GENGER AND SOCIETY intersexuality is a naturally occurring variation
in humans and animals (1 in 1,500 births)
MODULE 1
Leveling Off: Gender and Sexuality
Section 1: Sex, Gender and Sexuality
What is SEX? While sex is often referred to as
the act of reproduction (scientifically,
copulation), it is, nonetheless, an important
notion of how pop culture sees sex. According
to popular culture, sex is something done for
pleasure, and perhaps in a more Freudian
sense, it is what drives people to do certain
things. The association of sex with pleasure
and vice versa may make people dismiss it as
a serious topic for study.
Meanwhile, because sex is so often equated
with and related to gender, gender as a topic
for discussion is likewise disregarded. Yet, by
showing the difference between sex and
gender, and laying the groundwork for this
difference, perhaps you may start questioning
discriminatory practices in society that relate to
sex and gender.
This module defines sex through its biological,
and not cultural, definition. Sex in the biological
sense is a category for living beings specifically
related to their reproductive function. For most
living creatures, there are two sexes, the male
and the female. The female sex is determined
by the following characteristics: produces egg
cells which are fertilized by another sex, and
bears the offspring. The male sex, on the other
hand, produces sperm cells to fertilize the egg
cells.
There are cases when the baby’s genitals
appear to be a conglomerate of male and
female organs such that it may be difficult to
classify the baby’s sex without further
examination. In the past, this condition is
referred to as hermaphroditism (from Hermes,
a male Greek god, and Aphrodite, a female
Greek goddess). In modern times, the term
intersexuality is used to refer to this
phenomenon. Hermaphroditism or
according to the American Psychological
Association (APA) (2006). Biology is learned in
school, but the enactment of one’s sex is
experienced differently in one’s culture. When
one sees a person, he or she does not see an
XX or an XY, but a male or a female. Perhaps
in more accepting societies, one sees a male,
a female, or an LGBT. Because of one’s
perception of maleness and femaleness, his or
her view of another is prone to change.
Take for example the case of commercial
models displayed in advertisements along
EDSA. These models are perceived to conform
to society’s definition of what is conventionally
attractive, enough that they become the face of
certain products or brands. Because a model
on a billboard is two-dimensional, his or her
looks allow people to assume anything about
him or her.
What is GENDER? Gender is a socially
learned behavior usually associated with one’s
sex. It is short for gender relations between the
sexes, or how the male and female relate to
one another. Gender is also based on how
people see themselves and on their tendency
to act along either the masculine or the
feminine line.
Gender is a social construct that determines
one’s roles, expected values, behavior, and
interaction in relationships involving men and
women. It affects what access is available to
men and women to decision-making,
knowledge, and resources. Sex and gender are
two different things, but one’s gender is usually
associated with one’s sex.
Does Sex Correspond to Gender? Many
scientists, psychologists, and sociologists
believe that sex does not determine one’s
gender. Femininity, or the behavior that one
associates with females, may not actually be
tied to a woman’s sex. Similarly, masculinity is
not tied to one’s gonads. The whole idea of
being a woman, therefore, is based on gender
and society’s belief in how a woman should
act, instead of biological functions that are
inescapable. The notion that one’s biology
predetermines the roles one must have in life
should not be the case at all. Doing household
chores is said to be a woman’s job, yet there
are some men who do the cooking and
cleaning at home. Aggressive sports are said
to be more for men, but for every men’s sports
team, there is a counterpart for women. In
these types of scenario, gender role
socialization comes in.
Gender role socialization is defined as the
process of learning and internalizing culturally
approved ways of thinking, feeling, and
behaving. It starts as soon as one is born and
manifests from the color associated with one’s
gender tothe roles one sees his or her gender
performs the most. Socialization affects all
parts of one’s identity by dictating what is
acceptable to do because of one’s educational
background, class, religion, and gender. Thus,
female and male gender roles develop.”
One’s socialization regulates his or her
perceptions of genders in two ways-external
regulations and internalized self-control.
Each society has social norms that have been
developed over time due to the values and
beliefs that it holds. External regulation
involves various institutions dictating what is
proper and normal based on one’s identity. It
affects how one sees his or her gender, and
that gender in relation to other genders.
External regulation can happen through
censorship of some forms of or subtle forms of
control such as microaggression. Because of
these external regulations enforced by society,
notions on gender are absorbed and
internalized social control is formed.
Internalized social control causes a person to
police himself or herself according to society’s
standards and norms. A consistent practice will
eventually affect all aspects of his or her
personality, in turn, resulting in the policing of
others, expanding and perpetuating this
regulation. Similarly, if someone finds himself
or herself deviating from what society finds
normal, he or she may become deviant and
excluded from society.
How we express our gender is largely based
on our social and cultural setting. Most are
comfortable with their sex and gender, men
who are masculine and women who are
feminine. Each culture also has different
standards on how to be a man and a woman
and how they should present themselves
according to their sex and gender.
Section 2: Gender and Sexuality Across
Time
Society has progressed so much in a way that
information and knowledge is available To
everyone. This gives us an opportunity to
examine our social and political conditions in
More detail than when information was scarce
and limited to only a few individuals.
Historical accounts show that across time,
humans’ conception of gender and sexuality
has also changed. Archeological artifacts
reveal that in the distant past, during the dawn
of civilizations, human societies have high
regard for women. The concept of the divine
Feminine (the sacredness of the woman due to
her ability to conceive children) has prevailed,
and thus, women are treated equally with men.
This make societies egalitarian (men and
women have equitable power and roles).
Societies have privileged men over other
genders, mainly because of the preferential
given to them in the productive sphere (world
of public work). Women who have been
revered due to their ability to conceive have
been viewed as solely capable only of
reproductive affairs (world of the home and
related tasks such as suckling the young, child
rearing, and home management).
The gender disparity was intensified by the
Industrial era where factors were built and men
were preferred because they did not have to
bear children for nine months and because of
their perceived physical strength.
But how did really the conceptualization of
gender and sexuality changed?
PATRIARCHY A close examination of our
society can lead us to see the invisible layers
of oppression in our society like patriarchya
system based on the control and oppression of
women wherein they are perceived to be the
weaker sex. It is a structure that upholds male
supremacy in the law, at home, in the work
place, and in society.
Patriarchy is from the Greek word Patriarkhes
which means “the rule of the father”. It is a
social system where men primarily holds power
in the political and the private spheres. This
means that in this social system, society is
organized and maintained in a way that men
rule over women and their children. In the
social, legal, political, and economic spheres,
men are expected to lead while women are
expected to obey and are relegated to house
chores, bearing children, and child care.
A patrilineal society often follows a patriarchal
society, this means only men can inherit
property and the family name. Women were left
with no inheritance and are expected to marry
a man who can support her economically. In
fact, women were not allowed to go to schools,
or even vote, because they are viewed as a
weaker sex and should not concern
themselves in learning science or politics.
Women had to fight for the right to vote, to go
to school, to go to work, and even participate in
politics
. HISTORICAL VIEWS ON GENDER
Greek
Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers
viewed women as the inferior sex and are
properties of men whose only job was to obey
their husbands, bear children, and take care of
the household. They were forbidden to learn
philosophy, politics, and science.
Egypt
Herodotus, a Greek historian, observed the
Egyptian civilization citing that Egyptian
Women enjoyed higher social status than
Greek women because they can inherit
property and engage in trade and politics.
However, Greek influence quickly spread in
Egypt through the conquests of Alexander the
Great across Asia and Africa.
China
Confucianism has stringent written rules that
dictate how women should conduct. The
written documents titled “Three obedience’s
and four virtues” and “Precepts of women”
states that women should obey their father,
when married she is to obey her
Husband, and when widowed she is to obey
her son, gendered biases in ancient patriarchal
societies were very strict, heavily enforced, and
often violent. Imagine not being able to go to
school just because you are a woman, not
being able to express your opinion on
important matters even when it concerns your
future, and not being able to say no to any
man.
Women have come a long way since the
ancient times through the feminist movement,
however, patriarchy has taken on subtle forms
of oppression that often go unnoticed such as:
• Sexism- prejudice, stereotypes, and
discrimination based on sex
• Gender pay gap – men earn more than
women;
• Underrepresentation in politics, military,
executive positions, etc
• Rape on women and the stigma making
women ashamed to report the crime;
• Very conservative expectations on women on
how they behave;
• Unrealistic depictions of women in fiction,
often very sexualized;
• Women do more housework and childcare;
• Boys were trained to be leaders while women
were trained to do house chores.
Section 3: Gender and Sexuality as a
Psychosocial Issue
There are distinct physiological differences,
much of the capabilities, except those involved
in reproduction, can actually be performed by
either sexes. Both women and men can
perform child-rearing roles. Both can also
engage and succeed in the world of work. In
many cases, the limits are only set by social
expectations.
These scenarios only exemplify that much
about gender and sexuality is not only
biological and physiological but also
psychological and social. This perspective of
exploring and understanding human sexuality
in the lens of psychological social processes is
referred to as psychosocial perspective.
Understanding the Psychosocial
Dimension
There are many ways through which the
psychosocial dimension of gender and
sexuality can be understood and explained.
Our experience of gender and sexuality is
generally a relational experience.
It is relational because while as individuals, we
have our own affect, cognition and behavior to
be aware of, we are also viewing ourselves in
relation to others who also have their own
personal preoccupations. There are some
elements of our gendered self which are best
viewed in an ecological contextthat is, in the
circumstances in our physical and social
environment.
Awareness
At the front of our experience as gendered
beings is awareness. In simpler terms,
awareness is our conscious understanding of
something. As individuals, we are in constant
process towards self-awareness:
Who and what am I?
What do I like/dislike?
What are my strengths and weakness?
What motivates me?
What are my aspirations?
We are in an endless process of asking and
trying to understand. In the context of gender
and sexuality, we ask:
What am I physiologically?
Am I happy with what I am?
How do I genuinely see myself?
How do I feel about myself as a sexual being?
Is there anything good I should do?
But then again, we are not isolated in a
vacuum. We are social beings. We live our
lives in relation to others. Hence, as we try to
understand ourselves more, we are also in a
constant process towards other awareness,
that is, understanding others:
What is the other’s motivations, preferences,
and aspirations?
Where am I positioned in her or his life, vis-à-
vis Where is s/he positioned in my life?
How different and or similar am I and other?
The ABCDE of Intimate Relationships
Acquaintance
Intimate human relationships start in
acquaintanceship. We meet up through
circumstances and first learn about basic
information about one another. Crucial at this
stage is attraction.
What does it take for a person to actually
decide to be acquainted with another?
Attraction can take place in an enabling
environment. It can happen when there is
propinquity or proximity-when we are physically
closer to one another. It can happen when
there is exposure—when due to proximity,
there are repeated possibilities of interaction. It
can also happen when there is similarity-
common preferences, interests, and probably
beliefs and values.
Buildup
Some acquaintanceships build up into deeper
relationships. Frequency of interaction
increases. Kinds of activities shared become
diverse. The involved parties begin to introduce
one another to each other’s friends and
families, thus, making the social network larger
and interconnected. This is the stage when two
persons test their boundaries. They test the
waters before engaging fully and so
committedly in the relationship.
Consolidation and Continuation
The third stage of intimate relationship is
consolidation. This stage is when people
commits to a longterm relationship with one
another, either through a personal agreement
(i.e., exclusivity of partnership, domestic
partnership) or a social-legal agreement (i.e.,
marriage). What makes people commit to a
relationship, to the point of legitimizing it
through marriage? Often, people set standards
that are sustainable (e.g., ability of each other
to maintain a family or a household, readiness
of each other to raise children, career, and
financial capacities).
Decline or Deterioration
Unfortunately, some intimate partnerships are
unable to sustain and maintain their
commitments or attraction. For one, there may
be a change in priorities between the individual
couple, such that the conjoint value of the
partnership is not anymore sufficient. There
may be infidelity—the breech of loyalty and
promises as agreed upon by both individuals
(e.g., presence of a third-party, extra-marital
affairs). Or, in other, there may be
irreconcilable differences—which are already
harming each individual and the partnership as
a whole.
Ending
Finally, for those intimate partnerships who are
unable to address the causes and
circumstances leading to the deterioration of
their relationship, the stages culminate into
ending or termination of the agreements made
(either personal or socio-legal) through informal
(e.g., collective decision to end the
relationship) or formal (e.g., marriage
dissolution) means.
MODULE 2
Gender Role Stereotype and Gender
Identities
Section 1: Types of Gender Roles
A gender role is a set of societal norms
dictating the types of behaviors which are
generally considered acceptable, appropriate,
or desirable for people based on their actual or
perceived sex or sexuality.
Gender roles are usually centered on
conceptions of femininity and masculinity,
although there are exceptions and variations.
The specifics regarding these gendered
expectations may vary substantially among
cultures, while other characteristics may be
common throughout a range of cultures.
The term gender role refers to society’s
concept of how men and women are expected
to act and how they should behave. These
roles are based on norms, or standards,
created by society.
Gender roles are a specific set of social and
behavioral actions which are considered to be
appropriate for the given gender. The concept
of gender roles has been developed from the
work of Caroline Moser. She explains this
concept as follows:
Reproductive Role Childbearing/rearing
responsibilities, and
domestic tasks done
by women. It includes
not only biological
reproduction but also
the care and
maintenance of the
work force (male
partner and working
children) and the
future work force
(infants and school-
going children).
Productive Role Work done by both
men and women for
pay in cash or kind. It
includes both market
production with an
exchangevalue, and
subsistence/home
production with actual
use-value, and also
potential exchange-
value.
Community Managing Activities undertaken
Role primarily by women at
the community level,
as an extension of
their reproductive role,
to ensure the
provision and
maintenance of scarce
resources of collective
consumption, such as
water, health care and
education. This is
voluntary unpaid work,
undertaken in ‘free’
time.
Community Politics Activities undertaken
Role primarily by men at
the community level,
organizing at the
formal political level,
often within the
framework of national
politics. This is usually
paid work, either
directly or indirectly,
through status or
power.
Multiple Roles Both men and women
play multiple roles.
The major difference,
however, is that
• Men: typically play
their roles
sequentially, focusing
on a single productive
role
• · Women: must
usually play their roles
simultaneously,
balancing the
demands of each
within their limited
time constraints
Section 2: Sex-Role Stereotypes
Exploring Attitudes towards Gender
Attitudes towards Gender (also referred to as
sex role attitudes) have been defined as “an
individual’s beliefs about appropriate behavior
for men and women”. One’s gender role
attitudes are likely to indicate her or his
adherence to socially accepted and culturally
based norms that dictate behavioral standards
in cross - sex relationships.
Gender role attitudes indicate the degree to
which a person accepts or rejects socially
accepted and culturally based norms that
dictate appropriate behavior that is gender
specific.
Examples of gender role attitudes include such
statements as “men should open the door for
women,” “fathers and mothers should
participate equally in nurturing and caring for
their children,” “men are primarily responsible
for earning money and providing for their
family,” and “women should adopt their
husband’s surname upon marriage.”
Sex-Role Stereotypes
A sex role is a function or role which a male or
female assumes because of the basic
physiological or anatomical differences
between the sexes. It is a biologically
determined role which can be performed by
only one of the sexes, e.g., women give birth to
children while men make women pregnant.
These roles are not exchangeable because
they are biologically determined.
A stereotype is a ‘person or thing seeming to
conform to a heavily accepted type’. Sex-role
stereotypes have also been defined as ‘the
rigidly held and oversimplified beliefs that
males and females possess distinct (and
similar) psychological traits and
characteristics.’ these beliefs tend to be very
widely held in society.
Effects of Sex-Role Stereotypes on
Individuals
Sex-role stereotypes can have both positive
and negative effects on females and males in
society. If the stereotype describing a sex
group is negative, it could have negative
effects on some members of that group and
viceversa. The following are the main effects of
sex-role stereotypes on individuals:
Impression Management In order to be
accepted by society, women and men may
start behaving in the way stereotypes portray
their respective sex. Hence girls may tend to
be shy, submissive, quiet, etc. They may
conform to very negative stereotypes, e.g., girls
are not good at mathematics and science.
Boys on the other hand will behave in the
opposite way, by trying to be good at
mathematics and science, because society
expects them to be good. They may also try to
be aggressive and assertive just to impress
others that they are ‘real men’.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy The effect of sex-role
stereotypes is much more deeply rooted when
people conform through what is known as
‘selffulfilling prophecy’. In this type of
conformity, people tend to believe in the
stereotype (i.e., they regard the stereotype as
the best way to behave as females or males).
If they are male, they believe that men ought to
be aggressive. If females are viewed as ‘not
good at mathematics and science’, they may
set a negative goal for themselves in order not
to achieve in these subjects. They may stop
working hard in these subjects because they
believe that they cannot do it. If males on the
other hand are viewed as ‘good at mathematics
and science’, they will set a positive goal to
fulfil the stereotype. They will work hard in
order to achieve good results in these subjects.
This is done unconsciously and girls and boys
do not realize that they are fulfilling a
stereotype.
Section 3: Developing Gender Identity
Gender Identity
Gender identity is the extent to which one
identifies with a particular gender; it is a
person’s individual sense and subjective
experience of being a man, a woman, or
another gender. It is often shaped early in life
and consists primarily of the acceptance (or
non-acceptance) of one’s membership into a
gender category. In most societies, there is a
basic division between gender attributes
assigned to males and females. In all societies,
however, some individuals do not identify with
some (or all) of the aspects of gender that are
assigned to their biological sex.
In many Western cultures, individuals who
identify with a gender that is different from their
biological sex (for example, they are assigned
female at birth but feel inwardly that they are a
boy or a gender other than a girl) are called
transgender. Some transgender individuals, if
they have access to resources and medical
care, choose to alter their bodies through
medical interventions such as surgery and
hormonal therapy so that their physical being is
better aligned with their gender identity.
Gender Identity Development
While gender identity is very fluid among young
children, it is usually believed to form between
ages 3 and 6.
However, many transgender, genderqueer, or
genderfluid individuals are not able to embrace
their true gender identity until much later in life,
largely due to both societal pressure to
conform to the gender binary and the societal
stigma associated with transgender identities.
Studies suggest that children develop gender
identity in three distinct stages:
► As toddlers and preschoolers, children learn
about defined characteristics and socialized
aspects of gender.
► Around age 5–7, gender identity becomes
rigid in a process known as consolidation.
► After this “peak of rigidity,” fluidity returns
and socially defined gender roles relax
somewhat at adolescent age.
Factors that Influence Gender Identity
Although the formation of gender identity is not
completely understood, many factors have
been suggested as influencing its
development. Biological factors that may
influence gender identity include pre- and post-
natal hormone levels and genetic makeup.
Social factors include ideas regarding gender
roles conveyed by family, authority figures,
mass media, and other influential people in a
child’s life.
Children are shaped and molded by the people
surrounding them, who they try to imitate and
follow. According to social learning theory,
children develop their gender identity through
observing and imitating the genderlinked
behaviors of others; they are then rewarded for
imitating the behaviors people of the same
gender and punished for imitating the
behaviors of another gender.
For example, male children will often be
rewarded for imitating their father’s love of
baseball, but punished or redirected in some
way if they imitate their older sister’s love of
dolls. Another factor that has a significant role
in the process of gender identity is language;
while learning a language, children learn to
separate masculine and feminine
characteristics and unconsciously adjust their
own behavior to these predetermined roles.
Gender-Schema Theory
Gender-schema theory was formally
introduced by Sandra Bem in 1981 as a
cognitive theory to explain how individuals
become gendered in society. It describes how
sexlinked characteristics are maintained and
transmitted to other members of a culture.
According to gender-schema theory, gender-
associated information is predominantly
transmitted through society by way of
schemata, or networks that allow for some
types of information to be more easily
assimilated than others.
Bem argues that there are individual
differences in the degree to which people hold
these gender schemata. These differences are
manifested via the degree to which individuals
are sex-typed. Bem refers to four categories
into which an individual may fall:
► Sex-typed individuals process and integrate
information that is in line with their assigned
gender.
► Cross-sex-typed individuals process and
integrate information that is in line with the
gender opposite to the one they were
assigned.
► Androgynous individuals process and
integrate traits and information from both
genders.
► Finally, undifferentiated individuals do not
show efficient processing of sex-typed
information.
Queer Theory
According to proponents of queer theory,
gender identity is not a rigid or static identity
but can continue to evolve and change over
time.
Queer theory developed in response to the
perceived limitations of the way in which
identities are thought to become consolidated
or stabilized (for instance, gay or straight), and
theorists constructed queerness in an attempt
to resist this. In this way, the theory attempts to
maintain a critique rather than define a specific
identity.
While “queer” defies a simple definition, the
term is often used to convey an identity that is
not rigidly developed, but is instead fluid and
changing
Section 4: Discrimination Based on Sex and
Gender
Sexism or gender discrimination is prejudice
or discrimination based on a person’s sex or
gender. Sexism can affect any sex that is
marginalized or oppressed in a society;
however, it is particularly documented as
affecting females.
It has been linked to stereotypes and gender
roles and includes the belief that males are
intrinsically superior to other sexes and
genders. Extreme sexism may foster sexual
harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual
violence.
Misogyny is the hatred or dislike of women or
girls. According to feminist theory, misogyny
can be manifested in numerous ways, including
sexual discrimination, belittling of women,
violence against women, and sexual
objectification of women.
Although the exact rates are widely disputed,
there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence
that women are subjected to domestic violence
significantly more often than men. In addition,
there is broad consensus that women are more
often subjected to severe forms of abuse and
are more likely to be injured by an abusive
partner.
Transphobia and Transgender
Discrimination
Transgender inequality is the unequal
protection and treatment that transgender
people face in work, school, and society in
general. Transgender people regularly face
transphobic harassment and violence.
Ultimately, one of the largest reasons that
transgender people face inequality is a lack of
public understanding.
Transphobia is similar to homophobia, racism,
and sexism, and manifests as emotional
disgust, fear, anger, or discomfort felt or
expressed toward people who don’t conform to
society’s gender expectations. The related term
”cissexism ” refers to the assumption that
transgender people are inferior to cisgender
people. Both transphobia and cissexism have
severe consequences.
Transgender people are much more likely to
experience harassment, bullying, and violence
based on their gender identity; they also
experience much higher rates of discrimination
in housing, employment, healthcare, and
education.
MODULE 3 Section 1: The Global Divides:
North and South
The process of globalization is uneven, it
follows that there is an imbalance in the socio-
economic and political categories of the world.
Countries that were colonized by the Spaniards
in the southern part of the American continent
are collectively called Latin America by virtue of
the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494.
The newly discovered lands outside Europe
were divided into two-the West belonging to the
Crown of Castile (now part of Spain) and the
East belonging to the Portuguese Empire.
The Global South refers to the socio-
economic and political divide primarily focused
on the southern hemisphere of the 1569-
designed Mercatorian map. It consists of
Africa, Latin America, and Asia including the
Middle East.
The Global North also connotes developing
countries as opposed to rich, industrialized,
and wealthy nations. On the contrary, the
Global North is the home of all members of the
Group of Eight (G8)- Canada, France,
Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom,
Russia, and the United States of America.
Section 2: Asian Regionalism
China is the home of more than 1.4 billion
people based on the 2018 Population
projection of the United Nations. In fact, it is
becoming one of the economic super giants of
the world.
In 2016, China was the world’s leading
exporter of goods valued at $1.99 trillion,
followed by the United States with $1.45 Trillion
(Dillinger, 2018). Among all the continents,
Asia has the biggest population of at least two-
thirds of the world’s inhabitants. It is most
probably because the continent comprises one-
third of the world’s land mass.
In terms of economy, emerging and
developing Asian countries and the Association
of Southeast Asian Nations 5 or the ASEAN 5
(Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and
Thailand) had an average of 6.3% and 5.1%
GDP growth, respectively, compared to the
world average growth of 3.5% as of 2016
(Obiols, 2017). Since the European Union is in
its mature state of regionalism, the world is
now focused on Asia. Most countries want to
have collaborations with East Asian countries
and the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) members because economic
and political growth in these regions have
started to shape up.
Regionalization, on the other hand, is “the
growth of societal integration within a region
and to the often undirected processes of social
and economic interaction” (Hurrel, 1995).
Regionalism refers to regional concentration
of economic flows while regionalization refers
to a political process by economic policy if
cooperation and coordination are present
among countries (Mansfield & Wilmer, 1993).
The ASEAN community is comprised of three
pillarspolitical security community, economic
community, and socio-cultural community.
ASEAN + 3 MBBS CLIP TV + C J SK
Its goal is to address the 1997 Asian financial
crisis and help each other cope with the crisis.
In this context, ASEAN has concretized
regionalism in the Asian region.
The North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), a free trade pact between Canada
and the United States (now including Mexico),
was created to help reduce trading costs,
increase business investment, and help North
America be more competitive in the global
marketplace (NAFTA, 2018).
The European Union (EU) is a political and
economic established to ensure free movement
of people, goods, services, and capital within
the EU’s single market (EU, 2018a).
Aspects of ASEAN Integration
First, integration has been market-driven.
Second, formal institutions such as the Asian
Development Bank (ADB) were established.
Third, economic grants and overseas
development assistance are made available by
better Asian economies. Aspects of ASEAN
Integration
Fourth, production networks have expanded.
Fifth, cooperation among the ASEAN and East
Asian countries ensued the ASEAN +3
Financial Ministers’ Process that established
two economic structures the Chiang Mai
Initiative and the Asian Bond Markets Initiative.
Last, if EU is rules-based, ASEAN follows a
consensus rule as an approach to decision
making.
 ASEAN Declaration Aims and Purposes
1) To accelerate economic growth, social
progress, and cultural development in the
region;
2) To promote regional peace and stability;
3) To promote active collaboration and mutual
assistance on matters of common interest;
4) To provide assistance to each other in the
form of training and research facilities;
ASEAN Declaration Aims and Purposes
5) To collaborate more effectively for the
greater utilization of their agriculture and
industries;
6) To expand trade, improve their
transportation and communications facilities,
and raise the living standards of their people;
7) To promote Southeast Asian Studies; and
8) To maintain close and beneficial
cooperation.
MODULE 4 Political-Legal Perspective in
Gender and Sexuality
Section 1: Gender-Based Violence
Consequences of Gender-Based Violence
These consequences include serious,
immediate, and long-term impacts on the
sexual, physical, and psychological health of
survivors.
Health consequences include unwanted
pregnancies, complications from unsafe
abortions, sexually transmitted infections
including HIV, injuries, mental health, and
psychosocial effects (depression, anxiety, post-
traumatic stress, suicide and death). Violence
also affects children’s survival, development,
and school participation.
Social consequences extend to families
and communities. Families can also be
stigmatized as a consequence of gender-based
violence. For example, when children are born
following a rape, or if family members choose
to stand by a survivor, fellow members of their
community may avoid them.
Economic consequences include the
cost of public health and social welfare
systems and the reduced ability of many
survivors to participate in social and economic
life.
SURVIVOR, VICTIM, AND PERPETRATOR
Survivor is the preferred term (not a
“victim”) of a person who has lived through an
incident of gender-based violence. A
perpetrator is a person, group, or institution
that inflicts, supports, or condones violence or
other abuse against a person or group of
persons. Characteristics of perpetrators
include:
a. Persons with real or perceived power;
b. persons in decision-making positions,
and
c. persons in authority.
In all incidents of GBV, there is always a
survivor/victim and a perpetrator. Therefore, all
actions in the prevention and responses to
GBV need to address both the survivor and the
perpetrator.
Human Rights
Human rights are universal,
inalienable, indivisible, interconnected, and
interdependent. Everyone is entitled to all the
rights and freedoms without distinction of any
kind, such as race, color, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth, or other status.
Prevention of and response to gender-
based violence is directly linked to the
protection of human rights. Acts of gender-
based violence violate a number of human
rights principles enshrined in international
human rights instruments and in our Philippine
Constitution.
These include the following, amongst others:
 the right to life, liberty, and property of
persons;
 the right to the highest attainable
standard of physical and mental health;
 the right to freedom from torture or cruel,
inhuman, or degrading treatment or
punishment;
 the right to freedom of opinion and
expression and to education; (UNFPA
2014).
POWER, USE OF FORCE AND
CONSENT
Power
Perpetrators can have “real” or
“perceived” power. Some examples of different
types of power and powerful people are the
following:
a. social- peer pressure, bullying, leader,
teacher, parents;
b. economic- the perpetrator controls
money or access to
goods/services/money/favors;
sometimes the husband or the father;
c. political- elected leaders, discriminatory
laws, President of the United States;
d. physical- strength, size, use of weapons,
controlling access or security; soldiers,
police, robbers, gangs;
e. gender-based (social)- males are
usually in a more powerful position than
females; and
f. age-related- often, the young and elderly
people have the least power.
Power is directly related to choose. The
more power one has, there are more choices
available. The less power one has, fewer
choices are available. Unempowered people
have fewer choices and are therefore, more
vulnerable to abuse. GBV involves the abuse
of power unequal power relationships are
exploited or abused.
Use of Force/Violence
“Force” might be physical, emotional,
social, or economic in nature. It may also
involve coercion or pressure. Force also
includes intimidation, threats, persecution, or
other forms of psychological or social pressure.
The target of such violence is compelled to
behave as expected or to do what is being
requested, for fear of real and harmful
consequences.
Violence consists of the use of physical
force or other means of coercion such as
threat, inducement, or promise of a benefit to
obtain something from a weaker or more
vulnerable person. Using violence involves
forcing someone to do something against
her/his will—use of force.
Informed Consent
Consent means saying “yes,” agreeing
to something. Informed consent means making
an informed choice freely and voluntarily by
persons in an equal power relationship.
Acts of GBV occur without informed
consent. Even if she says “yes,” this is not true
consent because it was said under duress-the
perpetrator(s) used some kind of force to get
her to say yes. Children (under age 18) are
deemed unable to give informed consent for
acts such as female genital cutting (FGC),
marriage, sexual relations, etc.
Cycle of Violence
The cycle of violence refers to repeated
acts of violence in a relationship. It starts with
minor incidents and moves on to more serious
levels of violence. The cycle of violence may
start in a child who is a victim or witness to
violence and may be repeated when the child
becomes an adult.
 The impact of being a victim or a
witness to violence on a child is traumatic. It
can make a child scared, unhappy,
lonely, lose self-confidence, blame themselves,
lose sleep, and pick up fights with peers.
Children should understand that having
conflicts is alright, but resolving conflict through
violence is not right when children understand
that violence is not acceptable, they will grow
up into adults who respect other people.
Section 2: Women and the Law
The 1987 Constitution
The Philippines is known for its very
liberal and progressive Constitution that was
formulated during the euphoria of People
Power Revolution in 1986. Gender equality is a
key element of this Charter and as enshrined in
Article II Section 14 of the 1987 Constitution,
“the State recognizes the role of women in
nation-building and shall ensure the
fundamental equality before the law of women
and men.”
Considering the unequal gender
relations in the country, the Constitution further
provided for women representation (as one of
the nine marginalized sectors) in the legislature
through the party-list system (which should
cover 20% of the lower house).
Finally, Article 13 Section 14 specifically
mentioned that the “State shall protect working
women by providing safe and healthful working
conditions, taking into account their maternal
functions, and such facilities and opportunities
that will enhance their welfare and enable them
to realize their full potential in the service of the
nation”.
Various Laws Promoting Gender Equality
The legal framework provided for by the
1987 Constitution resulted to various
legislations promoting gender equality. These
legislations include the following:
 Local Government Code of 1991.
Provides for the election of sectoral
representation, including women, in
local legislative councils.
 Party List Law. Provides for the
creation of women-oriented or women-
based parties to compete under the
party-list system. Women is one of the
nine sectors identified in the law.
 Labor Code (1989). Covers issues,
such as night work prohibition, specifies
that employers must provide special
facilities for women, prohibition of
discrimination against women in respect
to terms and conditions of employment,
and prohibition of discrimination by
reason of marriage of a woman worker.
 Women in Nation Building Law.
Republic Act 7192 (1991) is an act
promoting the integration of women as
full and equal partners of men in
development and nation-building. The
law provides that a substantial portion of
government resources be utilized to
support programs and activities for
women. The law also encourages the
full participation and involvement of
women in the development process and
to remove gender bias in all government
regulations and procedures.
In relation to gender budgeting,
the law specifically mandated all
agencies to allocate a minimum of 5%,
increasing to 30%, of all official
development funds in mainstreaming
gender concerns.
 1988 Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Law. Gave Filipino women the
right to own land that previously reverted
to sons and other male family members.

Republic Act 7688 (1994). An act giving
representation to women in Social
Security Commission.
  Anti-Sexual Harassment Law. RA
7877 (1995). An act declaring sexual
harassment to be unlawful in the
employment, education, or training
environment.
 Republic Act 7822 (1995). An act
providing assistance to women
engaging in micro and cottage business
enterprises.
 Republic Act 8353 (1997). An act
expanding the definition of the crime of
rape, reclassifying the same as a crime
against persons.
National Programs
Based on the Philippine laws stated, a
myriad of projects, initiatives, and processes on
the gender challenge arose. This includes the
following:
 Philippine Plan for Gender
Responsive Development (1995-
2025). The National Plan for Women
that consolidates the action
commitments of the Philippines during
the Beijing World Conference on
Women. This is the overall frame that is
also the point of reference for the
discussions and monitoring of gender
mainstreaming.
 Gender and Development Budget
(GAD). Integral to the national plan, it is
aimed at “institutionalizing gender
concerns in the mainstream
development process and agenda
and not just peripheral programs and
projects of the government”.
Concretely, it prescribes for the
allocation of 5% of the government
agency’s/local government unit’s budget
on gender-responsive activities and
projects. As a result, implementation of
the development programs and policies
of government also means women
partaking a role in governance. As
primarily stakeholders in the
development process, women have the
right to maximize their involvement in
governance, be it at the local or national
level.
 Framework Plan for Women (FPW).
This is part of the Philippine Plan for
Women developed to focus on three
thrusts, namely: promoting women’s
economic empowerment; advance and
protect women human rights, and
promote gender responsive governance.
This plan identifies the concrete gender
issues that will addressed, pinpoint
targets and indicators, name programs,
formulates the implementation plan, and
set-up tools for monitoring and
evaluation.
Women’s Right to Participate
Women’s right to vote was granted in
1937. The Constitution of 1935 stipulated that
the right of suffrage would be extended to
women, only if 300,000 women voted in its
favor during a national plebiscite. This
consolidated the emerging women’s movement
and “brought to the fore the activism of such
women as Concepcion Felix de Calderon who
formed The Asociacion Feminista Filipina in
June 1905, Rosa Sevilla de Alvero and a
young Trinidad Almeda, Miss Constancia
Poblete, founder of Liga Femenina de la Paz,
Pura Villanueva Kalaw and Paz Mendoza
Guazon, Pilar Hidalgo Lim, President of the
National Federation of Women’s Clubs and
Josefa Llanes Escoda, president of the Girl
Scouts of the Philippines” (Ugnayan ng
kababaihan Pulitika 1998).
The General Council of Women was
then established in Manila to direct the
plebiscite campaign. Its aim was to draw the
support of the broadest number of women. As
it turned out, 447.725 women voted yes in the
1937 plebiscite. Interestingly, 44,307 women
voted against the provision. What followed was
a colorful history of women’s foray into the
various levels of electoral victories, but
generally pushed by familial affiliation and elite
association.
At present, women’s right to vote and
participate are maintained and further
protected by existing laws at hand.
Women’s Involvement in Civil Society
Women’s expressions of involvement in
civil society could be through organizing along
gender-specific issues and formation of all-
women groups within broad coalitions as
power-enhancing mechanisms. Groups such
as the PILIPINA feminist movement, the
militant GABRIELA women’s group, the
Ugnayan ng Kababaihan sa Pulitika (UKP-
Network of Women in Politics), the KILOS
KABARO (Act Sisters Coalition), and SIBOL
Legislative Network have trail blazed women
advocacies both in policies and in legislations.
There also exist a so-called “Philippine
NGO Beijing Score Board” which evolved from
the National Steering Committee (NSC) of
NGOs for the United Nations Fourth World
Conference on Women, and this lead in the
national monitoring of the government’s
implementation of the Beijing Platform for
Action.
Along with other women groups and
gender-oriented institutions, they have
succeeded in raising gender-specific issues
such as domestic violence, prostitution,
reproductive health, sexual harassment, and
rape. Intense lobbying efforts by the women’s
groups resulted in the passage of several
landmark laws, among them is the anti-sexual
harassment law in 1995 and the anti-rape act
in 1997. The gains of the women’s movement
are basically achieved through various
partnerships with the rest of the civil society.
Women in Education
The Philippine educational system is a
combination of public and private institutions
with the State providing free education for
elementary and secondary levels. The
Constitution provides that without “limiting the
natural rights of parents to rear their children,
elementary education is compulsory for all
children of school age… (Article VIX, Section
2).
There is no general discrimination of
girls in education, thus, there is no marked
differences existing in the educational status of
Filipino women and men. One glaring issue is
the gender stereotyping of fields of study and
specialization and its onward translation into
the world of work where men generally occupy
the highest occupational ranks and the highest
paying positions.
Women’s larger responsibility for
housework and for the family impedes their
ability to use their educational training and
skills for remunerative work.
The topics previously discussed are
always timely, relevant, and part and parcel of
the daily lives of the Filipinos. These only show
the degree of importance that must be given to
these topics.
Section 3: Violence Against Women and
their Children Act or RA No. 9262
The Republic Act 9262, or the Anti-
Violence against Women and their Children
(Anti-VAWC) Act of 2004, is a result of the
strong advocacies on women’s human rights in
the country. This law was deemed to be a
significant victory for all Filipino women as it
was based on the right of women not to suffer
abuse, discrimination, and violence in their
respective relationships.
Important features of the law include:
1. Four kinds of violence against
women and children are defined-the
law defined four kinds of violence-
physical, psychological, sexual, and
economic-in its effort to encompass all
types of abuses inflicted to women and
their children;
2. VAWC is a public crime-the crime is
perpetrated not only against a single
individual, but against the entire society,
thus, anyone who has personal
knowledge of the abuse, violence, or
discrimination can file a complaint;
3. Protection orders can be issued
against the perpetrator-upon filing the
case, the victim-survivor or anyone who
has personal knowledge can apply for a
protection order to enforce distance
between her and the perpetrator; and
4. Stronger community mechanisms to
respond to cases-various government
agencies are mandated to aptly respond
or formulate mechanisms to respond to
reported cases of VAWC immediately.
Protection Orders
A protection order under the Anti-VAWC
Law is defined as: “an order issued for the
purpose of preventing further acts of
violence against a woman and her child
specified in Section of this Act and granting
other necessary relief. The relief granted
under a protection order should serve the
purpose of safeguarding the victim,
minimizing any disruption in the victim’s
daily life, and facilitating the opportunity and
ability of the victim to independently gain
control of her life.
The law enumerates the following reliefs
that may be availed of through a protection
order:
1. prohibition of the respondent
(perpetrator) from threatening to commit
or committing personally or through
another, any of the acts penalized by the
Anti-VAWC law;
2. prohibition of the respondent from
harassing, annoying, telephoning,
contacting, or otherwise, communicating
with the petitioner (victim-survivor)
directly or indirectly;
3. removal and exclusion of the respondent
from the residence of the petitioner
whether temporarily or permanently;
4. directing the respondent to stay away
from the petitioner and any designated
family or household member at a
distance specified by the court;
5. directing lawful possession and use by
the petitioner of an automobile and other
personal effect regardless of ownership:
6. granting temporary permanent custody
of a child/children to the petitioner;
7. directing the respondent to provide
support to the woman and/or her child if
entitled to legal support;
8. prohibition of the respondent from any
use or possession of any firearm or
deadly weapon and order him to
surrender the same, including
revocation of license and disqualification
to apply for any license to use or
possess a firearm;
9. restitution for actual damages caused by
violence inflicted including property
damage, medical expenses, and loss of
income;
10. directing the Department of Social
Welfare and Development (DSWD) or
any appropriate agency to provide
temporary shelter and other social
services that the petitioner may need;
and
11. provision of other forms of relief as may
be necessary to protect and provide for
the safety of the petitioner.
Rights of Victim-Survivors of VAWC
Cases
RA 9262 specified the following as rights of
the victim-survivors:
“Section 35. Rights of Victims-In addition to
their rights under existing laws, victims of
violence against women and their children
shall have the following rights:
(a) to be treated with respect and dignity:
(b) to avail of legal assistance from the
Public Attorney Office and the
Department of Justice or any public
legal assistance office;
(c) to be entitled to support services from
the DSWD and the LGUs (local
government units);
(d) to be entitled to all legal remedies and
support as provided for under the Family
Code; and
 (e) to be informed of their right to apply for a
protection order.”
The right to privacy of the victim is also
provided in the law, and its violation is
punishable by imprisonment and fine.
Duties of National and Local Government
Offices
Section 39 of RA 9262 provides for the
creation of the Inter Agency Council on
Violence Against Women and their Children
(1AC-VAWC), which shall formulate gender-
sensitive programs and projects according to
their respective agency mandates, including
capability building programs for their
employees.
The IAC-VAWC consists of the following
agencies: DSWD National Commission on the
Role of Filipino Women, Civil Service
Commission, Commission on Human Rights,
Council for the Welfare of Children,
Department of Justice, Department of Interior
and Local Government, Philippine National
Police Department of Health, Department of
Education, Department of Labor and
Employment, and National Bureau of
Investigation.
The implementing rules and regulations
of the Anti-VAWC Act state the following duties
and responsibilities of LGUs or the Barangay in
addressing VAWC cases, apart from the
issuances of Barangay Protection Orders:
“Section 47. Duties and Functions of Barangay
Officials-In order to eliminate violence against
women and their children, barangay officials
shall:
(a) Undertake an education program on
Republic Act No. 9262 and on violence
against women and their children and
why it exists, the rights and remedies of
victim- survivors, and the duties of
residents and all barangay officials;
(b) have a family violence prevention
program, including peer counseling for
men;
(c) support organizing efforts and
development programs for women in the
community;
(d) prioritize livelihood projects for victim-
survivors;
(e) involve women in planning and
implementation of all programs and
projects in the barangay;
(f) have an Anti-VAWC desk officer in the
barangay who shall coordinate a one-
stop help desk. As much as possible,
this help desk shall be open for 24
hours;
(g) ensure that all barangay officials,
barangay health workers, barangay
nutrition scholars, other barangay
workers, and tanod or barangay security
officers undergo gender sensitivity
seminars to enable them to respond to
victims of violence;
(h) develop a system to document and
report cases of VAWC and assistance
program to victims thereof; and
(i) If applicable / necessary, prescribe
additional guidelines and standards
provided that these are consistent with
the Act.
Section 4: Laws and Policies on Violence
and Discrimination of the members of
LGBTQ+
The 1987 Constitution (Equal Protection
and Due Process Clause) the 1987 Philippine
Constitution states that: “The State values the
dignity of every human person and guarantees
full respect for human rights.” Apart from this,
the 1987 Constitution enshrines in its due
process and equal protection clauses that: “No
person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or
property without due process of law, nor shall
any person be denied the equal protection of
the laws.” (Article 3, Sec 1, 1987 Philippine
Constitution).
As the fundamental law of the land, the
guarantees on equality, lawful processes, and
the paramount consideration on ensuring
human dignity and respect for human rights in
these provisions serve as the basis for the
protection of the rights of members of the
LGTBQ+.
The 2010 Supreme Court Decision in
the “Ang Ladlad” case (Ang Ladlad LGBT Party
vs. Comelec GR 190582 8 April 2010)
considered the breadth of the equal protection
clause in the Constitution. The court ruled in
favor of allowing “Ang Ladlad to be a party-list
reasoning that:
“From the standpoint of the political
process, the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender have the same interest in
participating in the party-list system on
the same basis as other political parties
similarly situated. Hence, laws of
general application should apply with
equal force to LGBTs, and they deserve
to participate in
the party-list system on the same basis
as other marginalized and under-
represented sectors.”
Violence and Discrimination
Despite widespread anecdotal evidence
of crimes perpetrated against the LGBTQ
Community in the Philippines, most data on
these cases have not undergone official
verification and collation.
In March 2016, the Trans Murder
Monitoring Project listed 41 reported cases of
transgender people murdered in the country
since 2008.
Violence and Discrimination against
LGBTQ+ Youth in Education
A. Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (Republic
Act 10627)
Anti-Bullying Act of 2013
(Republic Act 10627) includes gender-
based bullying as a prohibited and
punishable act.
Gender-based bullying is defined
as “any act that humiliates or excludes a
person on the basis of perceived or
actual sexual orientation and gender
identity (SOGI) (Republic Act No.
10627).
B. Child Protection Policy 2012
In cases where the bullying is
committed by principal, teacher or any
other school personnel, the law being
violated is Department of Education
Order No. 40 on Child Protection Policy.
This policy includes the protection of
students from any form of violence
regardless of their sexual orientation or
gender identity.
C. Special Protection of Children
Against Child Abuse, Exploitation,
and Discrimination Act of 1992 (Anti-
Child Abuse Act or Republic Act
7610)
Parents of children who suffer
abuse at the hands of teachers or
members of the school’s
administration violates RA 7610 or the
Anti-Child Abuse Act.
Such cases can cover instances
of physical, psychological injury, or
cruelty on the basis of the child’s
SOGIE.
Violence and Discrimination against
LGBTQ+ in the Workplace
a. The Labor Code of the Philippines
(PD 442)
The Labor Code is the national law covering
employment for the private sector in the
Philippines. With the exception of prohibitions
against discrimination of women, it does not
contain any provision that prohibits
discrimination on the basis of gender identity,
particularly on the members of the LGBTQ+.
Nonetheless, while the law is quiet on
gender identity and expression, it is clear in its
Declaration of Policy (Article 3) that the State
shall afford protection to labor, promote full
employment, ensure equal work opportunities.”
 Clearly, the mandate for equal opportunity
in employment is clear. But the reality shows a
different picture since members of the LGBTQ+
encounter hardship in accessing work
opportunities because of discrimination.
The absence of a national law that explicitly
prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender
identity makes it easier for employers to hide
behind fabricated reasons for not accepting,
firing, or depriving members of the LGBTQ of
their employment benefits. Often, policies on
uniform, documents, and use of comfort rooms
are used against members of the LGBTQ+
employees and even applicants.
b. CSC No. 01-0940-the Civil Service
Commission’s Policy on Anti-Sexual
Harassment
The Civil Service Commission
Administrative Disciplinary Rules on
Sexual Harassment Cases includes
other less grave, punishable offences.
These include prohibiting derogatory
and degrading remarks or innuendoes
directed toward the members of one’s
sex, or one’s sexual orientation or used
to describe a person”.
This Rule applies to all government
entities that fall under the Civil Service
jurisdiction.
The policy is important because it
explicitly covers derogatory remarks regarding
sex, sexual orientation, or other remarks that
are used as description of a person with the
intention to insult. In addition, this policy for
government agencies does not require that the
offender has moral ascendancy over the victim.
The fact that the perpetrator and the
victim are of the same level or position will not
preclude the victim from filing a case. While
gender identity is not specifically mentioned as
a ground, if a LGBTQ+ civil servant is harassed
verbally by co-workers, they would be able to
rely on the generic protection from derogatory
and degrading remarks”.
Section 5: Discrimination on the Basis of
SOGIE in the Philippines
Articles 2(1), 3, and 26 of the
Convention provide for the respect, equality,
and non- discrimination of all individuals on the
grounds of, inter alia, race, color, and sex.
In the landmark decision of Toonen v
Australia in 1994, it is found not only that the
reference to “sex” in Articles 2(1) and 26 must
be taken to include sexual orientation, but also
that laws which criminalize consensual
homosexual acts expressly violate the privacy
protections of the law.
National and Local Policies
LGUs from different cities all over the
Philippines have been proactive in passing and
filing city ordinances banning LGBT
discrimination.
Presently, the Anti-Discriminatory Bill is
still pending before the Congress. This bill is
expected to be signed into law before the end
of the Duterte Administration. Prior to these
bills, several LGUs have enacted ordinances
and resolutions to address these issues.
In Quezon City, anti-discrimination in
employment was enacted in 2004 and LGBT-
friendly provisions are supplemented in the
Quezon City Gender and Development
Ordinance. Albay Province and Bacolod City
passed an anti-discrimination ordinance.
Angeles City not only passed anti-
discrimination legislation, but created a Gay
Rights Desk as well.
In the House of Representatives,
Representative Raymond Palatino of the
Kabataan Party list filed House Resolution
No.1333, which seeks to investigate prejudicial,
discriminatory, and unjust practices and
policies against LGBT students implemented
and tolerated in schools, partnering with the
DepEd and other government agencies to
explore the inclusion of a Comprehensive
Gender Curriculum on basic and secondary
education and in vocational and technical
school to incorporate discussion on issues of
LGBT persons.
In May of 2012, the DepEd issued
DepEd Order No.40 or, “The DepEd Child
Protection Policy to guarantee the protection of
children in schools from any form of violence,
abuse, or exploitation regardless of sexual
orientation and gender identity.
Effect of State Discrimination in Society
The State’s treatment of LGBT
individuals intensifies discrimination on the
basis of SOGIE within Philippines society and
social institutions.
Being young and not conforming to the
gender roles assigned to one’s sex increases
the risk of discrimination and abuse for LGBT
persons. This victimization is aggravated by the
absence of support mechanisms and school
policies addressing this concern, as well as the
failure of schools to safeguard students from
being abused by other students, staff,
administrators, and teachers. The
discrimination LGBT students face in schools
not only violates the right to be free from
discrimination but prevents these individuals
from the enjoyment of numerous other rights in
the Covenant as well.
Homophobia, the stigma and prejudice
toward LGBT persons, are very present within
Filipino society, creating a dangerous climate
of hostility toward LGBT people.
LGBT youth are often targeted by
parents who, upon discovering their child’s
sexual orientation and/or gender identity, feel
compelled to inflict physical harm on them out
of frustration or in an attempt to prevent their
child from expressing their sexuality.
Discrimination by the Catholic Church
The Catholic Bishops Conference of the
Philippines (CBCP) and Episcopal Commission
on Family and Life (ECFL) has been fervently
demanding Congress for the removal of sex,
gender, sexual orientation and gender identity”
in the comprehensive anti-discrimination
ordinances filed in the Senate and in the House
of Representatives, claiming that its inclusion
will only create problems regarding ethics,
marriage, the family and religious freedom” and
reasons that the difference in sex or gender
does not belong to the same level as the
difference in race, color, religion, or ethnicity”.
Antagonists of the anti-discrimination bill
claim that the passage of an anti-
discrimination legislation will open the door for
same-sex marriages. A provision allowing for
same-sex marriage was not present in the anti-
discrimination bill at the time of its introduction
first filing and has never been added.
Participation of the members of LGBTQ+ in
Public Life
Article 25 of the Convention provides for
the right of each citizen to participate in public
affairs, to vote, and to have equal access to
public service in the country. These rights are
provided free of unreasonable restriction and
free from distinctions made on the basis of sex,
which as mentioned above, includes sexual
orientation.
Discrimination in the Military
Through their media announcements, it
seems on the surface that the Philippine
Military and the police are adhering to the non-
discrimination clause of the Philippine
Constitution (Art 2) and the ICCPR by its
declaration of openness to admit gays,
lesbians, and bisexual persons in military and
police service.
Upon closer inspection, the additional
conditions required from gay, lesbian, and
bisexual applicants and cadets demonstrate
lingering prejudices and negative stereotypes
toward LGBT person. Also, the military’s
apparent strict adherence exclusively towards
heterosexist gender binary (masculine and
feminine) roles discriminate against those that
fall short to this standard and are considered
as the benchmark of what constitutes being
decent, proper and respectful.
The generalized negative stereotyping
of LGBT persons and the misconception that a
person’s sexual orientation defines one’s
gender expression are most evident on the
common position of the APF, PNP and PMA
towards gay and effeminate behavior.
The identification of sources of
discrimination is vital so that you will know how
these acts are committed or performed by the
social institutions, their respective actors. The
unified output can result to a class program or
activity addressing this concern.
Section 6: Understanding Sexual
Harassment
Sexual Harassment
Harassment and sexual harassment
are recognized as a form of discrimination on
the grounds of sex and, thus, are contrary to
the principle of equal treatment between men
and women (Numhuser-Henning and Laulom
2012).
Like many other crimes, sexual
harassment is all about power, control, and
domination. International Labor Organization
(ILO) (2001) defined sexual harassment as a
sex-based behavior that is unwelcome and
offensive to the recipient. Thus, sexual
harassment is not merely a problem of safety
and health and unacceptable working
conditions, but is also a form of violence
primarily against women (ILO 1992).
In the Philippines, Republic Act No.
7877 or the “Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of
1995” defines work-, education, or training-
related sexual harassment is committed by an
employer, employee, manager, supervisor,
agent of the employer, teacher, instructor,
professor, coach, trainer, or any other person
who, having authority, influence, or moral
ascendancy over another in a work or training
or education environment, demands, requests,
or otherwise requires any sexual favor from the
other, regardless of whether the demand,
request, or requirement for submission is
accepted by the object of said Act.
Theoretical Perspectives of Sexual
Harassment
Sexual harassment cannot be
understood from the perspective of a single
theory, but it is always a combination of
different predictors. Previous researchers have
looked at sexual harassment using a number of
frameworks including organizational approach,
feminist theory, role theory, and attributional
models of sexual harassment. However, all
these models share common basic
assumptions and can be labelled as socio-
cultural models of sexual harassment (Sheets
and Braver 1999).
However, there have been five widely
accepted theories of sexual harassment that
attempt to explain the phenomenon from
different angles and perspective, to wit:
Natural/Biological Theory
According to this model, men have
stronger sex derives, and are therefore,
biologically motivated to engage in sexual
pursuit of women. Thus, the harassing
behavior is not meant to be offensive or
discriminatory, but is merely the result of
biological urges. Its assumptions include a
natural, mutual attraction between men and
women, a stronger male sex drive, and men in
the role of sexual initiators. A key strength of
the natural/biological perspective is that it
acknowledges the innate human instincts
potentially driving sexually aggressive behavior
(Tangri et al. 1982).
Sex Role Spillover Theory
This theory is based on the proposition
of irrelevant gender-based role expectations
that individuals bring to the workplace in
guiding their interactions with women. Men
hold role perceptions of women based on their
traditional role in our culture.
When women take jobs outside of these
traditional areas to work in the male dominated
workplace, men rely on these gender-based
expectations when interacting with women
therefore, perceiving women in their gender-
role, over and above their work role. Therefore,
men are more likely to sexualize their
experiences, including work experiences, and
are therefore, more likely to make sexual
remarks or engage in sexualized behavior, thus
accounting for the fact that women experience
more sexual harassment. (Barbara Gutek
1982).
Organizational Theory
Proponents of this theory propose that
one of the central concepts that helps to
explain sexual harassment is power (Cleveland
and Kurst 1993). This theory proposes that
sexual harassment results from the
opportunities presented by power and authority
relations which derive from hierarchical
structures of organizations (Gruber 1992).
This perspective emphasizes that the
structure of organizational hierarchy invests
power in certain individuals over others, that
can lead to abuse. Thus, sexual harassment is
all about expression of male power over
women that sustains patriarchal relations.
Socio-cultural Theory
Socio-Cultural theories examine the
wider social and political context in which
sexual harassment is created and occurs.
According to this perspective, sexual
harassment is a logical consequence of the
gender inequality and sexism that already
exists in society.
This theory asserts that women’s lesser
status in the larger society is reflected at the
workplace structures and culture-thus, male
dominance continues to be the rule.
Herein, sexual harassment is only one
manifestation of a much larger patriarchal
system in which men are the dominant group
reflecting the larger society’s differential
distribution of power and status between the
sexes. The perpetrators of sexual harassment
have no regard for women as an equal human
being. Therefore, molesting women is a part
and parcel of male idea of fun in the society.
Feminist Theory
According to the feminist perspective,
sexual harassment is linked to the sexist male
ideology of male dominance and male
superiority in the society. Therefore, feminists’
theories view sexual harassment as the
product of a gender system maintained by a
dominant, normative form of masculinity. Thus,
sexual harassment exists because of the views
on women as the inferior sex, but also sexual
harassment serves to maintain the already
existing gender stratification by emphasizing
sex role expectations (Gutek 1985).
Relevance of Sexual Harassment Theories
An interpretation of these theoretical
perspectives reveals that both biologically, as
well as socio-culturally, men happen to have
always occupied a dominant position over
women in societies, of which the workplaces
are only a part.
Considerable data have been
accumulated confirming that harassment is
widespread in both the public (Culbertson et al.
1992; Fitzgerald el al. 1997) and the private
sectors and it has significant consequences for
the employees’ health and psychological well-
being.
Therefore, the vulnerability of women as
a weaker sex has traveled towards workplaces
and academe, where it is considered natural
and normal for men to be responding sexually
towards women as colleagues, subordinates,
and superiors.
Philippine Laws on Sexual Harassment
 Republic Act No. 7877, or the Anti-
Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (RA 7877), is
the governing law for work, education training-
related sexual harassment.
Specifically, in a work-related or employment
environment, sexual harassment is committed
when:
(1) The sexual favor is made as a condition
in the hiring or in the employment, re-
employment or continued employment
of said individual, or in granting said
individual favorable compensation,
terms of conditions, promotions, or
privileges; or the refusal to grant the
sexual favor results in limiting,
segregating, or classifying the employee
which in any way would discriminate,
deprive, or diminish employment
opportunities or otherwise, adversely
affect said employee;
(2) The above acts would impair the
employee’s rights or privileges under
existing labor laws; or
(3) The above acts would result in an
intimidating, hostile, or offensive
environment for the employee.
On the other hand, in an education or
training environment, sexual harassment is
committed:
(1) Against one who is under the care,
custody, or supervision of the offender;
(2) Against one whose education, training,
apprenticeship, or tutorship is entrusted
to the offender;
(3) When the sexual favor is made a
condition to the giving of a passing
grade, granting of honors and
scholarships, or the payment of a
stipend, allowance or other benefits,
privileges, or consideration; or
(4) when the sexual advances result in an
intimidating, hostile, or offensive
environment for the student, trainee, or
apprentice.
Sexual Harassment in the Civil Service
Sexual Harassment in the Civil Service
is punishable by Civil Service Commission No.
01-0940, also known as Administrative
Disciplinary Rules on Sexual Harassment
Cases.
Here, sexual harassment can be
committed at the following places:
1. in the premises of the workplace or
office or of the school or training
institution;
2. in any place where the parties were
found, as a result of work or education
or training responsibilities or relations;
3. at work-, education, or training-related
social functions;
4. while on official business outside the
office or school or training institution or
during work, school, or training-related
travel;
5. By telephone, cellular phone, fax
machine, or electronic mail.
The following forms of sexual harassment
are committed thru: (1) Physical, (a) Malicious
Touching; (b) Overt sexual advances; (c)
Gestures with lewd insinuation; (2) Verbal,
such as but not limited to, (a) requests or
demands for sexual favors and (b) lurid
remarks; (3) Use of objects, pictures or
graphics, letters, or written notes with
sexual underpinnings; (4) Other forms
analogous to the foregoing.
Section 7: Women’s Issues in Development
Women in Development (WID)
By the 1970s, it became clear that
women were being left out of development.
They were not benefiting significantly from it
and in some instances, their existing status and
position in society were actually worsened by
development.
 The Women in Development (WID)
approached this issue the exclusion of women
from development program and approaches.
WID saw women as a group that lacks
opportunity to participate in development.
The main task, therefore, was to
improve women’s access to resources and
their participation in development. The WID
approach emphasized the importance of the
integration of women into development
programs and planning. Accordingly, this was
the best way to improve women’s position in
society.
The WID approach, although it had
limitations, increased the visibility of women in
development issues. WID was successful in
helping secure a prominent place for women’s
issues at the United Nations (UN) and other
international development agencies. The UN
declared that the decade of 1975 to 1985 to be
the decade for women. One of the major
achievements of the decade was the
establishment of women in development
structures or machineries.
In Zambia, for instance, it was during
this time that the Women’s League of the then
ruling political party, United National
Independence Party (UNIP), was formed as the
national machinery to address women’s
development issues.
WID served as the starting point of
making known to the international community
that the sector of women has to be part of
programs for development. Likewise, several
remarkable programs, activities, and initiatives
must be noted as these also began the strides
for women empowerment.
Women and Development (WAD)
As a result of criticisms of the WID
approach, the women and Development (WAD)
approach arose in the latter part of the 1970s.
Adopting a Marxist feminist approach, the main
argument of WAD was that women had always
been part of the development processes. WAD
asserts that women have always been
important economic actors.
The work they do both inside and
outside the household is critical to the
maintenance of society. However, this
integration has only served to sustain global
inequalities. In other words, the WID approach
that placed emphasis on integrating women
into development was not correct.
The main focus of WAD is on the interaction
between women and development processes
rather than purely on strategies to integrate
women into development.
WAD saw both women and men as not
benefiting from the global economic structures
because of disadvantages due to class and the
way wealth is distributed. WAD argued that the
integration of women into development was to
their disadvantage and only made their
inequality worse. WAD saw global inequalities
as the main problem facing poor countries and
the citizens of those countries.
On the other hand, WAD has been
criticized for assuming that the position of
women will improve if and when international
structures become more equitable. It sees
women’s positions as primarily within the
structure of international and class inequalities.
WAD even underplays the role of
patriarchy in undermining women’s
development and does not adequately address
the question of social relations between men
and women and their impact on development
Gender and Development (GAD)
In the 1980s, further reflections on the
development experiences of women gave rise
to Gender and Development (GAD). It brought
together both the lessons learned from, and the
limitations of, the WID and WAD approaches.
GAD looks at the impact of development
on both women and men. It seeks to ensure
that both women and men participate in and
benefit equally from development and so,
emphasizes equality of benefit and control. It
recognizes that women may be involved in The assumptions that women’s position
development, but not necessarily benefit from would improve together with general
it. improvements in the economy, or with the
economic positions of their husbands, began to
GAD is not concerned with women
be challenged as it became clear that women
exclusively, but with the way in which
were in fact losing out.
gender relations allot specific roles,
responsibilities, and expectations between
men and women, often to the detriment of
Women, as a result, were being
women.
increasingly associated with backwardness and
the traditional while men were increasingly
identified with modern and progressiveness.
This approach also pays particular
attention to the oppression of women in the The Equity Approach
family or the private sphere of women’s lives.
Feminist calls for gender equality were
As a result, we have seen projects develop
important in bringing about this approach, the
addressing Issues such as VAW. GAD focuses
main aim of which was to eliminate
on the social or gender relations (i.e., the
discrimination. It emphasized the re-valuing of
division of labor) Between men and women in
women’s contribution and share of benefits
society and seeks to address issues of access
from development. The equity approach also
and control over resources and power.
dealt with both the productive and reproductive
GAD goes further than the other roles as a responsibility of government.
approaches in emphasizing both the
The equity approach, in contrast to the
reproductive and productive role of women and
welfare approach, saw women as active
argues that it is the state’s responsibility to
participants organizing to bring about
support the social reproduction role mostly
necessary changes.
played by women of caring and nurturing of
children. As such, it treats development as a The Anti-Poverty Approach
complex process that is influenced by political,
social, and economic factors rather than as a This approach focuses on both the
state or stage of development. productive and reproductive role of women with
an emphasis on satisfaction of basic needs and
the productivity of women. A key operational
strategy required access to income generation
Practical Approaches to the Development of
and waged employment. The tendency with
Women
this approach was to reinforce the basic needs
The Welfare Approach and ignore the strategic needs of women.
Until the early 1970s, development The Efficiency Approach
programs addressed the needs of women
The efficiency approach aims to have
almost entirely within the context of their
increased production and economic growth
reproductive roles. The focus was on mother
with an emphasis on full use of human
and child health, child-care, and nutrition.
resources. Advocates of this approach argue
Population control-or family planning as it later
that gender analysis makes good economic
came to be known-was a major focus as well
sense. This is because understanding men’s
due to the link made between population
and women’s roles and responsibilities as part
growth and poverty. The focus was clearly on
of the planning of development activities helps
meeting practical needs.
improve effectiveness and ensures that
women, as well as men, can play their part in
national development.
The efficiency approach succeeded in
bringing the concerns about women and
gender into the mainstream of development.
However, this was done with a focus on what
women could do for development, rather than
on what development could do for women.
The Empowerment Approach
The aim of the empowerment approach
is to increase the self-reliance of women and to
influence change at the policy, legislative,
societal, economic, and other levels to their
advantage. Its main strategy is awareness-
raising and situates women firmly as active
participants in ensuring change takes place.
The empowerment approach has been
instrumental in ensuring that opportunities are
opened for women to determine their own
needs. However, empowerment has often been
misunderstood to be an end rather than a
means. This has resulted in poor women
becoming very knowledgeable about issues
while realizing little change to their material
situation, which is often dire.
MODULE 5 Gender Fair Language
Section 1: Language and Gender Relations
Violations of Gender-Fair Language
Sexist language is a tool that reinforces
unequal gender relations through sex-role
stereotypes, microaggressions, and sexual
harassment. Language can be used to abuse,
such as in the case of sexual harassment, or to
perpetuate stereotypes.
It can form subtle messages that
reinforce unfair relations, such as how "men
cannot take care of children" or "women cannot
be engineers" which may impact how one
views his or her capabilities. All in all, language
is a powerful force that plays a significant role
in how one perceives the world.” Kintanar and
Tongson gave extensive examples of these
violations in her book. The following are
condensed versions and real- life examples of
violations of gender-fair language.
Invisibilization of Women
The invisibilization of women is rooted in
the assumption that men are dominant and are
the norm of the fullness of humanity, and
women do not exist. Some obvious examples
of women invisibilization in language are:
• The generic use of masculine pronouns or
the use of a masculine general. The use of
the word “mankind” assumes that men are
representative of all people on this planet, and
that women’s presence or roles are not
acknowledged. similarly, saying “guys” when
referring to a mixed-gender group assumes
that girls are invisible, and calls attention to the
male gender, giving them a stronger presence.
• The assumption that certain functions or
jobs are performed by men instead of both
genders. For example, the sentences “The
farmers and their wives tilled the land.” or “The
politicians and their wives lobbied for change.”
Assume that men can have jobs as farmers
and politicians, and women who do the same
work are still made to be known as wives, with
their identities forever linked to being married
to their husbands.
•The use of male job titles or terms ending
in man to refer to functions that may be
given to both genders. For instance, the titles
“businessman” and “chairman” assume that all
businessmen or chairmen are men and that
certain jobs may not be for women, which is
not true.
Trivialization of Women
• Bringing attention to the gender of a
person, if that person is a woman. The use
of “lady.” “girl” or “woman” along with the noun
brings attention to the gender of the person
rather than to the job or function. Examples of
these include “girl athlete, “woman doctor,”
“lady guard,” and “working wives.” This notion
also works for men who enter traditionally
female jobs such as “male nurses,” “male
nannies,” or “male secretaries.”
• The perception of women as immature.
Women may be labeled as “darling” or “baby”
by those who do not know them, making them
appear childlike or juvenile.
• The objectification, or likening to objects,
of women. By being called “honey,” “sweets,”
or “chick,” women become devalued, especially
if they are in an environment that merits
formality such as the workplace.
Gender polarization of words in use of
adjectives
The personal care brand Dove recently
came out with an advertisement that used
parallel adjectives to show the difference in
perception regarding men and women. Both
men and women did the same activity, but
were described differently. In the ad, men who
took the lead were considered the “boss,” while
women who had the same initiative were
considered “bossy.” Men who worked overtime
were seen as “providers,” while women who
did the same were seen as “uncaring.” This
polarization of adjectives shows how
perception does change how one sees certain
acts, depending on who performs them.
Hidden assumptions
Hidden assumptions in sentences can
also be forms of microaggression if the
underlying perceptions are sexist and
degrading. For example, the statement, “The
father is babysitting his children,” assumes that
the father is not a caregiver, and that any
attempt he has at parenting is temporary as the
mother is the main caregiver.
Section 2: Toward a Gender-fair Language
Sexist Language and Culture
Gender socialization is the process in
which roles are learned. Language that
admonishes certain acts depending on one’s
gender is a form of externalized social control.
Common themes of a sexist language are the
commercialization and the trivialization of
women. These sexist portrayals of women
extend to the advertising industry,
entertainment industry, and the arts.
The normalization of sexism makes
violence against women and children
acceptable or tolerable. Using language for
gender stereotyping can contribute to sexism
by reinforcing the idea that certain words and
traits should only be associated with specific
genders.
How people related to each other on a
day-to-day basis reinforces behavior, both
positive and negative. To call someone stupid
everyday could have an effect on his or her
potential. In turn, language through its
repetition of roles, stereotypes, and adjectives
affects how one person enacts his or her
capabilities. Constantly mocking or joking
about women/LGBT, sexualizing them, and
making them appear weak would indeed make
them internalize these ideas.
That being said, language is not
inherently sexist. being sexist depends on a
specific culture. Similarly, the attitude of a
culture towards a certain gender may influence
the words used, creating sexist language.
Language is both a symptom and a perpetrator
of sexism, and is the very telling of how a
society sees a certain gender.
Toward a Gender-fair Language
The use of gender-fair language in
educational institutions and the removal of
sexist language as imperative to gender-
responsiveness is currently being advocated.
GABRIELA (General Assembly Binding
Women for Reforms, Integrity, Equality,
Leadership, and Action) Women’s Party
national president and party-list representative
Liza Maza called for a ban of sexist language
in all official communication and documents in
the House of Representatives. The creation of
a comprehensive gender-fair language policy
and the evaluation of the effectiveness of
gender-fair language in institutions are
indicators for a gender-fair institution. These
actions are small steps one can take in
ensuring that institutions are indeed gender-
fair.
MODULE 6 Cross-Cutting Issues in Gender
and Sexuality
Section 1: Gender and Labor
Women face different constraints from
men in the labor market. This is recognized in
Republic Act 9710, known as the Magna Carta
of Women, enacted in 2009.
This act recognizes that equality of men
and women entails the abolition of the unequal
structures and practices that perpetuate
discrimination and inequality (PCW 2010). In
connection with employment, the Philippine
Commission on Women (PCW) indicates that
the Magna Carta of Women will level the
playing field by making productive resources
and economic opportunities equally available
for both men and women.
The reality is that once a child is born,
she/he does not know how to do any work. As
children grow up, they learn to do various work,
but society encourages them do certain
specific work, e.g., girls are asked to help in
cooking and cleaning, while boys are asked
repair certain things. This distribution of labor is
based on sex, and not on individual capacity or
skill sets.
This affects girls and women adversely.
Since girls are expected to take care of the
family and household, their education is not a
priority for the family.
Both boys and girls should be given
equal opportunity to learn different skill sets
based on their interest and to grow. Household
chores are not only women’s responsibility, it is
also household’s responsibility, and all family
members should contribute to it.
Employment Sectors
Agriculture
Women farmers do not have an equal
opportunity to acquire land or register it in their
own names. They have fewer inheritance rights
than male farmers. Land ownership is
important not only to women’s ability to earn
income, but also as a source of empowerment
and autonomy within the household. Their lack
of land also affects their ability to gain access
to credit facilities.
Women are also hindered in their
access to extension services; skills
development, including training in management
and marketing skills; and improved farming
equipment. They require special assistance to
achieve equal access, and this can be
achieved through gender-specific action plans
that target the needs of women farmers and
gender mainstreaming that is monitored for
effectiveness to ensure that women share
appropriately in the sector’s growth.
Industry and Manufacturing
The number of women working in
economic zones is estimated to represent 64%
of total employment and may be much higher
in some industries, such as electronics and
apparel (World Bank 2011a). Women’s share
of employment in the export-processing zones
is much greater than women’s share of the
labor force as a whole, and the conditions of
employment are of concern.
Reports suggest that working and living
conditions are poor, that women find it difficult
to obtain work while pregnant and after the
birth of their baby, and that unionization is
uncommon
Tourism
It appears that tourism planning has not
included women or has had insufficient regard
for gender issues. Within the tourism industry,
relatively few women have the educational
qualifications or foreign language skills to
compete for front-of-house positions in the
hotel industry, as tour guides, or in travel
agencies, and women are more likely to be
employed as housekeepers, waitresses, or
similar low-level positions.
Targeted educational programs could
provide women with the necessary
qualifications to climb the job ladder, which
could progressively help to rectify the
imbalance between work opportunities for men
and women and eliminate gender gaps in
tourism employment.
Business Processing Outsourcing
The Philippines’ Information
Technology-Business Process Outsourcing
Road Map 2011-2016 is not gender-responsive
and does not address women’s constraints in
accessing higher-paid work in non-voice
services or the likely growth in information
technology and engineering.
These matters, as well as the pay
differentials between men and women and
employment conditions, require specific
government attention.
Government Services
Public sector employment is an
important source of jobs with better pay and
conditions for women than many other
industrial sectors, but women are constrained
by being predominately employed in traditional,
gender-stereotyped care sector government
occupations such as health and education, and
they are under-represented in the higher-
paying subsectors.
The Philippines has strong gender
mainstreaming programs, which has given
women greater access to government
employment generally, but women in the civil
sector may still be underpaid, given their levels
of education, experience, and ability.
Entrepreneurship
There has been a rapid surge in the
number and proportion of female entrepreneurs
in developing countries. Studies indicate that
female-led MSMEs increase employment
opportunities for women and contribute to
wider development goals.
In the survey of Vietnam Women
Entrepreneurs Council indicated that women
entrepreneurs are more likely than men to be
motivated by necessity; these are livelihood-
oriented entrepreneurs attempting to escape
unemployment.
Salient Policies on Gender Equality in the
Labor Market
The Philippines has ratified 34 ILO
conventions and is party to all of the
fundamental United Nations human rights
covenants and conventions. The country’s
1987 Constitution has enshrined these rights in
Section 3, Article XIII, and in Section 14, Article
II, which ensures fundamental equality of
women and men before the law.
Article 3, Chapter 1 of the Labor Code,
as well as Republic Acts 6725, 7192, 7877,
and 8551, all provide for fundamental human
rights protection, including antidiscrimination
provisions, and they ensure fundamental
equality, prohibition of sexual harassment, and
temporary special measures. The Philippines’
Anti-Sexual Harassment Act No. 7877 of 8
February 1995 is an example of good
legislative practice.
The Magna Carta of Women (Republic
Act 9710) is an overall legislative framework
that articulates the specific rights, needs, and
support required by women in their general and
working lives. Although the Magna Carta of
Women provides a good legislative framework,
implementation issues remain. Filipino women
often do not know about their rights, and the
complaints system is confusing even if they do.
In 2012, the Philippines became the first
country in Asia to ratify the ILO Domestic
Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189). In early
2013, President Aquino also signed a new law,
Republic Act 10361 known as the “Batas
Kasambahay” (Domestic Workers Act) in order
to better protect this large group of mostly
young, female workers.
Section 2: Gender and Media
According to the Philippine Statistics
Authority, 81% of Filipinos watch the television,
and it still remains to be the most used and
trusted source of information in our country.
We watch TV for entertainment and
information through TV soap operas’, news,
and entertainment programs, we become
passive consumers of what TV has to offer;
information, shock, humor, and etc. Therefore,
the media influences our perception on
different topics. It is important for us to look
deeply into what it presents or fails to represent
of our everyday realities.
Media Representation
Media representation is how the media
presents or frames “aspects of society, such as
gender, age, or ethnicity” (BBC 2019). It is
important because it shapes the audience’s
knowledge and understanding and will
contribute to their ideas and attitudes.
Because of our exposure to television,
the media ultimately represents our social
realities as it mirrors the ideologies, belief
systems, and stereotypes. There are many
factors affecting media representation, after all,
what we see in the television has already gone
through a long process wherein many people
are involved.
The people behind the production of the
content have their own ideology, ideas, and
beliefs, and that greatly contribute to what we
see in the media. Media producers, editors,
directors, writers, and a networks’ values
reflect through its content.
Since TV uses one way mode of
communication wherein feedback is rarely
received or encouraged, more often we are left
on our own to process the ideas and opinion
directed towards us, the viewers. We passively
laugh at stereotypes, not giving it a second
thought.
Media Stereotype
Media stereotypes are simplified
representations of a person, groups of people
or a place, through basic or obvious
characteristics-which are often exaggerated”
(BBC 2019). Although stereotypes can help
people connect with the content as they reflect
it in their own realities, it can have negative
effects on disadvantaged groups like the LGBT
community by reinforcing negative and even
false stereotypes.
The LGBT community are highly
misrepresented in the Philippine media. There
are many stereotypes of the LGBT in the media
and most are not flattering. Often, they are
used as a comic relief in their portrayal of the
loud and boisterous “bakla”, the straight male
who acts like a “bakla” with exaggerated
gestures, the sex-deprived muscular male
homosexual, or the awkward “tomboy” who
eventually becomes a feminine woman after
meeting the man of her dreams.
There are very few LGBT main
characters in the international television and
even very scarce in the Philippine Television.
They are often relegated as sidekicks, victims,
or villains. Although there are a few LGBT
celebrities in the Philippines who are out and
proud of their sexual orientation such as Boy
Abunda, Vice Ganda, Aiza Seguerra, and Jake
Zyrus, their sexuality is rarely the focus of the
programs they are in.
In fact, references on LGBT topics in
children shows cause controversy so they are
omitted in the broadcast. Such is the case of
Glee, a popular American TV show that
featured teenagers who are gay and lesbian.
The gay kiss was omitted in the Philippine
broadcast, although it was seen as a milestone
in the international media.
 News outfits followed popular ideologies Understanding Heteronormativity
of portraying homosexuality as a sickness. The
Heteronormativity means of relating to,
AIDS pandemic in the 70’s also added to the
or based on the attitude that heterosexuality is
negative stereotyping of the gay male as a
the only normal and natural expression of
sexual deviant. However, due to the pressure
sexuality” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). Put
coming from the Gay and Lesbian Liberation
more simply, it is when we assume that
Movement in the 1970s, the international
everyone is heterosexual or straight and that it
media was forced to recognize and set media
is the standard for everyone.
standards for LGBT News coverage.
With a heteronormative point of view,
In the Philippines, there is a lack of
straight people are placed at a privileged group
awareness on SOGIE among media
by viewing them as the standard or normal.
practitioners as they are often left confused on
Anyone who does not adhere to that standard
the LGBT terms and labels. Most news from
are viewed as lesser, like women who love
the LGBT community is often on coming out
women (lesbians), men who love men (gays)
stories of celebrities (Aiza Siguerra, Jake Zyrus
people who love men or women (bisexuals,
(Charice Pempengco), and Rosana Roses),
people who feel that they do not belong to their
Pride March events, hate crimes, and
biological sex (transgender), and other people
controversies.
who reject the notion of gender binaries
Media coverage of the LGBT community (male/female, masculine/feminine).
in the Philippines went from no-coverage.
Heteronormativity has been so ingrained
Ridicule, censorship, to limited portrayal.
in our social and political institutions that it has
However, limiting, it is taken as a sign of
almost become invisible. Most people
greater social acceptance as compared to its
unknowingly subscribe to heteronormative
total black out just decades ago.
standards just because that is the way it has
There are landmark TV shows about the always been for them. Like assigning blue for
LGBT community such as My Husband’s Lover boys and pink for girls.
(2013) and The Rich Man’s Daughter (2015).
But what happens when a boy wants
There are also a handful of LGBT themed
pink toys?
movies that featured the different aspects of
the LGBT person from realization of their They are reprimanded and criticized in a
sexual orientation, their coming out, their process called normalization.
acceptance in their families and communities.
This normalization limits a person’s
Section 3: Gender and Activism choices and freedoms. For the LGBT, it means
they are marginalized, treated as inferior,
Our society is now advocating towards discriminated on, branded as abnormal, and
equal rights for everyone through the Universal are treated as second class citizens. This leads
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which to homophobia, transphobia, biphobia,
was drafted in 1948 by all countries who are prejudice, discrimination, violence, and other
members of the United Nations. It hostile acts towards the LGBT people.
acknowledges that everyone, including LGBT
One example of heteronormative
people, is equal in dignity and in rights.
violence is the murder of LGBT men and
Although most countries no longer punish or
women during the Nazi holocaust.
outlaw homosexuality, there is still much to be
done for the LGBT people to fully enjoy their In present day, it means punishing
human rights. LGBT children for expressing who they are or
being vocal about who they are attracted to in
the workplace, it could mean being fired or not
being promoted just because you are not
straight.
At home it could mean being disowned
by our family because you are LGBT or being
bullied by your family because you are not
masculine enough or feminine enough. In
politics, it manifests in policies denying LGBT
their freedom such as anti-sodomy laws in
many countries where being LGBT is a crime
punishable by imprisonment or death. It could
also mean the absence of laws that would let
LGBT live a full life like being able to marry the
person they want to marry or enjoying the
same rights and privileges that straight families
have.
Challenging Heteronormativity Through
Activism
Heteronormativity is a social construct
and history has proven society’s changing
attitudes on homosexuality. History showed us
the egalitarian acceptance of homosexuality in
the ancient hunter-gatherer civilizations, the
violent erasure of the gender deviants, and
condemnation of homosexuality with the
spread of Abrahamic Religion (Jews,
Christians, Muslims, and other religions who
believe in one God; the god of Abraham).
LGBT activism have had various social
movements to advocate for LGBT people’s
equal rights (2000), liberation (1960’s-1970s),
and self-acceptance through the homophile
movement (1950s). These social movements
engaged in political and social activism through
street rallies, pride marches, law lobbying,
engaging the media, arts, research, and many
other activities that empower the LGBT
community.
Dissent is so powerful it can make
significant changes in our society. Breaking the
culture of silence on the daily heteronormative
violence that are committed and condoned by
society is the first step towards social change.
We can start by refusing to participate in
heteronormative violence towards the LGBT
and participating in various events for the
LGBT Community.
May 17 – International Day against
Homophobia and Transphobia -IDAHOT
May 31 – International Transgender Day of
Visibility
November 20 – Transgender day of
Remembrance
June – June Pride Month
Section 4: Gender and Other Cross-Cutting
Issues
In earlier discussions, it has been noted
that laws provide for equity among people of all
genders. In principle, humans regardless of
genders have basic human rights emerging
from their intrinsic human dignity.
Practically, these rights are translated
into programs, projects, and services that are
made accessible to us, for the purpose of
satisfying our basic needs and for achieving
our highest potentials.
Regardless of gender, we have seen
that people are capable of making something
of creating, of making responsible choices, of
developing. This capability is promoted by
resources we have access to the State has a
role in making sure that we people receive the
services we need and deserve.
Gender and Education
The UNICEF (2011) report on
adolescence show that while there is already
an increase in access to education for all
genders, there remains to be many girls and
women who are unable to go to school.
However, interesting trends can be
observed from the 2013 Functional Literacy,
Education, and Mass Media Survey
(FLEMMS). This study showed that there are
more males (4.6 in a 1000) children aged 6 to
14 who are able to attend school compared to
females (2.4 in a 1000). However, for people
aged 15 to 24, there are actually more females
(24 in a 1000) who are able to go to school
compared to males (11.2 in a 1000)
(Philippines Statistics Authority 2015). This
may mean that while there are more males
who are able to receive basic education, there
are more females who are able to proceed to
higher education
Practically, this only shows that
interventions towards making education
accessible to women and men may also differ,
e.g, encouraging younger girls to go to basic
education, and providing opportunities for men
to earn a college degree.
Gender and Health
Another basic social service we all need
is health service. Health, according to World
Health Organization, does not only mean
absence of diseases but a state of well-being.
The Department of Health of the Philippines
follows a cluster approach in health, wherein
there are more primary clusters: (a) public
health, (b) water sanitation and hygiene, (c)
nutrition, and (d) mental health and
psychosocial support.
In earlier lessons, we discussed that
males and females have unique reproductive
health needs. This also means that in terms of
health services, all genders should be able to
access services. In turn, health services should
also be gender-responsive.
Gender and Mental Health
One of the most prevalent issues facing
adolescents nowadays is mental health. The
changing environment also brings forth
stressors that are not existing before. People
are challenged to pay attention not only to their
physical health, but also to their psychological
wellness.
In the context of gender and sexuality,
some issues faced by humans related to their
sexuality and to the roles they assume in the
society are mental psychological in nature.
Some of these issues are as follow:
 Coping with sexual and reproductive
health issues (teen pregnancy,
STD/HIV, confusion and doubt);
 Psychological impacts of SOGIE-related
concerns and gender roles and
expectations;
 Psychosocial concerns emerging from
intimate romantic relationships, and
 Psychological trauma from GBV.
Hence, there is also a need to establish
systems so people would have access to
services that address these issues. In schools,
for instance, there are counselors (trained
professionals who has a master’s degree in
counseling and have seated and passed a
licensure in counseling) who deal with
students’ mental health concerns.
In some other schools and workplaces,
there are also psychologists (trained
professional who have a master’s degree in
psychology and have seated and passed a
licensure in psychology), social workers
(trained professionals with license in social
work), and psychiatrists (a medical doctor with
specialization in psychiatry), who are able to
provide additional and more specialized help.
MODULE 7 Gender and School
Section 1: Gender Bias in Educational
Institutions
Gender bias is a preference or
prejudice toward one gender over the other.
Bias can be conscious or unconscious, and
may manifest in many ways, both subtle and
obvious. It is the unequal treatment in
employment opportunity such as promotion,
pay, benefits and privileges and expectations
due to attitudes based on the sex of an
employee or group of employees.
Gender bias can be subtle or overt, and
can result in small or large consequences.
Most countries have laws eliminating gender
bias in work places. Gender bias can be a
legitimate basis for a lawsuit under anti-
discrimination statutes. Gender bias is behavior
that shows favoritism toward one gender over
another. Most often, gender bias is the act of
favoring men and/ or boys over women and/or
girls.
Gender bias occurs when people make
assumptions regarding behaviors, abilities or
preferences of others based upon their gender.
Because there are strong gender role
stereotypes for masculinity and femininity,
students who do not match them can
encounter problems with teachers and with
their peers.
Gender Bias in Admission/School
Enrollment
Discrimination based on gender is one
of the primary impediments to education. And it
affects boys and girls. In some regions, boys’
educational opportunities are limited by gender
roles that force them to work rather than attend
school. These financial responsibilities are
often increased in boys’ adolescent years,
making it difficult for them to complete
secondary school in some regions. However, in
many parts of
the world, girls are most often the victims of
gender discrimination as they pursue an
education. Education is the only key to bring
Gender equality.
While the past few decades have seen
an improvement in the treatment of females in
classroom methods and curricular materials, it
would be premature to declare victory and
dismiss issues of gender bias. Today, our girls
and boys remain the victims of gender
stereotypes in text and resource materials.
They are also victims of unintended or sexist
behaviors by educators. Often teachers reflect
varied expectations for children, based on a
student’s gender, class, race and ethnicity.
Most teachers care deeply about the
youngsters in their rooms. They are confident
that they treat all their students the same.
However, many teachers who analyze their
own attitudes and behaviors discover the
subtle and pervasive nature of gender inequity
in the classroom.
A common response from teachers
when asked about gender inequity in
classrooms is that they treat all their students
the same. There are two problems with this
statement. First, students are diverse and
have different learning issues, thus treating all
students in the same way means that some
students will have a better learning experience
than their peers. Second, teachers may be
ignoring their unconscious gender biases
towards their students, their schools and
themselves. If ignored, these gender biases,
which may have developed from cultural
norms, may lead to bias in the classroom.
Gender Bias and Dropouts
There is a gap in enrolment in schools of girl
students when compared to boys. The social
barriers standing in the way of girls attending
schools - poverty, compulsions of older
girls in families having to look after the home
and siblings, the conception or misconception
that girls do not need education and/or that
what is taught in schools is irrelevant to them,
parents seeing limited (economic) benefits in
educating daughters, lack of women teachers
and separate schools for girls.
Girls have to stay at home once they
attain puberty and must be protected till, they
are married. And they become part of another
family, leaving the parental home. Add to this,
the commonly held belief that marriage is the
be-all and end-all for girls, leading to early
marriage and pregnancy. So naturally the son
is sent to the school, not the daughter which
we call it as gender bias in school enrollment.
The school alone cannot be blamed for this pity
condition of enrolment.
There are two extreme types of parental
and social attitude / behavior- perfect altruistic
and perfect capitalistic (or selfishness). If
parents are perfectly altruistic about their child,
then both the types of children are equally
welcome in the family. The share of the family
cake will be identically equal for both male and
female child. Investment for human capital
accumulation will be same for both the types of
children.
If parents are altruistic then social norm
has no influence on behavior of the parents
towards their child. On the other hand, if
parents are perfectly capitalistic then they try to
get what can give maximum returns. Then they
always try to invest on that very project from
where they can get maximum returns.
Section 2: Issues Related to School
The socialization of gender within our
schools assures that girls are made aware that
they are unequal to boys. Every time students
are seated or lined up by gender, teachers are
affirming that girls and boys should be treated
differently. In this section focuses on some of
the issues related to gender in school.
Sexual Abuse
Sexual Abuse characterized by use of
force, threats, intimidation, and abuse of
authority or when the victim does not or cannot
consent. Sexual abuse or assault includes
rape, forcible sodomy and other unwanted
indecent contact (e.g., kissing against another
person’s will) that is aggravated, abusive or
wrongful (to include unwanted and
inappropriate sexual contact), or attempts to
commit these acts.
Child sexual abuse is a form of child
abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual
gratification of an adult or older adolescent. It
includes direct sexual contact, the adult or
otherwise older person engaging indecent
exposure to a child with intent to gratify their
own sexual desires or to intimidate or groom
the child, asking or pressuring a child to
engage in sexual activities, displaying
pornography to a child, or using a child to
produce child pornography.
Sexual Harassment
Harassment is conduct, gestures or
comments which are insulting, intimidating,
humiliating, hurtful, malicious, degrading or
otherwise offensive to an individual or group of
individuals, and which create a hostile or
intimidating environment for work or sports
activities, or which negatively affect
performance or work conditions. ` Sexual
harassment is a form of prohibited harassment.
It is defined as unwelcome
sexual advances, requests for sexual favors
and other verbal or physical conduct of a
sexual nature.
Perception of safety at School, Home and
Community Schools:
Schools are at the frontline of child
protection since they have the potential to both
teach protective behaviors effectively and to a
greater number of children than any other
system, including parental instructions. This is
because a large part of the truly “awake” time
of a child’s waking hours are spent at school.
Besides educators have a special role in
combating child sexual abuse, as they possess
the knowledge, training and opportunity to
observe and respond to children’s behavior
and physical conditions over a period of time.
Additionally, because of the close daily contact
they are in a unique position to identify these
children who need help and protection. The
following way schools should prevent the child
abuse in their circumstances.
  Ensure teachers, volunteers and anyone
else with access to children is properly
screened and trained
 Implement and enforce a policy for
reporting child sexual abuse and
handling disclosures from children
 Establish protocols and screening for
school computer use. Provide training to
students and teachers on acceptable
use of computers
 Assess your environmental structure
and take every possible step to make it
safer for children
 Make certain campus security is in
place so that all visitors are screened
through the office and the unusual
incidents/visitors are handled.
 Provide programs and roles for parents
to make them a part of their children’s
safety and security at school and while
going to and from school
Section 3: Roles of School in Enforcing
Gender Equality
The gender inequities pervading society
are carried into the school environment. This is
evidenced in school processes such as
teaching, teacher–student interaction, school
management, and the plan and design of the
physical infrastructure. Teaching and learning
materials, for example, may contain gender
stereotypes. Teachers are not always aware of
the gender specific needs of both girls and
boys.
School management systems may not
sufficiently address gender constraints such as
sexual harassment, and many schools do not
have adequate or separate toilets for girls and
boys. As a result, the schools do not provide a
gender responsive environment for effective
teaching and learning to take place. In order to
arrive at such a school, a holistic approach
involving various interventions is required. The
holistic intervention package can include the
following elements:
 Undertaking gender sensitization of
parents, community leaders and
members, teachers, girls and boys in
order to raise their awareness and
understanding of the need to support
girls’ education.
 Training teachers in the skills for making
teaching and learning processes
responsive to the specific needs of girls
and boys.
 Empowering girls with skills for self-
confidence, assertiveness, speaking out,
decision making and negotiation in order
for them to overcome gender-based
constraints to their education.
 Empowering boys with skills to de-link
from gender oppressive attitudes and
practices such as macho-ism, bullying
and sexual affronts and to develop the
self-confidence needed to accept
gender equality positively.
 Training teachers and students in
guidance and counselling skills.
 Establishing guidance and counselling
desks in order to provide services for the
social and psychological development of
girls and boys. The following are some
of ideas to promoting gender equity in
schools.
Roles of Teachers in Enforcing Gender
Equality
Teachers play a crucial role in every
classroom. They are the actors who shape the
success or failure of their students. Their
interpretation of the curriculum, interaction with
learners, and way they assign duties and
homework, are important factors in a child’s
schooling.
 Teachers should examine curriculum
with the view of incorporating a
gender dimension by: including the
introductory themes on gender; and
by exploring gender issues within
some of the topics.
 Teachers must be gender sensitive
through gender awareness and
sensitization programs.
  Teachers should employ engendered
patterns of classroom organization
and interaction, and
 Teachers should engender teaching
approaches be employed.
 Capacity building centers should be
established in all educational regions
intended to train teachers and
teacher educators in gender-laden
education
Kulturang Popular
Kung noon ay radyo, dyaryo, telebisyon
at magasin lang ang ating media para
malaman kung anong uso, anong sikat at ano
ang popular, sa panahon ngayon,
napakamoderno na ng teknolohiya at
napakadali na para sa mga tao na makiuso at
magpauso sa pamamagitan ng lahat ng uri ng
media --lahat ng nabanggit kanina at idinagdag
pa ang internet. Bakit ba napakaimportante sa
mga tao makasabay sa uso? Ano nga ba
talaga ang kulturang popular? Ating
alamin kung ano ba talaga ang ibig sabihin ng
uso o mas pormal na kilala bilang kulturang
popular.
Ang kulturang popular ay masasabi
nating isang paraan ng mga tao para
maramdaman ang pagtanggap ng nakararami.
Ang pag-ayon sa kulturang popular, ang
nagpapadama sa mga tao na tanggap sila sa
modernismo dahil ang kulturang popular ay
kadalasang nagmumula sa mga modernong
produkto ng mga kumpanya at modernong
mga bansa. Ang kulturang popular ang
kadalasang nagbibigay ng depinisyon kung
ano ang maganda at kung ano ang katanggap-
tanggap. Ang kulturang popular ay maaaring
teknolohiya, pagkain, kasuotan, musika at iba
pa. Ito ay ang mga pinagsasama-samang
kultura na itinatakda ng makakapangyarihang
tao, kumpanya at bansa. Ginagamit ito ng mga
ordinaryong tao para maipahayag ang kanilang
pagsang-ayon sa isang kultura, pati na rin
maipakilala ang kanilang sarili.
Ngunit bakit nga ba may kulturang popular?
San ba ito galing?
Dahilan at pinagmumulan ng kulturang popular:
1. Pangangailangan na itinatakda ng mga
negosyante
Ang mga negosyante ay nagbibigay o
nagpapakita sa mga tao ng isang
pangangailangan. Maaaring ito ay
pangangailangan maging maputi, maging
diretso ang buhok, magkaroon ng kolorete sa
mukha at iba pa para matawag na maganda.
Maaari rin namang gamitin ito ng mga
negosyante sa mga teknolohiya; natatanim sa
utak ng tao na hindi na sila mabubuhay ng
wala silang magagandang cellphone, camera,
at iba pa. Dahil dito, napipilitan bumili ang mga
tao ng mga produktong ginagawa ng mga
negosyante para lang matugunan ang
pangangailangan na ito. Ang produktong ito ay
siya namang nagiging sikat at napapasama sa
kulturang popular kinalaunan.
2. Latak
Sinasabi rin naman na ang kulturang
popular ay isang latak. Panghalili sa mahal at
sa orihinal. Sinasabing nangyayari ito dahil ang
masa ay hindi makabili ng mga kustal at
kasuotan na mamahalin kaya sila ay
nagkakasya na lamang sa pagbili ng mga
damit at bag na mura hanggang sa ito na ang
maging uso at gamit na ng lahat.
3. Pangmasa o komersyal na kultura
Kaugnay ng sinasabi natin kanina
tungkol sa mamahaling mga gamit, ang mga
mumurahing gamit ay kadalasang
sumasailalim sa maramihang produksyon o
mass production. Ang kulturang popular
ngayon ay ang mga pagkakaparepareho ng
mga kagamitan na nabili ng mga tao sa
murang halaga.
4. Ginagawa ng tao
Ito naman ang nagsasabing ang
kulturang popular ay ginagawa ng tao --
maaaring ng isang sikat na personalidad na
nais tularan ng marami. Sa pag-gaya dito ng
mga tao, unti-unti itong napupunta sa
mainstream. Ito ang tinatawag na pagpapauso.
Ito ay maaaring ginagawang pang
hanapbuhay, pampasikat o tikis na pang-
libangan lamang.
5. Larangan ng gahum
Sinasabi rin naman na ang kulturang
popular ay isang ebidensya ng mataas na
tingin natin sa isang gahum na bansa. Kung
ano ang mga gamit, damit, bag o kung ano
man na ginagamit sa kanilang bansa ay ating
tinatangkilik dahil ito ang maganda, nakahihigit
at nakatataas para sa ating paningin.
Sinasabing nakakasama ito para sa ating
sariling bansa dahil unti-unti nitong nakikitil ang
ating sariling industriya dahil walang
tumatangkilik sa ating sariling mga produkto.
Dahil dito, sinasabing mas napapahalagahan
natin ang kalinangan at kabihasnan ng iba
kaysa sa sarili nating kultura.
6. Pagkalusaw ng mga hangganan
Sa tumitingding globalisasyon at
pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng mga kultura at
sibilisasyon sa buong mundo, hindi na nagiging
hadlang ang distansya ng mga bansa para
magkaroon ng iisang kulturang popular.
Nawawalan na ng distinksyon ang mataas at
mababang kultura, ang sariling kultura,
comersyal at popular na kultura. Lahat ng
kultura ay nagkakasabay-sabay na ginagamit
at nagiging isa.
Samakatuwid, ang kulturang popular ay
isang kulturang maaaring sabayan at sakyan
ng tao. Sa kabilang banda, maaari rin namang
tayo rin ang magpa-uso at gumawa ng
kulturang ito. Ngunit dapat natin isaisip na ang
kulturang popular ay hindi maiiwasang
magbago kaya marapat lang na panatilihin pa
rin natin at wag kalimutan ang kulturang
"unique" at sariling atin. Hindi dapat natin ito
hayaang matabunan ng kulturang popular --
kulturang nagbibigay depenisyon sa
kasalukuyang panahon.
Mga Bakas ng Popularisasyon Bilang
Aparatong Kolonyal/Komersyal at ang
Kapangyarihan ng Komukunsumong Masa
(sipi mula sa aklat na Sangandiwa: Araling
Filipino bilang Talastasang Pangkalinangan at
Lapit-Pananaliksik. Manila: UST Publishing
House, 2004, nina RVNuncio at EMorales-
Nuncio)
Ang kulturang popular ay kasangkapan sa
pagpapahayag ng damdamin at kaisipang
popular. Ngunit ang pagpapahayag na ito ay
hindi payak lamang sa paglilipat ng nilalaman
ng isang isipan sa isipan ng iba. May radikal na
intensyon ang komunikasyon sapagkat ito ay
kasangkapan ng kapangyarihan dahil bukal
ang wika sa pagnanasa ng taong abutin at
manipulahin ang kanyang lugar.
—Florentino Hornedo, Kulturang Popular:
Kabuluhan, Midyum, Daigdig at Paninda
Mabisang aparato ng kolonyalismo at
komersyalismo ang popularisasyon. Sa
panahon ng pananakop ng Kastila ginamit ang
krus, sandata at maskara. Pagdating ng mga
bagong kolonyalistang Amerikano, ginamit
naman ang teknolohiya at mas midya. Sa
diskursong ito ang popularisasyon ay
pananakop bilang panghihimasok sa
kasarinlan ng kamalayan at katawan.
Panlulupig din ito na kinukonsidera ang
paggamit ng simbulo, senyal at materyal na
kumakalat dala ng mga inobasyon at
istratehiyang kolonyal at komersyal sa bansa.
Ngunit sa bandang huli mayroong tensyon,
kontradiksyon, kapangyarihan at resistans ng
mamamayan ang nalilikha.
Mga Bakas ng Kolonyalismo
Ang pagsusuri sa kontexto ng aparatong
popularisasyon ay isang mapanuring pagtingin
sa naging epekto ng kolonyalismo sa Pilipinas.
Inuunawa ang salitang kolonyalismo sa papel
na ito bilang texto at kontexto ng pananakop sa
Pilipinas. Ang una ay patungkol sa imahe
bilang instrumento sa pagpapalawig ng
kaayusan, pananakop at paniniil sa katawan at
kaisahan ng bawat Filipino. Dito sa imahe ng
kolonyalismo ipinapalabas ang pagkakaroon
ng simbulong krus, espada at maskara bilang
mga natatanging simbolikong instrumentong
ginamit ng mga Kastila para sa panlulupig at
pagpapayapa ng kaayusan ng mga ng mga
Filipino. Ginamit ang relihiyon upang maikalat
ang Kristiyanismo sa bansa. Ginamit naman
ang dahas at puwersang militar, upang
maipamukha ang katatagan at kalakasan ng
mga dayuhan sa pananakop nila gamit ang
istrakturang politikal at ekonomiko. Ginamit
naman ang maskara bilang pananakop sa
kultural na lebel—ang paggamit ng comedia at
zarzuela upang mahubog ang mga sinakop sa
kaisipan at kostumbreng dayuhan. Subalit
masasabing naging mahina ang imahe ng
maskara dahil sa hindi paglaganap ng wikang
Espanyol. Naging isang miskalkulasyon sa
loob ng tatlong daang taon ang hindi pag-ayon
sa paglaganap ng nasabing wika.
May posibilidad na hindi sana sumiklab ang
Rebolusyong 1896 kung naging malawakan sa
simula pa ang pagtuturo ng Espanyol sa mga
mamamayan sa kolonya. Repormista ang
kamalayan ng mga edukadong nanguna sa
kampanya para sa pagtuturo ng Espanyol.
Kung may pagbabago mang ibubunsod ang
pagkakamit ng wika ng kolonyalista, iyon ay
tungo marahil sa pagpapatibay pang lalo sa
paghahari ng Espanya sa Pilipinas. Naganap
ang radikalisasyon ng kamalayan ng mga
edukadong Filipino sa panahon ng kanilang
pakikibaka para sa karapatan ng mga
Filipinong matuto ng Espanyol. Sa pagtatanggi
ng mga kolonyalista na ibigay ang wika nila sa
mga Filipino, naliwanagan ang mga ilustrado
na layunin ng mga kolonyalista na panatilihing
mangmang ang nasasakupan upang ang mga
ito’y manatiling alipin (Lumbera 2000: 91).
Kung kaya’t ang maskara ay gumamit
ng wika mismo ng mga Filipino; ito ang wikang
nagbigay ng sariling anyo sa dulang naging
kasangkapan dapat sa programang kolonyal.
Dito naisafilipino at naging komedya at
sarswela ang mga dulang ito.
Walang lantarang hangaring bigyan ng
kasarinlan ang mga Filipino noon sa ilalim ng
Espanya. Subalit ang pagsasabansa ng lahing
Filipino kabilang ang mga Muslim, Intsik at iba
pang lahi ay isang implikasyon ng pagbabago
o pag-aaklas laban sa mga Kastila.
Kung kaya’t aktuwalisasyon ng
kamangmangan, pantasya, kahirapan at
pagkaalipin ang pananakop ng Kastila. Ang
kolonisasyon ng mga Kastila ay ang
pagtatalaga ng katauhan na sila mismo ang
humubog, isang katauhan ng imahen bilang
indio sa paningin nila ngunit naging tensyon at
kontradiksyon na gagapi sa kanila.
Ang Mga Tunggaliang Ideolohikal
Ngunit sa pagpasok naman ng mga
Amerikano, naging isang daluyan ng pag-
aaklas sa panibagong kolonisasyon ang
paggamit ng drama. Halimbawa nito ay ang
pagyabong ng Drama Simbolico sa Maynila at
karatig-Katagalugan (Chua 1997) at maging sa
mga drama realistiko na ipinangalan ni Resil
Mojares (Don Pagusara 1997:xxi) sa Cebu.
Naturete at nangamba din ang mga Amerikano
sa ganitong uri ng pagsasadula gamit ang mga
dramang naisulat nina Aurelio Tolentino
(Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas), Juan Matapang
Cruz (Hindi Aco Patay), Juan Abad (Tanikalang
Ginto), at Tomas Remigio (Malaya). Kung
kaya’t tinurin ang mga obrang ito bilang
subersibo at mapanganib. Dahil sa ang
nilalaman ng pagtatanghal ay laban sa
imperyalistang Amerika, naging palaman sa
publiko ang ganitong pagbabanta (Arthur
Riggs, 1981):
…[It] inculcate a spirit of hatred and enmity
against the American people and the
Government of the United States in the
Philippines, and…to incite the people of the
Philippine Islands to open and armed
resistance to the constituted authorities, and to
induce them to conspire together for the secret
organization of armed forces, to be used when
the opportunity presented itself, for the purpose
of overthrowing the present Government and
setting up another in its stead. (sinipi mula kay
Arsenio Manuel ni Doreen Fernandez, 377).
Upang maiwasan ang ganitong
pagkakataon sa unang salvo ng mga
kolonyalistang Amerikano, pinalaganap ng huli
ang tunggaliang ideolohikal na hindi nakatutok
sa puwersa kundi sa tinaguriang inobasyon at
benevolent assimilation. Ipinasok din ang
edukasyon bilang instrumento ng kolonisasyon
sa mga Pilipino. Ang ganitong kaparaanan ng
kontrol ay mabisang naisakatuparan. Sinabi ni
Renato Constantino na: “American control of
the educational system made possible the
distortion and suppression of information
regarding Philippine resistance to American
rule and the atrocities committed by the
American army to crush that resistance” (1978:
68).
Ang pangkahalatang ideolohiya ay
umikot sa agenda ng pagpapayapa ng
resistans bitbit ng sistemang edukasyunal na
inihain ng mga Amerikano. Bukod pa rito,
bilang namamayaning pananaw, sinabi ni
Priscelina Legasto (1998: 46-47) na may
dalawa pang kategorya ang ipinagmalaki ng
mga Amerikano para alisin ang pagkaatrasado
ng mga Pilipino: una na rito ang sistemang
pensionado at ang ikalawa ang pagtuturo ng
wikang Ingles. Dito ngayon naging masalimuot
ang baybaying kaisipan at paniniwala sa isang
wika at kulturang labas sa tunay na saloobin at
karanasan ng mga Filipino.
Mga Bakas ng Komersyalismo: Pagpasok ng
Radyo at Telebisyon Bilang Domestikasyon at
Komodipikasyon o Pakikisangkot ng Mass
Media sa Buhay ng Komukunsumo Nito
Kasama ng radyo, ang telebisyon ay
bunga ng imbensyon at eksperimentasyon dala
ng mapusok na edad ng industrialisasyon
hanggang di nagtagal pumasok ang mga
imbentong ito sa larangan ng komersyo. Ang
teknolohiya at inobasyon ang naging sisidlan
ng panibagong pagbulusok ng komidipikasyon
ng pangangailangan ng tao. Impormasyon ang
naging bentahe, naging bagong tutok sa
panahong itinatalaga ng kapital ang pag-angat
o pagbagsak ng isang bansang yumayakap sa
ideolohiya at praktika ng imperyalistang
Amerika. Dahil nga nasa ilalim ng pamunuang
Amerikano ang Pilipinas noon, madaling
naipasok sa merkado ang gawang Kano.
Kasama na rito ang oportunidad sa pagpasok
partikular ng radyo at telebisyon at
pangkalahatan ng mas midya. Sa katunayan
sa pagdating ng radyo sa bansa ay nakitaan na
ng gamit sa palitan at bilihan sa merkado at
komersyo. Ganito ang pananaw ni Clodualdo
del Mundo Jr.: “So good was the response to
this medium of information and entertainment
that in 1928, the local distributor of a famous
American-manufactured radio set saw it fit and
without doubt, profitable to establish their own
radio station…So it went from experimental to
plain business” (1986:69).
Samantala, pumasok naman ang
telebisyon bilang bahagi ng mekanismong
politikal upang palakasin at pabanguhin ang
imahe ng isang Pangulong nagnanais muling
tumakbo. Si Judge Antonio Quirino ang
gumawa ng paraan upang gamitin ang isang
midyum na kilalang-kilala at patok na patok sa
Amerika noong dekada singkwenta. Subalit
naging bigo si Elpidio Quirino sa kanyang
planong politikal na mahalal muli kahit na
naging tagumpay ang pagpasok sa bansa ng
telebisyon sa tulong ng kanyang kapatid.
Ngunit kung hindi naman nagtagumpay sa
unang sigwa ng pagpasok ng telebisyon sa
larangan ng politika, kabaligtaran naman ito sa
nangyari sa pagpapaunlad ng industriya ng
mas midya at ng negosyo sa bandang huli.
Ganito ang paliwanag ni Clodualdo del Mundo,
Jr. (sa Patajo-Legasto, 1998) nang sa bandang
huli, napunta sa mga kamay ng mga
negosyante ang mas midya. Katulad
halimbawa ng isang istasyon, napilitan silang
sumuung sa batam-batang industriya ng
telebisyon. “Bolinao Electronics Corporation…
not only had to set up and maintain a TV
station, but also had to arrange for the
distribution and sale of TV sets. Because it was
directly responsible for the people buying TV
sets, it was bound to continue operations at
any cost” (del Mundo, Jr. 1986: 74).
Bunga nito nakisangkot ang mas midya
bilang daluyan ng impormasyon at
enterteynment na kinagigiliwan ng tao. Bawat
tahanan ay nagnanais na magkaroon kung
hindi man radio, tv set o ng pareho. Pumasok
na ang moda ng produksyon at distribusyon ng
mas midya sa Pilipinas. Sa simula ang
distribusyon ay nakatuon sa napripribilehiyong
iilan na may salapi at kapangyarihan para
magmay-ari o magkaroon ng akses sa mas
midya. Sapagkat ang pamantayan ay negosyo,
katulad nang nabanggit iilan lamang ang
nagkakaroon ng akses dito. Subalit babaguhin
lahat ito nang ang kulturang ito na sinusustene
ng iilan ay tututok sa kultura ng
komukunsumong masa.
Ang pagkonsumo sa produkto ng mass
media—radyo, telebisyon, pahayagan—ay
nagtatakda ng pagtangkilik sa kalakaran ng
oras o panahon. Ang mass media ay
kinokonsumo hindi dahil ito ay mahalaga sa
panapanahong yugto, kundi nagbibigay ito ng
tuluyang pangagailangan ng tao sa lahat ng
yugto ng panahon. Sabi ni Philip Abrams:
“Unique among the mass media, radio and
television are given opportunities by time, by
the fact that they have the whole day,
everyday, to dispose of, and that they can
break up the day” (sa Casty, 1973: 90). Ang
prosesong ito ay domestikasyon ng mass
media sapagkat ang bawat programa sa radyo
at palabas sa telebisyon ay tuluyang naihahatid
nang walang puknat, nang walang hinto sa
pandinig, sa paningin at sa kamalayan ng tao.
Dagdag pa ni Alice Guillermo: “Much of the
effectivity of the TV medium as a conveyor of
values and hence of ideological content lies in
its immediate accessibility: with a flick of a dial,
the images spring to life and all at once there is
created the illusion that these images are
within us, around us and that they unfold in
space as the world outside our domestic
confines” (1989: 204).
Lahat na yata halos ng galaw, hilig,
pagpapahalaga, hitsura, problema, kaalaman
at iba pa ay tumatakbo bilang mga nag-
aagawang tema sa programa o produkto ng
mass media. Lahat ng ito ay nakasilid ika nga
sa idiot box (TV) o talkies (radio) na mistulang
nagbebenta ng tema at produkto sa
pagkonsumo ng tao. Dahil dito, ang galaw, isip
at damdamin ng tao ay nakakahon sa diskurso
ng mass media. Sinusuyod ito bilang praktika
ng pang-araw-araw na pamumuhay sa lipunan.
Sinasang-ayunan ito ni Nick Couldry nang
sabihin niyang: “We can understand the
media’s ability to become ‘obligatory passing
points in the general circulation of images and
discourse, not as something superimposed on
social practice from the outside; instead it
endlessly reproduced the details of social
practice itself” (2000: 5).
Kung bakit ganito ang kinahihinatnan ng
mga komukonsumo ng mass media ay sa
dahilang hindi na ito tinitingnan bilang
repleksyon o representasyon ng realidad;
bagkus, ang mass media mismo ay bumubuo
na ng realidad ng tao. Kalabisan mang sabihin,
subalit ito ang nagdidikta kung ano ang
kakainin, iinumin, susuotin, aalamin,
papanoorin, pakikinggan, sasabihin ayon kay
Rolando Tolentino (2001). At sa kaganapang
ito nagiging mistulang normal at natural lamang
ang pagkonsumo sa pangkahalatang diskurso
at praktika ng mga tao.
Ang Diskurso ng Kulturang Popular sa
Panahon ng Komersyalismo
Ang kulturang popular ay realidad ng
tao; inaangkin ito bago ang lahat at
pinapalaganap mula sa sensibilidad ng tao
dahil sa kanyang pagnanasa sa buhay patungo
sa kamalayang naghahari ang makabago,
mapusok, marangya at makapangyarihan. Ang
kulturang popular ay pagsasabuhay ng bagay,
imahe, simbulo, pananda, paninda at komoditi
sa karanasan ng tao na namulat sa mabilisang
pagbabago sa isang sibilisasyon. Tinatangkilik
ito dahil sa popular at higit sa lahat tinatangkilik
ito dahil sa tao ang una at huling puntirya.
Paano? Dapat munang isaalang-alang ang
kahalagahan ng teknolohiya at inobasyon sa
isang bansa. Sinabi ni Tolentino na:
Makikilala lamang ang produkto ng kulturang
popular kung ito ay naipapalaganap.
Kinakailangan ng mga teknolohiya para
maipaabot ito sa mga tao. Ang teknolohiyang
ito ay maaaring media—print, broadcast, film,
computer at iba pa. Ito ay maaaring
domestikong teknolohiya tulad ng telebisyon…
Ito ay maaaring kultural na teknolohiya—tulad
ng edukasyon at sining (2001: 7).
Ang industriya, imprastraktura,
telekomunikasyon at merkado ay
mahahalagang sangkap sa komersyo ng isang
bansa. Napasimulan ang lahat ng ito sa
pagpasok ng mga Amerikano na sila ang
nagpalakad at nakinabang sa negosyong
pambansa ng Pilipinas sa panahon ng
Komonwelt at Unang Republika, partikular ang
pagbibigay pantay-karapatan sa mga
Amerikano sa negosyo at kalakalan sa
panunungkulan ni dating pangulong Manuel
Roxas. Ang implikasyong ekonomiko nito sa
usapin ng uring panlipunan ay umikot (at
umiikot hanggang ngayon) sa namumuhunan,
sa mga negosyanteng may salapi. Kung kaya’t
ang teknokrasya ay ginamit para mapanatili pa
lalo ang sangkalan sa pagpapaigting ng mga
interes at kapritso ng mga kapitalista. Ang
pagbubukas ng pinto sa mga bagong
teknolohiya ang naging dahilan kung kaya’t
ang pagnanasa ng lahat sa uso at makabago
ay bigla-biglang natutugunan. At dahil na rin
dito naging mahusay na kasangkapan ang
teknolohiya upang lumikha ng artipisyal na
pagnanasa, hilig at fanstasya. Ikinumpol ang
produksyon sa pamamagitan ng teknolohiya
para sa higit na nakakaraming tao—ang masa.
Ayon kay Teresita Maceda (Lagda 1999)
binaha ng mga produktong buhat sa
Amerikanong kulturang popular ang Pilipinas at
dahil dito nagmistulang di makatakas sa
Amerikanisasyon ang masa kahit na hindi sila
natutong lahat ng Ingles o nakapag-aral.
Kung dadalumatin ang salitang
kulturang popular, dalawa ang kategoryang
bumubuo ritor: ang una’y kultura at ikalawa’y
popular. Ang kultura ay isang pinagsasaluhang
praktika at mentalidad ng tao. “Culture is both
the ‘arts’ and the values, norms and symbolic
goods of everyday life. While culture is
concerned with tradition and social
reproduction, it is also a matter of creativity and
change” (Barker, 2000: 35).
Isang deskripsyon lamang ito sa
terminong kultura, sapagkat walang tahasang
kahulugan ito. Ang kultura ay masasabing
mayroong reflexibong kahulugan na maaaring
nakabatay sa katangian, salik at deskripsyon
na sumasanga-sanga sa usapin ng politika,
ekonomiya at kasaysayan. Sinasabi naman ni
Tolentino (2001) na ang kultura ay isang
kamalayan na gumaganap sa cohesion o
kabuuan ng isipan sa mga kilos at bagay-
bagay na likha nito o nilikha para rito. Pahayag
niya: “Ito ay tumutukoy sa afinidad ng
indibidwal na kaisipan sa iba pang kolektibong
kaisipan…(H)alimbawa ang hindi namang
magkakakilalang mga tao ay nagkakaroon ng
di-malay (unconscious) na ugnayan dahil sa
parehong balitang kanilang nabasa sa
pahayagan o napakinggan sa radyo tungkol sa
mga pamabansang isyu” (2001: 4-5).
Samantala, ang salitang popular naman
ayon kay Raymond Williams ay isang pang-uri
na nangangahulugang “kinagigiliwan,
nagugustuhan ng nakararaming tao.” (1983:
87, salin). Numerikal din ang isang
pakahulugan ng popular. Popular ang isang
bagay o tao kung maraming tumatangkilik. Ang
afirmatibong aksyon na pagtangkilik ang
lumilikha ng bilang. Sa isang banda, ang
salitang popular ay tuwirang tumutukoy sa tao
mula sa salitang populus (“people” sa Ingles)
sa wikang Latin.
Sa ideolohikal na usapin, sa pagsasanib
ng dalawang salitang ito, ang kulturang popular
ay unang lumitaw at naintindihan sa pagsapit
ng modernong panahon sa Europa bilang
kabaligtaran ng mataas na Kultura (may
empasis sa malaking K). Kultura ito ng
namamayaning kaayusan at inaangkin ng
naghaharing uri sa lipunan. Ang produkto ng
Kultura nila ay tinaguriang kanon at klasiko,
samantalang ang kulturang masa ay bakya at
mababang uri (Adorno at Horkheimer, sa
During 2000). Pakiwari ni Chris Baker dito: “A
variant of high-low cultural boundary, and one
which reproduces the’inferiority of the popular,
is that which decries commodity-based culture
as inauthentic, manipulative and unsatisfaying”
(2000: 44).
Saan nanggagaling o ano ang sentrong
pinagluluwalan ng kulturang popular?
Sinasabing ang gumagawa o sumusugal sa
kulturang ganito ay yaong mga transnasyunal
at translokal na kapitalista. Wala ng geopolitikal
na hangganan ang pagpasok ng makabagong
musika, literatura, pagkain, damit, kaisipan,
ideolohiya at marami pang iba. May
rasyonalisasyon ng pang-araw-araw na
tunguhin ang mga tao na naiimpluwensiyahan
ng mga bagay o komoditi mula sa labas.
Humahatak ito sa pangkalahatan na sumanib
at makiuso at nagiging pananda ng kasikatan
sa panloob na geograpi ng kilos at gawi ng tao
(Ritzer, 1990). Kay Lumbera (1997) usapin ng
loob at labas ito, ang kulturang popular ay
galing sa labas na kaiba sa pambansa o folk
na kulturang nasa loob ng bansa. Nang
tumagal, ang puwersang ito na mula sa labas
ay pumasok na sa sensibilidad,
pagpapahalaga, kaugalian ng mga tao.
Matatawag natin itong kultura ng kamalayang
popular na mas matindi pa sa pisikal na
pagtangkilik lamang ng produkto. Kapag
napasok na ang kamalayan, nagiging bahagi
na ng kalooban ang mula sa labas.
Sa bandang huli ng spectrum, makikita
ang kalagayan ng mga komukonsumong masa.
Sa ganitong sitwasyon pinaniniwalaang ang
kulturang popular ay maiintindihan, hindi sa
yugto ng produksyon ng mga produkto, bagkus
sa pagkonsumo nito.
Kulturang Popular: Isang Pagsasaayos sa
Kapangyarihan ng Kultura at Masa sa
Panahon ng Komersyalismo
Lubhang nakakulong sa diskurso ng
kawalang kapangyarihan ang papel ng masa
sa kontexto ng kulturang kanilang nililikha at
lumilikha sa kanila. Sa ganitong kadahilanan,
nararapat na gamitin at basahing muli ang
pagteteorya ng terminong kulturang popular.
May tatlong kategorya ang paggamit ng
mga katagang ito. Ang kulturang popular ay
isang pag-aangkin sa puntodebista ng
gumagamit o komukonsumo nito. Ito ay kultura
ng tao, ng masa at masasabing dikta ng
komukonsumo. Paanong mangyayaring dikta
ito ng masa? Ang mga produkto ng kulturang
popular ay ginagawa kasa-kasama ang masa
sa isipan ng mga kapitalista. Hindi ba’t bago
lumustay ng malaking puhunan sa isang
produkto ang isang negosyante, tinitingnan at
sinusuri muna kung magugustuhan ba ito ng
konsumer? “Judgments about popular culture
are concerned with question not of cultural or
aesthetic value (good or bad taste) but of
power and the place of popular culture within
the wider social formation” (Barker, 2000: 48).
Ang produksyon sa kalakaran ng kulturang
popular ay nasasapawan. Ang mga kapitalista
ay dapat na sumunod at mamalagi sa paggawa
ng may matataas na serbisyo at produkto. Sa
pamamagitan ng makabagong pamamaraan sa
produksyon at paggamit ng teknolohiya
napapanatili ang kalidad at kahusayan. Ang
produksyon sa kulturang popular ay
maramihan sapagkat inaabot nito ang masa.
Subalit ang ganitong takbo o kalakaran ay
naglalagay ng alanganin sa mga kapitalista.
Sapagkat gamit din ng nasabing teknolohiya at
pananaw sa maramihang produksyon,
nasasapawan sila ng mga maliliit ngunit
makapangyarihang retailer o negosyante. Dito
pumapasok ang mga imitasyon ng mga
produkto sa merkado, halimbawa ang mga
pekeng pantalon, damit, bag; payrited na tape,
cd, at dvd; suplus na appliances tulad ng
computer, tv, radio, cd player, kotse at marami
pang iba. Sa ganitong tunggalian ang may
matataas na kalidad na produkto ay binibigyan
ng proteksyon ng batas. Ngunit ang kalaban
nito ay ang puwersa ng mamimili na siyang
nagpapasya sa pagkonsumo kahit na ang
produkto ay peke, payrited o imiteyted. Isang
kasagutan kung bakit mataas ang pagtangkilik
dito ay ang presyo ng serbisyo at produkto—
lahat ito ay mura kumpara sa orihinal, awtentik
at patented. Hindi rin natin masasabing labas
ito sa kalakaran ng kulturang popular. Hindi
ang isyu ng legalidad ang punto rito, kundi ang
tunggalian at tensyon sa espasyo ng paggamit
ng kapangyarihang pumili at bumili. Ang boses
ng masa bilang konsumer ang gumagawa sa
malaking bahagdan ng pagkilos ng produkto at
serbisyo sa merkado at sa lipunan sa kabuuan.
Inululugar ang kapangyarihan ng masa bilang
espasyo ng tunggalian at pag-aaklas sa
merkado o lipunan. Babagsak ang isang
kapitalista kung hindi patok sa masa ang
kanyang produkto. Sapagkat ang pag-aangkin
ng kapangyarihan ng masa ay nakatutok sa
kalayaan ng konsumer na mamili sa produkto o
serbisyong kanyang bibilhin. May kalayaan sa
pagpili ang konsumer, samantalang ang
kapitalista ay nakakulong sa produksyong
walang katiyakan at katatagan pagdating sa
merkado.
Ang lugar ng elit, aristokrat at burgis ay
yaong gamitin ang kanilang salapi para sa
produksyon at wala ng iba pa. Samantalang
ang masa mismo ang tuwirang may
kapangyarihan upang buhayin, ipagpatuloy at
buuin ang kulturang popular. Maling sabihin na
ang kulturang popular ang namamayaning
kaayusan na binuo ng mga elit. Sa bahagdan
ng pagbubuo ng kulturang ito maliit na
porsyento lamang sila bilang prodyuser-
konsumer. Ang punto ng kulturang ito ay wala
sa produksyon kundi nasa pagkonsumo. Ang
trending kung anong palabas o produkto ang
dapat pamalagiin ay dapat na nakasunod sa
kagustuhan, desisyon at pagtangkilik ng mga
komukonsumo; kung hindi, ang palabas at
produktong ito ay mauuwi sa pagkalimot at
pagkalugi. Kung kaya’t nawawala sa ere ang
isang palabas sa telebisyon kung hindi ito
nagustuhan ng manonood. Nalalaos ang isang
usong damit kung wala nang nagsusuot.
Nalalaos din ang mga artista o aktor kung
lumipat sa iba ang kanilang dating fans. Sa
katapusan, nagsasara ang isang kompanya
kung ang kanilang pananatili ay wala ng
saysay sa mga tao.

Ang kulturang popular ay lugar ng tensyon

at kontradiksyon, kapangyarihan at resistans.
Tunay ngang nakikinabang ang mga kapitalista
sa pag-ikot ng transaksyon sa negosyo,
industriya at kulturang popular. Ngunit nagiging
pupugak-pugak na mithiin na ang magkamal
ng malaking kita, sapagkat magastos ang
kagustuhan ng konsumer. Ang pangunahing
tungkulin ng kapitalista o prodyuser ay
pasayahin at gawing kuntento ang konsumer,
ngunit alam nating walang katapusan ito. Isa
pa, kailangan nilang sustenahin ang kanilang
lugar sa merkado dahil sa kompetisyon.
Kailangan din nilang magkaroon ng palagiang
inobasyon sa serbisyo at produkto, at bigyan
ng maraming benepisyong libre at iba pang
gimik ang konsumer upang manatiling tapat na
tagapagtangkilik. Hindi ba’t magastos ang
ganitong kalakaran ng kulturang popular? Kung
may kontrol man sila iyon ay dulot ng kanilang
salapi, subalit hindi pangmatagalan ito sa
dahilang madaliang guguho ang kapital dahil
sa walang hinto at hindi matigil na kagustuhan
ng mga komukonsumo. Ang kulturang popular
sa mga kapitalista ay lugar ng pakikipagbuno.
Samantala sa masa ito ay isang bukas na lugar
ng malayang pagpili o paghulagpos.