for

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4 the successful growth of a glycophytic crop
5 Mokded Rabhi a,*, Siwar Ferchichi a, Jihène Jouini a, Mohamed Hédi Hamrouni b, Hans-Werner Koyro c,
6 Annamaria Ranieri d, Chedly Abdelly a, Abderrazak Smaoui a
7 a
Laboratory of Plant Adaptation to Abiotic Stress (LAPSA), Biotechnology Centre of Borj Cedria, P.O. Box 901, 2050 Hammam-Lif, Tunisia

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8 b
Ministry of Agriculture – Direction of Sols, 17 Hédi Karray Street, 2080 Ariana, Tunisia
9 c
Institute for Plant Ecology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
10 d
Università di Pisa, Dipartimento di Chimica e Biotecnologie Agrarie, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy

11
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
1 6
2 3 D
14 Article history: In the present work, we studied the potential of the obligate halophyte, Sesuvium portulacastrum L., to 27
15 Received 15 December 2009 desalinize an experimentally-salinized soil after the following criteria: (i) decrease in soil salinity and 28
16 Received in revised form 18 March 2010 sodicity, (ii) plant biomass capacity to accumulate sodium ions, and (iii) phytodesalinized soil quality 29
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17 Accepted 20 March 2010
(equivalent to growth of a glycophytic test culture of Hordeum vulgare L.). The cultivation of the 30
18 Available online xxxx
halophyte on the salinized soil (phytodesalination culture) led to a marked absorption of Na+ ions by 31
S. portulacastrum roots and their accumulation in the above-ground biomass up to 872 mg plant 1 and 32
19 Keywords:
4.36 g pot 1 (about 1 t ha 1). The decrease in salinity and sodicity of the phytodesalinized soil signifi- 33
20 Arid and semi-arid regions
21 cantly reduced the negative effects on growth of the test culture of H. vulgare. Furthermore, the phytode- 34
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Halophyte
22 Non-leaching conditions salination enabled H. vulgare plants to keep a high water content and to develop a higher biomass with 35
23 Phytodesalination relatively high K and low Na contents. 36
24 Sodium accumulation Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 37
25
38
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39
40 1. Introduction phytoremediation, vegetative bioremediation (Qadir and Oster, 59
2004), desalinization (Zhao, 1991), biodesalination (Graifenberg 60
41 ‘‘Water scarcity and desertification could critically undermine et al., 2003), and desalination of salt-affected soils by halophytes 61
42 efforts for sustainable development, introducing new threats to (Rabhi et al., 2009). According to Qadir and Oster (2004), vegetative 62
43 human health, ecosystems and national economies of several bioremediation is a function of four main factors: (1) CO2 partial 63
CO

44 countries” (Koyro et al., 2008). It was postulated that 6% (more pressure within the root zone, (2) root proton release (in the case 64
45 than 800 million ha) of the world lands are affected by salinity, of N2-fixing plants), (3) improvement of soil porosity by root 65
46 which is mainly due to natural causes (salt accumulation over long expansion, and (4) shoot sodium content (removed by the harvest). 66
47 periods of time in arid and semi-arid regions) or to secondary Nevertheless, Qadir and coworkers (i.e. Qadir et al., 1996, 2000, 67
48 salinity that affected in 2008 already 2% (32 million ha) of the dry- 2002, 2003; Qadir and Oster, 2004) always neglect shoot role in 68
49 land-farmed areas and 20% (45 million ha) of the irrigated lands in the vegetative bioremediation process. Their approach is based 69
UN

50 the world (Munns and Tester, 2008). Salinity leads to a low osmotic on the ability of some plants to solubilize CaCO3 in calcareous sodic 70
51 potential of the soil solution (osmotic stress), specific ion effects or saline-sodic soils. This plant-assisted solubilization of CaCO3 is 71
52 (salt stress), imbalances in nutrient acquisition (nutritional stress), due to root respiration and/or their H+ release (in the case of N2- 72
53 or a combined effect of the three factors (Ashraf, 2004; Koyro et al., fixing plants). The released Ca2+ ions substitute Na+ ions on the cat- 73
54 2008). Numerous physical, chemical, and biological approaches ion exchange sites of the soil. This approach is tributary of ade- 74
55 were established to reclaim such soils (Shahid Shabbir, 2002). quate irrigation to leach sodium ions from the rhizosphere after 75
56 Biological methods include organic manure, crop rotation, their release from the cation exchange sites. However, in arid 76
57 salt-tolerant crops (Shahid Shabbir, 2002), as well as vegetative and semi-arid zones, the shortage in irrigation water with good 77
58 bioreclamation (Qadir and Oster, 2004). The latter is also called quality makes difficult the application of such an approach. 78
Several authors (Zahran and Abdel Wahid, 1982; Helalia et al., 79
1990; Zhao, 1991; Zhao et al., 2001, 2005; Graifenberg et al., 80

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +216 79 412 848; fax: +216 79 848 638. 2003; Tester and Davenport, 2003; Kushiev et al., 2005; Ravindran 81
E-mail addresses: mokdedrabhi@yahoo.fr, mokded.rabhi@gmail.com (M. Rabhi). et al., 2007; Rabhi et al., 2009) have proven that the potential of 82

0960-8524/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097

Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
 BITE 6838 No. of Pages 8, Model 5G
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2 M. Rabhi et al. / Bioresource Technology xxx (2010) xxx–xxx

83 plants to accumulate enormous salt quantities depends often on (1) Ten pots were irrigated with tap water during all the 142
84 the capacity of their above-ground biomass (hyperaccumulating experiment period. The main characteristics of the tap water 143
85 plants). This ability could be of great importance particularly in were the following: pH 8.7, EC 1.50 dS m 1, SAR 0.24 144
86 arid and semi-arid regions where insufficient precipitations and (mmol l 1)1/2, Na+ 0.27 mM, K+ 0.36 mM, Ca2+ 1.42 mM, 145
87 inappropriate irrigation systems (Shahid Shabbir, 2002) are unable and Mg2+ 1.22 mM. These pots were considered as non-sali- 146
88 to reduce the salt burden in the rhizosphere of plants (Shiyab et al., nized ones (N). 147
89 2003) and suitable physic-chemical methods are too expensive. (2) Ten other pots were irrigated with tap water in the first 148
90 Several species were tested according to their suitability for soil week of treatment. Then, soil was salinized by adding 30 g 149
91 desalination and most of them were halophytes with rice as the NaCl to the 12 kg soil of each pot. The salinization was per- 150
92 only one glycophytic exception (Iwasaki, 1987). Precondition for formed during the second and the third weeks using 2 l of 151
93 an applicable candidate for soil desalination are at least a high salt NaCl-added tap water (15 g NaCl l 1 tap water). After that, 152
94 resistance, a high biomass production, a considerable shoot sodium pots were irrigated with non-saline tap water again until 153

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95 content, and a high degree of economic utilization (such as fodder, the end of the treatment period. These pots constituted the 154
96 fuel, fiber, essential oil, and oil seeds). Shoot-succulent halophytes salinized treatment(S). 155

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97 meet these requirements since they are able to accumulate enor- (3) Likewise, five seedlings of S. portulacastrum were grown on 156
98 mous Na+ quantities within their above-ground organs. They are soil and after one week, soil was salinized as previously 157
99 therefore useful candidates for the study of desalination of salt-af- described. These pots were considered as the phytodesali- 158
100 fected soils under non-leaching conditions. Selection of suited spe- nized treatment (P). 159
101 cies is the first step for affordable soil desalination at a wider scale 160
102 in arid and semi-arid regions (Rabhi et al., 2009). Experiments were conducted in greenhouse under sunlight 161

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103 It was shown that after successful soil desalination in saline conditions and after 189 days, the plants of the phytodesalinized 162
104 ecosystems, annual glycophytes (Medicago ssp.) grow much better treatment were harvested. Plant and soil analyses were immedi- 163
105 inside than outside the tufts of perennial halophytes (Abdelly ately performed. Then, the soil of each pot was well mixed and 164
106 et al., 1995). It was concluded that perennial halophytes desali- served as a substratum for a one-month culture of H. vulgare (test 165
107 nize and fertilize the rhizosphere, offering in this way a favorable culture of barley). For each treatment, six H. vulgare seeds were 166
108 microhabitat for a better growth of annual glycophytes. Rabhi D sown per pot and irrigated with tap water. Coleoptile emergence 167
109 et al. (2009) described similar observations in a poorly-drained was daily followed up over 18 days. Then, seedlings of all treat- 168
110 ecosystem. They also noticed seasonal variations in phytodesali- ments were constantly irrigated with tap water until their harvest. 169
111 nation capacity of the succulent halophyte Suaeda fruticosa
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112 (non-published data). It was shown in a greenhouse study, that 2.3. Soil analysis 170
113 several halophytes such as Sesuvium portulacastrum L. provide a
114 high phytodesalination capacity under non-leaching conditions Particle-size analysis of the original soil was performed follow- 171
115 (Rabhi et al., 2009). Hence, the aim of the present work was to ing the pipette method (Day, 1965) that measures the actual per- 172
116 check the practical feasibility of halophyte use to desalinize cent by weight of each particle size class. This analysis was 173
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117 salt-affected soils and to arrange in advance the requirements realized in four steps: 174
118 for the successful growth of glycophytic crops. For the present
119 investigation, we chose Hordeum vulgare L. (barley) as a (1) Elimination of the gravel fraction (particles exceeding 2 mm 175
120 moderate salt-resistant crop and S. portulacastrum as desalinating in size) by a simple sieving of dry soil samples with a 2-mm 176
121 halophyte. meshed sieve. 177
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(2) Elimination or inactivation of cementation agents (mainly 178

organic matter, calcium carbonate, salts with low solubil- 179
122 2. Methods ity,. . .) that restrain particle dispersion. The complete disper- 180
sion was performed by adding 10 ml H2O2 (30%) to each soil 181
123 2.1. Soil and plant material sample (20 g of the sieved soil). When the reaction dimin- 182
ished, 50 ml distilled water were added and the suspension 183
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124 The substrate used in our experiment was a loamy sand (11% was boiled for 15–20 min. Subsequently, 20 ml sodium 184
125 clay, 8% silt 49% fine sand, and 32% coarse sand) taken from a farm hexametaphosphate were added to each sample. After that, 185
126 in Soliman (N-E Tunisia). It contained a total CaCO3 percentage samples were put into 1000-ml cylinders and added with 186
127 of 6.11% and showed a SAR (sodium adsorption ratio) of 5.7 distilled water up to a total volume of 1000 ml. 187
128 (mmol l 1)1/2 and an ECe (electrical conductivity of the soil satu- (3) Determination of clay and silt fractions (particles less than 188
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129 rated paste extract) of 2.4 dS m 1. A sufficient quantity of the soil 50 lm). After a vigorous agitation for 20 s, the time count 189
130 was dried in greenhouse under sunlight conditions then ground for the first settling time was begun. A settling time chart 190
131 and subsequently transferred into non-perforated pots (containing was used to determine the time at which samples must be 191
132 12 kg soil each). For plant material, we used Sesuvium portulaca- taken for each size fraction. The sampling time depends on 192
133 strum L. as the phytodesalinating halophyte and Hordeum vulgare the suspension temperature. It was performed by a pipette 193
134 L. (var. Manel) as glycophyte for the test culture. Seedlings of the from a depth of 10 cm at the convenient time. 194
135 halophyte were taken from mother-plants grown under moderate (4) Separation of the sand fraction by sieving the suspension. 195
136 saline conditions at the Biotechnology Centre of Borj Cedria. Each Then, dried sand fraction was run through a nest of sieves 196
137 seedling contained 4 leaves and showed a whole dry weight of to determine sand size distribution. 197
138 about 0.2 g in the beginning of the experiment. 198
The soil CaCO3 content was determined in the sand fraction 199
using a Bernard calcimeter. The principle of this method is based 200
139 2.2. Cultures and treatments on a volumetric analysis of CO2 arising during hydrochloric acid 201
treatment. 202
140 Three treatments with ten replicates each were considered: At the end of the phytodesalination culture, the soil column 203
141 non-salinized (N), salinized (S), and phytodesalinized (P): (20 cm of height) of each pot was divided into two portions (upper 204

Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
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205 horizon: 0–10 cm depth and lower horizon: 10–20 cm depth). ECe,
206 SAR, and soluble sodium concentration were determined in the
207 saturated paste extract. Therefore soil samples were randomly ta-
208 ken, dried, ground, and separated with a 2-mm-meshed sieve be-
209 fore distilled water was added until saturation. The obtained
210 saturated pastes were covered and left overnight at ambient tem-
211 perature. The extraction was performed under vacuum. ECe and
212 the concentrations of Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ were measured in the
213 extracts.

214 2.4. Plant analysis

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215 Plants were divided into leaves, stems, and roots (case of S. por- Fig. 1. Electrical conductivities of the saturation paste extracts (ECe) of soil samples
216 tulacastrum) or into shoots and roots (case of H. vulgare). Samples taken from the upper (A) and lower (B) 10 cm of non-perforated pots containing

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217 were weighed, oven-dried, and ground. Ion extraction was carried 12 kg soil each (the height of the column was 20 cm). N: non-salinized soil, S:
salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil
218 out by incubating 20 mg of each sample in 30 ml HNO3 (0.5%) solu-
salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S. portulacastrum over
219 tion for three days with agitation from time to time. Extracts were 189 days). Means of 3 replicates ± standard error. Bars with different letters are
220 then paper-filtered and immediately analyzed for Na+, K+, Mg2+, significantly different according to Duncan’s test at 5%.
221 and Ca2+ concentrations.

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222 2.5. Determination of plant and soil ion composition (mmol l 1)1/2 and soluble Na+ concentration was 0.15–0.30 mg g 1 259
soil. The addition of 11.9 g Na+ (the Na+ quantity contained in 30 g 260

223 Mineral composition of both soil and plant samples was deter- NaCl) to each pot resulted in an increase of SAR and soluble Na+ 261

224 mined in HNO3 extracts and in saturated paste extracts, respec- concentration in both horizons. The phytodesalination culture 262

225 tively. A Corning spectrophotometer was used for Na+ and K+ was responsible for a significant reduction of both parameters 263

226 measurements and a VARIAN 220FS Atomic Absorption photome- in the upper horizon. Actually, SAR decreased from 59 to 39 264
(mmol l 1)1/2 and soluble Na+ concentration from 1.4 to 0.9 mg g 1
227 ter was utilized for Ca2+ and Mg2+ analysis.
D soil (Fig. 2A and C). In the lower horizon however, SAR increased
265
266
from 24 to 42 (mmol l 1)1/2, which corresponds to an improvement 267
228 2.6. Calculations
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of soluble Na+ concentration from 0.6 to 0.9 mg g 1 soil (Fig. 2B and 268

+ 2+ 2+ D). 269
229 SAR was calculated from Na , Mg , and Ca concentrations (in
Plants of S. portulacastrum developed a marked above-ground 270
230 mmol l 1) in the soil saturated paste extract according to Qadir
biomass and high water content (Table 1). Na was the major cat- 271
231 Q1 et al. (2001): SAR = Na+/[(Ca2+ + Mg2+)/2]1/2.
ion; its concentration was 4 and 1.7 times more than those of roots 272
Water content was calculated as follows: water con-
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232
and stems, respectively (Table 2). 273
233 tent = (FW DW)/DW where FW and DW represent respectively
234 fresh and dry weights.
3.2. Test culture of H. vulgare 274
235 Salt sensitivity index was calculated on the basis of the whole
236 plant DW as follows: ISWp = 100  ((DW2 DW1)treated (DW2
The emergence of coleoptiles differed significantly between the 275
237 DW1)control)/(DW2 DW1)control, with (DW2 DW1) biomass pro-
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treatments (Fig. 3). On non-salinized soil, coleoptiles emerged on 276

238 duction during the treatment period (Lachâal et al., 1996).
the 4th day after sowing, whereas in the two other treatments, a 277
239 We defined phytodesalination capacity of a plant culture as the
delay of 3 days occurred. Finally after 18 days, 43%, 73%, and 278
240 quantity of sodium accumulated within shoots of that plant per
100% of the sown seeds germinated in salinized, phytodesalinized, 279
241 hectare. In our case, this parameter was estimated by multiplying
and non-salinized treatments, respectively. Thus, the soil phytode- 280
242 the mean of Na+ quantity removed by the halophyte in each pot by
salinized by S. portulacastrum (P) provided significant better germi- 281
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243 10,000/PS (m2). PS stands for the surface of the soil in the pot (the
nation conditions for H. vulgare than the salinized one (S). 282
244 pot diameter being 0.23 m).
Barley plants grown on non-salinized soil (N) showed a higher 283
biomass production (about 1.3 g DW plant 1) and much lower 284
245 2.7. Statistical analysis root/shoot ratio than those cultivated on salinized soil (S) (Figs. 4 285
and 5A; Table 3). The salt sensitivity index in plants of salinized 286
246 A one-way ANOVA test of SPSS 11.0 for Windows was used in
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treatment averaged to 92% and was therefore much lower than 287
247 data statistical analysis and means were compared according to that of phytodesalinized treatment ( 59%). Actually, the whole 288
248 Duncan’s test at 5%. plant dry weight of phytodesalinized cultrures showed a mean of 289
527 mg and therewith 0.42 and 5 times of non-salinized and sali- 290
249 3. Results nized treatments, respectively. This indicates a beneficial effect of 291
the phytodesalination culture (S. portulacastrum) on biomass pro- 292
250 3.1. Phytodesalination culture duction of the test culture (H. vulgare). In both salinized and phy- 293
todesalinized treatments, salt effects on growth were much more 294
251 Soil analyses revealed an electrical conductivity of 2.8 dS m 1 in pronounced in shoots than in roots. Therefore, root/shoot ratios 295
252 the upper and the lower horizons of the non-salinized soil (N) were about 3 times those found in non-salinized treatment. More- 296
253 (Fig. 1A and B). Under saline conditions (S), this parameter strongly over, in plants cultivated on salinized and phytodesalinized soils, 297
254 increased reaching in the upper horizon 14.4 dS m 1. The phytode- salinity affected growth more than water content, mainly in shoots 298
255 salination led to a decrease of ECe in the upper horizon (37%) and (Fig. 5B). 299
256 to its increase in the lower horizon (33%). Na+ concentration was much higher in plants grown on sali- 300
257 SAR and soluble sodium concentration reflected the results nized than non-salinized or phytodesalinized soils, particularly in 301
258 of ECe (Fig. 2A–D). In non-salinized soil, SAR was 4–12 shoots (Fig. 6A). Plants grown on salinized or phytodesalinized soil 302

Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
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D
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Fig. 2. SAR and soluble Na+ concentrations in soil samples taken from the upper (A and C) and lower (B and D) 10 cm of non-perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each (the
height of the column was 20 cm). N: non-salinized soil, S: salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil salinized by NaCl addition and
desalinized by a culture of S. portulacastrum over 189 days). Means of 3 replicates ± standard error. Bars with different letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s
test at 5%.
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Table 1
Dry weights of leaves, stems, roots, whole plants, shoots per plant and per pot, and
root/shoot ratios in S. portulacastrum plants grown on salinized soil under non-
leaching conditions over 189 days. Plant culture was carried out in non-perforated
pots containing 12 kg soil each. Soil salinization was performed by the addition of
2.5 g NaCl kg 1 in the beginning of the experiment. Plants were irrigated with tap
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Table 2
Mineral composition of leaves, stems, and roots of S. portulacastrum plants grown on
salinized soil under non-leaching conditions over 189 days. Plant culture was carried
out in non-perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each. Soil salinization was performed
by the addition of 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 in the beginning of the experiment. Plants were
irrigated with tap water until their harvest. Means of 5 replicates ± standard error. In

water until their harvest. Values are means of 5, 10, or 50 replicates ± standard error each line, values with different letters are significantly different according to
at 5%. In some cases, only one replicate was considered. Duncan’s test at 5%.
1
Organ Dry weight (g Dry weight (g H2O (ml g Leaves Stems Roots
plant 1) pot 1) DW)
Na+ (mg g 1 DW) 149.9 ± 12.2c 87.7 ± 8.1b 37.4 ± 8.5a
Leaves 4.48 ± 0.49**** 22.40 ± 3.27*** 9.78 ± 1.54**** K+ (mg g 1 DW) 15.7 ± 2.1a 30.5 ± 2.4b 17.6 ± 3.5a
Stems 2.63 ± 0.26**** 13.17 ± 1.54*** 4.35 ± 0.68**** Ca2+ (mg g 1 DW) 23.1 ± 3.6a 45.1 ± 4.7b 21.8 ± 7.8a
CO

Roots 1.17 ± 0.36** 5.86* 7.51 ± 2.33** Mg2+ (mg g 1 DW) 4.56 ± 0.7a 5.01 ± 0.6a 4.84 ± 1.4a
Shoots 7.12 ± 0.72 35.57 ± 4.71*** 7.34 ± 0.91****
Whole plant 8.28 ± 0.49** 28.78* –
Root/shoot 0.26 ± 0.06** 0.20* –
ratio capacity to desalinize its rhizosphere (Rabhi et al., 2009). These re- 312

*
sults of the ECe were confirmed by a decline in the soil sodicity 313
Only one replicate.
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**
Means of 5 replicates.
(estimated by SAR; Fig. 2A and B) and soluble sodium content 314
***
Means of 10 replicates. (Fig. 2C and D). Our findings are in agreement with those of previ- 315
****
Means of 50 replicates. ous studies (i.e. Kushiev et al., 2005; Ravindran et al., 2007). The 316
difference in soil salinity and sodicity between the upper and the 317

303 +
showed significantly lower K concentrations as compared to those lower horizons in the same pot could be explained by the effects 318

304 cultivated on non-salinized soil. This reduction occurred in shoots of S. portulacastrum roots on the physical–chemical parameters of 319

305 as well as in roots (Fig. 6B). Nevertheless, a partial restoration in the rhizosphere (Qadir et al., 1996, 2000, 2002, 2003; Qadir and Os- 320

306 shoot potassium status was noticed in phytodesalination ter, 2004). Roots facilitate Na+ substitution by Ca2+ at the adsorp- 321

307 treatment. tion sites and ameliorate soil physical properties through their 322
expansion leading to a leaching of sodium. Nevertheless, these 323
authors neglect the role of the above-ground biomass shoot role 324
308 4. Discussion in the bioremediation process of salt-affected. In the present work, 325
the results suggest that both sodium leaching and accumulation 326
309 The decrease in soil ECe of the upper horizon by S. portulaca- within succulent shoots (phytodesalination) are of importance 327
310 strum culture under non-leaching conditions confirmed the expec- for the sodium displacement. Actually, the salinized soil exhibited 328
311 tation that this Na+-hyperaccumulating halophyte has a high higher values of ECe (Fig. 1) and SAR (Fig. 2) in the upper than in 329

Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
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Fig. 3. Coleoptile emergence kinetics in H. vulgare after seed sowing in non-perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each irrigated with tap water. N: non-salinized soil, S:
salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S. portulacastrum over 189 days).

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D
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Fig. 4. Morphological aspect of H. vulgare plants grown over one month in non-perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each irrigated with tap water. N: non-salinized soil, S:
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salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S. portulacastrum over 189 days).
(A) Plants in their respective pots. (B) Plants after harvest and root washing.
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Fig. 5. Shoot and root dry weights and water contents in H. vulgare plants grown over one month in non-perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each irrigated with tap water.
N: non-salinized soil, S: salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S.
portulacastrum over 189 days). Means of 8 replicates ± standard error. Bars with different letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s test at 5%.

330 the lower horizon. This could be explained by the difficulty of so- crease of the CO2 partial pressure within the rhizosphere via root 337
331 dium leaching since Na+ ions were retained in the upper part of respiration is responsible for an enhancement of CaCO3 solubiliza- 338
332 the soil. This was due to Na+ adsorption on the colloids and prob- tion. Thus, Ca2+ ions exchange Na+ at the adsorption sites. Subse- 339
333 ably to a simple imprisonment into micropores because of the soil quently, the Na+ ions were leached through the pores created by 340
334 particle composition (particles with small sizes). The expansion of root expansion (Qadir and Oster, 2004). 341
335 S. portulacastrum roots helped leach sodium ions, increasing in this S. portulacastrum shoots contained high Na+ concentrations (Ta- 342
336 way soil salinity and sodicity in the lower horizon. Actually, the in- ble 2) mainly for the osmotic adjustment of its cells (Sleimi and 343

Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
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Table 3 portulacastrum seems to be of high importance for a successful 364

Whole plant dry weights, root/shoot ratios, and salt sensitivity indexes calculated on glycophyte culture. The mean salinity was reduced by S. portulaca- 365
the basis of whole plant biomasses in H. vulgare plants grown over one month in non-
perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each irrigated with tap water. N: non-salinized
strum leading to a successful sowing of Hordeum seeds. Coleoptile 366
soil, S: salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil emergence was characterized by a 3-day delay in both salinized (S) 367
(soil salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S. portulacastrum over and phytodesalinized treatments (P). The final emergence percent- 368
189 days). Means of 8 replicates ± standard error. Columns with different letters are age, drastically reduced by salinity and sodicity in salinized treat- 369
significantly different according to Duncan’s test at 5%.
ment, was noticeably ameliorated in phytodesalinized treatment. 370
Treatments DWWp (mg) Root/shoot ratio SIWp (%) At the vegetative stage, plants grown on phytodesalinized soil 371

N 1275.1 ± 82.3c 0.26 ± 0.04a – showed higher biomass production and tissue hydration than 372
S 104.7 ± 22.0a 0.72 ± 0.36b 92 those grown on salinized soil. This is another argument for the 373
P 526.7 ± 98.1b 0.69 ± 0.18b 59 beneficial effect of the phytodesalination culture on the test cul- 374
ture. We observed also that sodium concentrations in shoots of 375

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H. vulgare grown on phytodesalinized soil were considerably 376

344 Abdelly, 2002; Messedi et al., 2004). Sodium quantities accumu- diminished as compared to those of plants cultivated on salinized 377

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345 lated over the treatment period were found to reach 4.36 g Na+ soil. In addition, potassium status of H. vulgare of phytodesalinized 378

346 pot 1 (Table 4), which is equivalent to a phytodesalination capacity treatment was significantly ameliorated. All these arguments rein- 379

347 of about 1 t Na+ ha 1. In the soil of the salinized treatment, we force the idea that S. portulacastrum culture on an experimentally- 380

348 found almost the same quantity added in the beginning of the salinized soil reduced its salinity and sodicity and consequently fa- 381

349 experiment (11.9 g Na+ pot 1). The sum of soil and plant sodium vored the glycophyte growth on the same soil. Our results agree 382

350 quantities in each pot under phytodesalination conditions (15.9 g with those of Abdelly et al. (1995), Kushiev et al. (2005), and Grai- 383

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351 Na+ pot 1) significantly exceeded that of the beginning of the fenberg et al. (2003). 384

352 experiment (11.9 g Na+ pot 1). In fact, the initial soil contains also
353 a certain Na+ amount adsorbed on the cation exchange sites (a so- 5. Conclusions 385
354 dium content of 0.3 mg g 1 soil and a SAR of 5.7 (mmol l 1)1/2). Un-
355 der the effects of the phytodesalination culture, these ions were S. portulacastrum is a promising halophyte for phytodesalina- 386
356 released from their sites and substituted by Ca2+ ions. Zhao tion programs. Its highest phytodesalination capacities can be ob- 387
357 (1991) calculated that Suaeda salsa produced about 20 t DW ha 1
D tained if defoliation is performed in the beginning of each winter to 388
358 and withdraw 3–4 t NaCl. Ravindran et al. (2007) estimated that avoid shedding of Na+-charged leaves. Actually, according to our 389
359 Suaeda, Sesuvium, Excoecaria, Clerodendron, Ipomoea, and Heliotro- personal observations, S. portulacastrum is a cold-sensitive species. 390
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360 pium species could remove 504, 474, 396, 360, 325, and 301 kg The duration of phytodesalination process depends on soil salinity 391
361 NaCl, respectively, from 1 ha land in 4 months. and sodicity. Harvested shoots can serve for several uses such as 392
362 Although insufficient to remove all the sodium added in the fodder (Ramani et al., 2006; Lokhande et al., 2009) and essential Q2 393
363 beginning of the experiment, the phytodesalination capacity of S. oil source (Magwa et al., 2006). 394
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Table 4
Sodium quantities per pot (Na+ (g pot 1)) in the upper (up) and lower (lo) soil horizons, roots (R) and shoots (Sh) of S. portulacastrum plants grown on soil over 189 days in non-
perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each added or not with 2.5 g NaCl g 1 soil during the second and the third week of treatment, then irrigated with tap water until their
harvest. N: non-salinized soil, S: salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S.
portulacastrum over 189 days). Means of 3 and 10 replicates ± standard error in the case of soil and shoots, respectively. Values with different letters are significantly different
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according to Duncan’s test at 5%. For roots, only one replicate was considered.

Soil Plant
N(up) S(up) P(up) N(lo) S(lo) P(lo) R Sh
1.67 ± 1.17a 8.23 ± 0.82e 5.53 ± 0.47 cd 0.91 ± 0.31a 3.36 ± 0.77b 5.83 ± 1.03d 0.22 4.36 ± 0.24bc
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Fig. 6. Shoot and root Na+ (A) and K+ (B) concentrations in H. vulgare plants grown over one month in non-perforated pots containing 12 kg soil each irrigated with tap water.
N: non-salinized soil, S: salinized soil (soil added with 2.5 g NaCl kg 1 soil), P: phytodesalinized soil (soil salinized by NaCl addition and desalinized by a culture of S.
portulacastrum over 189 days). Means of 8 replicates ± standard error. Bars with different letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s test at 5%.

Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
 BITE 6838 No. of Pages 8, Model 5G
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M. Rabhi et al. / Bioresource Technology xxx (2010) xxx–xxx 7

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Please cite this article in press as: Rabhi, M., et al. Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in
advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresour. Technol. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
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