Soc. Sci 2

Social Science 2 – Gender and Society
Lesson 1- Gender, Sex and Sexuality
Lesson Objectives:
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate sex, gender, and sexuality;
2. Discuss the implication of these differences; and
3. Contemplate about your sexuality and on the importance of appreciating sexual diversity.
Definitions of terms
 Sex- the biological aspect of sex maleness or femaleness

 Gender- the social interpretation of sex; masculinity, femininity, etc.
 Sexuality- the totality of own experience of our sex and gender
 Sex chromosomes- chromosomal markers the distinguish female (XX) from male (XY)
species
Introduction
Sex and gender are two very essential yet underrated parts human life. They affect all
aspects of our lives, from how we look at and act in the jobs we take to how we regard the laws
and values of society. This chapter will establish the difference between sex and gender, define
gender roles and relationships according to United Nations and other relevant national bodies,
and determine how gendered interactions affect one’s everyday lives. It will examine gendered
interactions at various levels within the family, workplace, community, and larger society.
What is Sex?
• Sex- is often referred to as the act of reproduction (scientifically, copulation), it is,

nonetheless, an important notion of how pop culture sees sex.
• According to popular culture. sex is Something done for pleasure, and perhaps in a more
Freudian sense, it is what drives people to do certain things.
• The association of sex with pleasure and vice versa may make people dismiss it as a serious
topic for study. Meanwhile, because Sex is so often equated with and related to gender,
gender as a topic for discussion is likewise disregarded. Yet. by showing the difference
between sex and gender, and laying the groundwork for this difference, perhaps you as the
reader may start questioning discriminatory practices in society that relate to sex and gender.
• This book defines sex through its biological, and not cultural, definition.
• Sex in the biological sense is a category for living beings specifically related to their
reproductive function.
• For most living creatures, there are two sexes, the male and the female.
• The female sex is determined by the following characteristics: produces egg cells which are
fertilized by another sex, and bears the offspring.
• The male sex, on the other hand, produces sperm cells to fertilize the egg cells.
• Chromosomes determine one's sex. Chromosome XX equates to female, and XY equates to

male. These pairs of chromosomes are distinct because the differences in their characteristics
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are necessary for reproduction. Copulation, or the union of the sexes (XX and XY or male
and female), produces offspring.
• Genitalia, Or the organs used for reproduction, and secondary sex characteristics are
largely influenced by one's X and Y chromosomes. These chromosomes determine whether
someone’ body will express itself as a "female" or a "male.“
• Hormones also play a large part in the definition of one's sex. The exposure to hormones in
the womb affects how the organism develops as a male or a female. Physical features related
to secondary sex characteristic are also influenced by hormones.
• Both males and females have estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone but in varying
amounts.
• Usually, males have more amounts of testosterone, and females have more amounts of
estrogen.
• Hormonal imbalances, both natural and induced, can result in someone born as a female to
have more testosterone than her male counterpart.
• Biology is learned in school, but the enactment of one's sex is experienced differently in
one's culture. When one sees a person, he or she does not see an XX or an XY, but a male or
a female.
• Perhaps in more accepting societies, one sees a male, a female, or an LGBT. Because of one's
perception of maleness and femaleness, his or her view of another is prone to change.
• Take for example the case of commercial models displayed in advertisements along EDSA.
• These models are perceived to conform to society's definition of what is conventionally

attractive, enough that they become the face of certain products or brands.
• Because a model on a billboard is two-dimensional, his or her looks allow people to assume
anything about him or her. If that person is a male striking what seems to be a powerful pose,
it could be assumed that the man is a powerful person. If all the males presented in
advertisements are in powerful and dominant poses, one can presume that power and
dominance are associated with maleness or masculinity.
• Similarly, if all females in advertisements are seen to take care of people—their spouses,
children, or parents—one associates females with caring roles. Thus, to be female is to care.
These roles, which do not necessarily have anything to do with reproduction, become tied to
one's sex. This is where gender comes in.
What is Gender?
Gender is a socially learned behavior usually associated with one's sex. It is short for
gender relations between the sexes, or how the male and female relate to one another. Gender is
also based on how people see themselves and on their tendency to act along either the masculine
or the feminine line.
 Gender is a social construct that determines one's roles, expected values, behavior, and
interaction in relationships involving men and women.
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 It affects what access is available to men and women to decision-making, knowledge, and
resources.
 Sex and gender are two different things, but one's gender is usually associated with one's
sex.
 Note the difference between sex and gender in the following table.
Sexuality
The expression of who we are involving one’s thoughts, feelings, and relationship, as
well as the biology of the sexual response. Is about your sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions
and behaviours towards other people. You can find other people physically, sexually or
emotionally attractive, and all those things are a part of your sexuality. Sexuality is diverse and
personal, and it is an important part of who you are.
Summary
The complexities of the human sexuality can be overwhelming. We need to look at our
own experience on your journey of discovering our sense of being a man or woman for us to
understand others. We also need to engage in conversations with others for us to appreciate the
many different faces of human sexuality.
A baby is born and is given an assigned sex based on its genitals. In toddler years, they
are raised to be a ‘man’ or ‘woman’ based on accepted social and cultural standards. We know
that these standards change through time, what is not acceptable now may be acceptable in the
future.
Lesson 2: Gender and Sexuality across Time
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss the historical roots of our understanding of gender and sexuality; and
2. Show appreciation of how this understanding evolved through time, affected various aspect
of human life.
Introduction
Society has progressed so much in a way that information and knowledge is available to
everyone. This gives us an opportunity to examine our social and political conditions in more
detail than when information was scarce and limited to only a few individuals.
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Historical accounts show that across time, humans’ conception of gender and sexuality
has also changed. Archeological artifacts reveal that in the distant past, during the dawn of
civilizations, human societies have regard for women.
The concept of the divine feminine (the sacredness of the woman due to her ability to
conceive children) has prevailed, and thus, women are treated equally with men. This make
societies egalitarian (men and women have equitable power and roles).
However, Humans’ discovery of paternity (fatherhood/ role of the father in conception),

presumably during the Agricultural era, when societies began to establish communities and tame
rear cattle and stocks, have also changed how societies have viewed women and men therefrom.
For the longest time thereafter, societies have privileged men to over others gender,
mainly because of the preferential given to them in the productive sphere (world of public
work).
Women who have been revered due to their ability to conceive have been viewed as
solely capable only of reproductive affairs (world of the home and related and task such as
suckling the young, child rearing, and home management).
The gender disparity was intensified by the Industrial era where factors were built and men
were preferred because they did not have to bear children for nine months and because of their
perceived physical strength.
But how did really the conceptualization of gender and sexuality changed? This lesson
tackles movements in history which shows how men, and people of other genders are viewed in
human societies.
Patriarchy
A close examination of our society can lead us to see the invisible layers of oppression in
our society like patriarchy-a system based on the control and oppression of women wherein they
are perceived to be the weaker sex. It is a structure that upholds make supremacy in the law, at
home, in the work place, and society.
• Patriarchy is from the Greek word Patriarkhes which means “the rule of the father”.
• It is a social system where men primarily hold power in the political and the private
spheres.
• This means that in this social system, society is organized and maintained in a way that
men rule over women and their children.
• In the social, legal, political, and economic spheres, men are expected to lead while
women are expected to lead while women are expected to obey and are relegated to
house chores, bearing children, and child care.
• A patrilineal society often follows a patriarchal society, this means only men can inherit
property and the family name. Women were left with no inheritance and are expected to
marry a man who can support her economically. In fact, women were not allowed to go
to schools, or even vote, because they are viewed as a weaker sex and should not concern
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themselves in learning science or politics. Women had a fight for the right to vote, to go
to school, to go to work, and even participate in politics.
• Patriarchy is viewed by the most sociologists as a social construct and not as a biological
phenomenon. This is because history proves that in the prehistoric hunter-gatherer tribes
and civilization, they prioritized equality of all members, male and female.
• History suggests an egalitarian system rather than a patriarchal system. Men and women
contribute to society, and they enjoy the same social status.
• Friedrich Engels, a German philosopher and sociologist, argues that patriarchy came
about when people started having private instead of a communal living. The development
in agriculture and domestication of animals led to creating product surplus which allows
people to have private property. As a way to control the excess wealth generated by these
advancements, male dominance was asserted over women so only the male heir can
inherit family wealth.
Historical Views on Gender
Greek
Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosopher viewed women as the inferior sex and are
properties of men whose only job was to obey their husbands, bear children, and take care of
household. They were forbidden to learn philosophy, politics, and science.
Egypt
Herodotus, a Greek historian, observed the Egyptian civilization citing that Egyptian
women enjoyed higher social status than Greek women because they can inherit property and
engage in trade and politics. However, Greek influence quickly spread in Egypt through the
conquests of Alexander the Great across Asia and Africa.
China
Confucianism has stringent written rules that dictate how women should conduct
themselves. The written documents titled “Three obedience’s and four virtues” and “Precepts of
women” states that women should obey their father, when married she is to obey her husband,
and when widowed she is to obey her son.
Gendered biases in ancient patriarchal societies were very strict heavily enforced, and
often violent. Imagine not being able to go to school just because you are a woman, not being
able to express your opinion on important matters even when it concerns your future, and not
being able to say no to any man.
• Women have come a long way since the ancient times through the feminist movement, however,
patriarchy has taken on subtle from of oppression that often go unnoticed such as:
• Sexism- prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination based on sex;
• Gender pay gap- men earn more that women;
• Underrepresentation in politics, military, executive positions, etc;
• Rape on women and the stigma making women ashamed to report the crime;
• Very conservative expectations on women on how they behave;
• Unrealistic depictions of women in fiction, often very sexualized;
• Women do more housework and childcare;
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• Boys were trained to be leaders while women were trained to do house chores.
Women Empowerment
Women’s liberation movement, women’s movement, or feminism is a continuing series

of social movements that aim to challenge the patriarchal society that creates these
oppressive political structures, beliefs, and practices against women. It started at different
decades in different countries, some are far more advance in their struggle while others are
still starting a movement. During the 19 th and early 20th century, first-wave feminism spread
across the western countries as women demanded for their right to vote or participate in
election and to be able to legally own property.
In France, Simone de Beauvoir wrote book titled “The Second Sex” in 1949. It outlined
how the patriarchal society disadvantaged women by slowly raising her into submission and
hindering their productivity and happiness by relegating them to housecleaning. This inspired
many women to write and speak their truths, such as Betty Friedan (The Feminine Mystique,
2963), Kate Millet (Sexual Politics, 1969), and Germaine Greer (The female Eunuch, 1970).
Beauvoir’s book was instrumentals in awakening women about their plight as the “wife
servant” to their husbands in her famous quote “one is not born, but rather becomes, a
woman.”
Le movement de Liberation des Femmes or The Women’s liberation movement was

formed in Europe and they sought the right to education, right to work, and right to vote in
the 1940’s. Later, they also won women’s right to decide on their own bodies and their
sexualities. This liberation movement views the intersectionality of economic status or class
to patriarchy.
Inspired by Beauvior’s book, second-wave feminism in 1960’s thoughts the 80’s, women
drew attention to various social and cultural inequalities such as domestic violence especially
marital rape, reproductive rights, wage inequality, and etc. The 90’s gave birth to the 3rd wave
and 2012 started the forth wave. These movements only show that there is still much to be
done for women’s rights.
The United Nations reports that women do more than men because even when they work
at the office, they are still expected to do household tasks. Another report from Un Women
states that “women perform 66 percent of the worlds work, produce 50% of the food earn to
the income and own 1 percent of the property.” This is because in agricultural countries,
women participate in making the produce, but only the father or the male head of the family
controls the income.
To put simply, feminism demands equality. Here are few salient points that feminism
demands.
1. Women Suffrage- Women were not allowed to vote before because they were
viewed as irrational and temperamental and the therefore, not able to make rational
decisions. This changed after World War I (1914 to 1918) wherein women were
uprooted from the household. They took on jobs and made significant contributions to
their country. Many countries soon started letting women participate in making the
produce, but only the father or the male head of the family controls the income.
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2. Equality in politics and society- for hundreds of years, women’s voices were
silenced, society must make an effort to restore their rights. Representation is very
important for women, so that their genuine concerns are heard in politics and in
society. Feminist have always criticized that old, privileged men always make the
decisions for women at home and in politics.
3. Reproductive- rights means the women is in control of her body, and she can decide
for herself on what she sees is best for her. Contraception, abortion, and other
reproductive options should be available to women because it is because it is their
body.
4. Domestic violence- Such as marital rape and physical abuse are often dismissed by
society as part of a “marriage”. Although we have R.A or Violence Against Women
and their Children, our culture still dismiss such incidents as “away mag-asawa”.
5. Sexual harassment and sexual violence- the Center for Women’s Resources in the
Philippines estimates that one women or child is raped every hour mostly by someone
they know.
6. Others rights include the rights to divorce their husbands, the rights to make decisions
on her pregnancy, equitable, wages, and equal employment opportunity.
Lesson 3- Gender and Sexuality as a Subject of Inquiry
Lesson Objectives:
1. Define gender studies;

2. Discuss its historical origins; and
3. Explain its importance in the society
Definition of Terms
 Gender Studies- a field of study concerned about how reproductive roles are interpreted
and negotiated in the society through gender.
 Social research- the process of investigating social realities.
 Research approach- the orientation in understanding social realities. This can be
qualitative (interpretive), quantitative (deductive), or both.
 Ethics in research- these are considerations in conducting research to make sure that the
well-being of the participants are ensured, and that the outcome of the study is sound
without undue harm to people involved.
Introduction
Gender seems so obvious and so simple, many would ask why we have to study it. Well, gender
studies as an area of knowledge, is about looking into, analyzing, and examining society so that we notice
power relations in the seemingly “simple things". It helps us see the issues in our everyday lives through a
different lens.
The goal of this lesson is to define and appreciate gender studies. Gender is a big part of
our individuality and society; it is a form of social organization, and it is often unnoticed. In
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different cultures and different times in our history, gender roles played a big part of social
organization.
Gender role or sex role are “sets of culturally defined behaviors such as masculinity and
femininity” according to the Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender (2019). These roles are not fixed
such that the “culturally defined behaviors” for men and women may be very different 50 years
ago or very different for people from other countries or tribe. In a binary system of viewing
gender roles, we only see the male and the female where men are expected to be masculine while
women are expected to be feminine. This is the norm or the accepted standards of how to behave
like a woman (mahinhin) or how to behave like a man (matipuno/ matapang). In gender studies,
we are asked to disrupt and question these kinds of social expectations, gender roles, and gender
norms.
Gender studies is not just for women or all about women, it is about everyone. It
explores how our gender roles have changed throughout our history and how it created
inequalities. One hundred years ago, women were not allowed to study at universities since their
role was only restricted to domestic or the household. This repressed women's potential in
shaping the social and political landscape in the past, but it also placed the burden on the men to
provide for the whole family.
Our society has changed so much since then; the jobs available for everyone is not so
much dependent on physical strength, making these jobs accessible to women as well. Most
mothers also have a job now, so they also provide for the family. Gender studies would ask. us to
question, is it still right to say that the men are the providers of the family when both mothers
and fathers now work and earn money.
Diversity and Inclusion
Gender roles are socially constructed and are not something that we are “born with".
Society, through a lifelong process of normalization, encourages or reprimands behaviors to
make a child adapt to these social expectations.
A young boy is always encouraged to be brave, to play rough, to be loud, and to not show
signs of weakness such as crying. A young girl is discouraged from playing rough and being
loud, instead they are told to be gentle and soft. If a child does not follow these gender roles, they
are reprimanded by parents, relatives, friends, or anybody that they interact with. That is how
gender norm is forced upon an individual, a lifelong process of normalization.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people often do not fit in the traditional binary
gender roles so they are often reprimanded, bullied, and discriminated. They are often subjected
to violence and hate just because they do not fit in what society calls “normal”.
Gender studies lets us analyze the creation and maintenance of these gender norms so that
it does not create inequalities in our social, political, and economic spheres.
GENDER STUDIES AND RESEARCH
As a subject of inquiry, Gender Studies utilizes a systematic approach in identifying

problems, making hypotheses and assumptions, gathering data, and making conclusions. This
systematic process is referred to as the research process.
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Approaches in Research
Since Gender and Sexuality cuts across a variety of issues that could be biomedical,
psychosocial, or political-legal, there is no singular way in conducting the research process.
There are however a variety of approaches which can be used.
Qualitative approach focuses more on the meanings created and interpretations made by
people about their own personal or vicarious (observed) experiences. For example, if you want to
know how women, men, or LGBTQ+ live their lives on a daily basis and how they make sense
of their lived experiences, then the qualitative approach is fitting. Some of the methods used in
the qualitative approach are as follows:
 phenomenology- conducting intensive interviews with individuals who have experienced

a particular event and understanding their “lived experience”;
 hermeneutics-understanding the meaning of texts (literary works, art works) and what
they convey about human realities; and
 ethnography and ethnomethodology-immersing in a community and taking note of
their experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and practices.
Quantitative approach, on the other hand, focuses more on characterizing a population

(total number of individual in a group) or a sample (a sub-group within the population), and in
some cases, making generalizations about the population based on the behavior of a sample. For
instance, if you want to know how many Filipino adolescents are engaged in a romantic
relationship or how many of them still believe in marriage, then a quantitative approach is
appropriate. Some of the methods used in the quantitative approach are as follows:
 survey- collecting information from a sample; and

 experiment- creating actual set-ups to observe behavior of people in an experimental
group (a group receiving treatment such as training or a new experience) and comparing
it to the behavior of people in a control group (a group without any treatment).
In most cases, information from both qualitative and quantitative approaches provide a
holistic view about certain social realities, such that there are researchers who prefer to use
mixed methods (combining qualitative and quantitative methods to derive data from multiple
sources).
Ethics in Gender and Sexuality Research
There are some principles to remember in conducting gender and sexuality researches.
These principles are referred to as ethical principles because they make sure that people
involved in the research are protected from harm. Ethics is a prerequisite to a properly conducted
study. The following are the principles to remember:
 Informed consent - Researchers should make sure that the participants in the study are
aware of the purpose and processes of the study they are participating. in. They should also
ensure that only those participants who agree (in writing) will be included, and that they shall
not force any participant to join.
 Confidentiality and anonymity -Researchers should not reveal any information provided by
the participants, much so, their identity to anyone who are not concerned with the study. All
data gathered from surveys or interviews should also be placed in a secure location or filing
system.
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 Non-maleficence and beneficence - A study should do no harm (non-maleficence) to

anyone. Especially in researches involving humans, a study should be beneficial
(beneficence) for it to be worth implementing.
 Distributive justice - Any study should not disadvantage a particular group, especially the
marginalized and the oppressed (e.g., poor people, women, LGBTQ+, the elderly). The
benefits of a study should be for all.
GENDER, SEXUALITY, AND HUMAN ECOLOGY
Human Ecology, as a field, recognizes the interplay among internal and external
environments-physical, socio-economic, cultural (Bronfenbrenner 1994; Bubolz and Sontag
1983). Hence, to look at realities from an ecological perspective is to appreciate that human
development across lifespan is influenced by these environments. In the context of gender and
sexuality, a human ecological approach looks at human sexual lives and experiences at various
levels and spheres of analysis.
First, it sees gender and sexuality as an organismic and personal experience.
Summary
Gender, being male or female, has socially constructed meanings, and it is different in
every culture and may change with time. It is important to analyze how society enforce gender
roles on everyone so we can further understand how power relations in gender roles can limit an
individual's freedom and promote inequality. To help us have a holistic view, we need to use
frameworks and methods from different disciplines-psychology, sociology, medicine, and law-
among others. This book will provide you with sufficient theoretical and practical perspectives,
so you can understand gender and sexuality.
Lesson 4- Anatomy and Physiology of Reproduction
Lesson Objectives:
1. Differentiate the female and the male reproductive systems;

2. Understand the basis for physiologic processes in female and males.
Definition of terms
• Reproduction- process of producing off springs.

• Genitals- external sex organs
• Primary sex characteristics- sex characteristics that are present at birth.
• Secondary sex characteristics- sex characteristics that emerge during puberty.
Introduction
Human experience various physical and emotional changes from childhood to adulthood.
These stages are based on human growth and development from childhood, adolescence,
adulthood. These changes are gradually and progress at different ages and speed in different
people. These stages are based on human growth and development from childhood, adolescence,
adulthood, and old age.
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This chapter focuses on the adolescent stage of human development, which is
characterized by dynamic changes in physical and behavior traits. Despite differences in physical
appearance, the sexual organs of men and women arise from the same structures and fulfill
similar functions. Each person has pair of gonads: ovaries are females gonads; testes are the male
gonads. The gonads produce germ cells and sex hormones. The female germ cell are ova (egg)
and the male germ cells are sperm. Ova and sperm are the basic units of reproduction; their union
can lead to the creation of a new life.
The Biological Female
• Anatomy the study of body structure in relation to body parts.

• The female sexual anatomy is designed for the production and fertilization of ovum, as well as
carrying and delivering infant offspring.
• Puberty signals the final development of primary and accessory organs that support reproduction.
A. The Female External Genitalia consist of the following

 Vulva-all the external genital structures taken together;
 Mons veneris- pads of patty tissue between pubic bone and skin;
 Labia majora- outer lips surrounding all at other structures.
 Prepuce-clitoral hood (foreskin above and covering clitoris);
 Clitoris- glans (head), shaft, and crura (root), the clitoris is particularly sensitive to stimulation;
 Labia minora- inner lips surrounding the vestibule where sweat and oils glands, extensive blood
vessels, and nerve endings are located.
 Vestibule- are surrounding the urethal opening and vagina, which is highly sensitive with
extensive blood vessels and nerve endings
• Urethral opening- end of tube connecting to bladder and used for urination;
• Vaginal opening-also called introitus; and
• Perineum-area skin separating the genitalia from the anus; distance is less in females than males
B. The Female internal reproductive structures consist of the following as described and
shown below:
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• Vagina- collapsible canal extending from vaginal opening back and upward into body to
cervix and uterus. During arousal, it is engorged with blood. This aids its expansion and
triggers the release of lubricants from vaginal mucosa;
• Cervix- small end of uterus to which vagina leads. It is the operating in cervix leading to
interior of uterus;
• Uterus- womb, organs within pelvic zone where the fetus is carried;
• Fallopian tubes- carry egg cells from ovaries to uterus, this is where fertilization occurs;
and
• Ovaries- produce estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen influences female sex

characteristics and initiates menstrual cycle . Progesterone aids in regulation of menstrual
cycle and promotes mature development of uterine lining to allow for zygote
implantation. Also produce ova, egg cell, and bring them maturity. As many as I million
immature are present at birth, with about 400, 000 surviving to puberty. Of these, only
about 400-500 are typically brought to maturity and released into the fallopian tubes.
Puberty
The menstrual cycle marks the beginning of puberty in females. The first episode occurs
between 11 to 15 years of age referred to as menarche. Menstruation pertains to sloughing off of
the uterine lining if conception has not occurred. It may last within two to six days which follows
a cycle ranging from 24 to 42 days. Regardless of the length of the cycle, menstruation begins
about 14 days after ovulation (plus or minus one to two days). The overall cycle is governed by
hypothalamus as it monitor levels in the bloodstream.
It involves changes in the endometrium in response to the fluctuating blood levels

of ovarian hormones. There are three phases as described and shown in figure below.
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Menstrual phase
This occurs if the ovum is not fertilized and does not implant itself into the uterine lining. The
continued high levels of estrogen and progesterone causes the pituitary to stop releasing follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Estrogen and progesterone levels decrease
causing the endometrium to be sloughed off, and bleeding ensues. It is during this time that ovarian
hormones are at their lowest levels.
Proliferative phase
It occurs when the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH that stimulates the
ovaries to produce estrogen and causes ova to mature in the ovarian follicles. Endometrium is repaired,
thickens, and becomes well-vascularized in response to increasing levels of estrogens.
Secretory phase
It occurs when the pituitary gland releases LH that causes the ovary to release a mature ovum and
causes that remaining portion of the follicle to develop into the corpus luteum then, produces
progesterone. Endometrial glands begin to secrete nutrients, and lining becomes more vascular in
response to increasing level of progesterone.
Problems associated with menstruation include premenstrual syndrome (PMS) (80-95% of

women experience), dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation caused by overproduction of prostaglandins,
causing the uterine muscles to contract), and amenorrhea (disruption or absence of menstruation). All of
these involve the fluctuation of hormone levels associated with menstruation. At menopause (usually
around age 45-50), a woman stops menstruating as ova are no longer brought to maturity.
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During the three to four years of this transition women may hot flashes, night sweats, sleep
disturbances (resulting in fatigue, irritability, short-term memory loss, difficult concentrating), headaches,
anxiety, depression, and difficulty of becoming sexually aroused.
Female Secondary Sexual characteristics emerge after Puberty
1. widening of hips and pelvis- accommodates giving birth, but also results in downward shift in center
of gravity.
2. enlargement of beasts- at puberty, both the glandular and fatty tissues of the breasts develop
considerably. Differences in breast size between women are primarily due to differences in the amount of
fatty tissue. It is also not uncommon for one of a woman’s breasts to be slightly larger than the other. The
glandular tissue produce milk toward the end of pregnancy and after childbirth in response to hormone
levels.
Most Female Characteristics
 Generally shorter than men

 Greater proportion of body weight composed of fat than men
 Two X chromosomes reduces expression of many sex-linked conditions; and
 Lower mortality rate at every age and longer projected lifespan than men.
The Biological Male
The male sexual anatomy is designed for the production and delivery of sperm for
fertilization of the female’s ovum. Puberty signals the final development of primary and
accessory organs that support reproduction.
A. The male external genitalia consists of the following

• Prepuce- foreskin covering head of penis, removed in male circumcision;
• Penis- glans (head), shaft, and root. The glans is particularly sensitive to stimulation.
Running the length of the penis is the urethra surrounded by the spongy body and two
cyclindrical chambers known as cavernous bodies.
• Corona- rim of glans where it arises from shaft.
• Frenulum- thin strip of skin connecting glans and shaft on underside of penis.
• Scrotum- sac that encloses the two compartments housing the testes.
• Urethral opening- found on head of penis this is the end of tube connected to bladder and
used for urination. It is also tube to which internal structures deliver semen by which
males ejaculates; and
• Perineum- area of skin separating the genitalia from the anus, distance is greater in males
than females.
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B. The male internal reproductive organs:
• Testes- produce androgen, particularly large quantities of testosterone, which greatly influence
male development and drive sexual motivation; also produce sperm cells in virtually unlimited
quantity over the entire course of the lifespan.
• Vas deferens- travels from testicle toward urethra carrying sperm;
• Seminal vesicles- two glands that produce alkaline fluid rich in fructose sugar, comprising some
70% of semen volume. Alkaline nature may stimulate sperm to start self-propulsion and sugar
may provide sperm nutrients. Ducts carry fluid and connect with vas deferens forming ejaculatory
ducts;
• Ejaculatory ducts- ducts connect vas deferens to urethra;
• Prostate- gland producing alkaline secretions that accounts for about 30% of semen volume.
Alkaline nature may help counteract otherwise, acidic environment of urethra and vagina making
them more hospitable for sperm. Fluid passes through a series of ducts along wall of urethra; and
• Urethra- tube within penis that carries sperm and semen the rest of the way to the opening of the
penis.
Most Male characteristics:
• Generally taller and greater proportion of body weight composed of water;

• Proportionately larger heart and lungs, presumably to handle greater blood fluid volume;
• Exposure to greater levels of testosterone resulting in heavier body and facial hair, but
also increased frequency and degree of baldness; and
• Single X chromosome resulting in sex-linked conditions such as colorblindness and
hemophilia.
Male Hormones
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• The testosterone is the major male hormone produced mainly by testes, but there are other glands
called the adrenal glands that also produce some testosterone. In case a man has lost his testes,
these glands would continue to produce testosterone to support the male physical appearance.
Testosterone is responsible for the growth and development of a boy during adolescence and for
the development of sperm and secondary characteristics.
Male Secondary Sexual characteristics that emerge after puberty:
1. No monthly cycle;
2. Elongation of vocal cords (lower voice)
3. Broader shoulders; and
4. Deeper chest cavity.
Summary
Human experience various physical changes from childhood to adulthood. The adolescent stage is
characterized by dynamic changes in physical and behavioral traits. Despite differences in physical
appearance, the sexual organs of men women arise from the same structures and fulfill functions. Each
person has a pair of gonads: ovaries are female gonads; testes are gonads. The gonads produce germ cells
are sperm. Ova and sperm are the basic units of reproduction; their union can lead to creation of a new
life.
Lesson 5 – The Process of Reproduction
Lesson Objectives:
1. Define fertilization, conception and pregnancy;

2. Explain how the pregnancy occurs and its prevention
3. Identify the complications of early pregnancy in the growing adolescent.
Definition of Terms:
• Ovulation - the process when a mature ovum is released from the ovary and travels to the
fallopian tube for possible fertilization.
• Fertilization - union of the sperm and the ovum.
• Pregnancy- the process when an offspring develops within the mother's womb.
Introduction
Although human beings are fully sexually differentiated at birth, the differences between
males and females are accentuated at puberty. This is when the reproductive system matures,
secondary sexual characteristics develop, and the bodies of males and females appear more
distinctive.
Female puberty usually begins at about 8-13 years of age; the reproduction maturation of boys
lags about two years behind that of girls. The physical changes of female puberty include breast
development, rounding of the hips and buttocks, growth of the hair in the pubic region and the
underarm, and the start of menstruation.
How does one ovulate?
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The major landmark of puberty among females is the onset of the menstrual cycle, the
monthly ovulation cycle that leads to menstruation (loss of blood and tissues lining the uterus) in
the absence of pregnancy. The menstrual cycle is from the first day of a period until the day
before the next period starts. Normally, it lasts around 28 days, on the average, but can be as
short as 21 or as long as 40. Whatever the length, ovulation will happen about I0-16 days before
the start of the next period.
How does pregnancy occur?
For pregnancy to proceed, the sperm needs to meet up with an egg. Pregnancy officially
starts when a fertilized egg implants in the lining of the uterus. Pregnancy happens 2-3 weeks
after sexual intercourse. This is redundant so it was it redacted.
Conception is the process that begins with fertilization of an egg by the sperm and ends
with implantation. When a male and female have a sexual intercourse, the penis fits into the
woman's vagina. Ejaculation or coming releases the sperm via the penis into the vagina. The
sperm swims through the female's cervix, into the womb, and finally the fallopian tubes. Once
the egg or ovum has been released into the fallopian tube, hundreds of sperm swim up to reach it.
Finally, the sperm penetrates the egg in the fallopian tube where fertilization takes place and
eventually, becomes an embryo. Once the embryo (fertilized egg) attaches to the inner lining of
the uterus (endothelium), a fetus develops within five to seven days from a ball of cells floating
in the uterus, which officially begins pregnancy.
A normal pregnancy lasts 37-42 weeks (nine months). This is measured from the first day
of the last period. Pregnancy is discussed in terms of trimesters (three-month periods), since each
trimester is very different from the rest. After eight weeks, The embryo is officially referred to as
a fetus.
What can be done to prevent teenage pregnancy?
Teen pregnancy has a tremendous impact on the educational, social, and economic lives
of young people. Early parenting reduces the likelihood that a young woman will complete high
school and pursue the necessary post-secondary education needed to compete in today's
economy. Although there is a decline in teenage pregnancy rates it has been steady over the past
two decades. Teens are still engaging in sexual activity and teen girls are still getting pregnant.
17
18
There are serious health risks associated with early pregnancy because a young woman's
body is not mature enough to handle bearing a child. When a woman is under 20, the pelvic area
(the bone surrounding the birth canal) is still growing and may not be large enough to allow the
baby to easily pass through the birth canal. This can result in what is called “obstructed labor”.
Obstructed labor is dangerous to both mother and child and requires the help of trained medical
professionals. Under the best circumstances, the young woman will have an operation called a
“caesarean section” in which a cut is made in the abdomen and the baby is removed directly
from the uterus. A major contributor to high maternal mortality rates is adolescent pregnancy. If
a young woman is not physically mature, the uterus may tear during the birth process, and she
may die because of blood loss. If she is lucky and survives the delivery, she might face fistula
due to prolonged labor. A baby's head can also tear the vagina causing a hole between the vagina
and bladder or between the vagina and the rectum, resulting in what is known as a fistula. Unless
she has an operation to fix her problem, for the rest of her life, she will not be able to hold her
urine or feces and this will make her a social outcast.
In addition, younger women who become pregnant face a higher risk than older women
in developing a number of other complications. These complications can be any or a
combination of the following manifestations:.
 excessive vomiting;
 severe anemia;
 hypertension;
 convulsions;
 difficulty in breast feeding (if die girl is too young to produce milk);
 premature and low birth weight babies; infection; prolonged labor; and
 high maternal mortality or death.
The risk of having serious complications during pregnancy or childbirth is much higher for
girls in their early teens than for older women. Ages of 20-30 years are the safest period of
women's life for child bearing. The major difference between girls in their early teens and older
women is that girls aged 12-16 years are still growing. The pelvis, or the bony birth canal, of a
girl can grow wider by as much as 20% between the time she begins menstruating and the time
she is 16 years old. This widening of the pelvis can make the crucial difference between a safe
delivery and obstructed labor.
It is not surprising, therefore, to find that obstructed labor, due to disproportion between the
size of the infant's head and the mother's pelvis, is most common among very young mothers.
The consequences of such obstructed labor may be death due to numerous complications or
lifetime crippling conditions of vesico-vaginal fistula.
Summary
Reproduction involves the ova and sperm to fuse. Their union can lead to the creation of
a new life through pregnancy. This has explored the process of pregnancy and the changes that
happen during pregnancy. We have discussed the various ways of preventing pregnancy so that
the growing adolescent would be empowered to choose to avert from early pregnancy that can
lead to various life-threatening complications.
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LESSON 6- Sexual Health and Hygiene
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the important health habits for the developing adolescent;

2. Observe maintaining good hygiene; and
3. Know when to seek help from a health care professional.
Introduction
Puberty causes all kinds of changes in the adolescent's body. These bodily changes are
normal part of developing into an adult. There are instances when these changes can be a source
of anxiety to the growing teen. Does anyone not worry about smelly breath and underarms? This
further puts personal hygiene and healthy habits being important life skills for the teen.
Oily Hair
The hormones that create acne are the same ones that can make you feel like you're
suddenly styling your hair with a comb dipped in motor oil. Each strand of hair has its own
sebaceous (oil) gland which keeps the hair shiny and waterproof. But during puberty, when the
sebaceous glands produce extra oil, it can make your hair look too shiny, oily, and greasy.
Washing your hair every day or every other day can help control oily hair. Dozens of shampoos
are available in drugstores and supermarkets for you to choose from. Most brands are pretty
similar, although, you might want to try one that is specially formulated for oily hair. Use warm
water and a small amount of shampoo to work up a lather.
Do not scrub or rub too hard-this does not get rid of oil any better and can irritate your scalp or
damage your hair. After you have rinsed, you can follow up with a conditioner if you like; again,
one for oily hair might work best. When you are styling your hair, pay close attention to the
products you use. Some styling gels or lotions can add extra grease to your hair, which defeats
the purpose of washing it in the first place! Look for formulas that say “greaseless” or “oil free.”
Sweat and Body Odor
Perspiration, or sweat, comes from sweat glands that you have always had in your body.
But thanks to puberty, these glands not only become more active than before, they also begin to
secrete different chemicals into the sweat that has a stronger smelling odor. You might notice
this odor under your arms in your armpits. Your feet and genitals might also have new smells.
The best way to keep clean is to bathe or shower every day using a mild soap and warm
water. This will help wash away any bacteria that contribute to the smells. Wearing clean
clothes,socks, and underwear each day can also help you to feel clean. If you sweat a lot, you
might find that shirts, T-shirts, socks, and underwear made from cotton or other natural materials
will help absorb sweat more effectively. If you are concerned about the way your underarms
smell, you can try using a deodorant or deodorant with antiperspirant.
Deodorants get rid of the odor of sweat by covering it up, and antiperspirants actually
stop or dry up perspiration. They come in sticks, roll-ons, gels, sprays, and creams and are
available at any drugstore or supermarket. All brands are similar (and ones that say they are
made for a man or for a woman are similar, too, except for some perfumes that are added). If you
choose to use deodorant or antiperspirant, be sure to read the directions. Some work better if you
20
use them at night, whereas others recommend that you put them on in the morning. But keep in
mind that some teens do not need deodorants or antiperspirants. So why use them if you do not
have to? Deodorant and antiperspirant commercials may try to convince you that you will have
no friends nor dates if you do not use their product, but if you do not think you smell and you
take daily baths or showers and wear clean clothes, you may be fine without them.
Body Hair
Body hair in new places is something you can count on-again, they are hormones in
action. You may want to start shaving some places where body hair grows, but whether you do is
up to you. Some guys who grow facial hair like to let it develop into a mustache and beard. Some
girls may decide to leave the hair on their legs and under their arms as is. It is all up to you and
what you feel comfortable with. If you do decide to shave, whether you are a guy or girl, you
have a few different choices. You can use a traditional razor with a shaving cream or gel or you
can use an electric razor. If you use a regular razor, make sure the blade is new and sharp to
prevent cuts and nicks. Shaving cream and gel are often a better bet than soap because they make
it easier to pull the razor against your skin. Some of the newer razors contain shaving gel right in
the blade area, making even beginners feel comfortable shaving.
Whether you're shaving your legs, armpits, or face, go slowly. These are tricky areas of
your body with lots of curves and angles, and it is easy to cut yourselfif you move too fast. An
adult or older sibling can be a big help when you are learning to shave. Do not be afraid to ask
for tips. You might want to avoid shaving your pubic hair because when it grows back in, the
skin may be irritated and itchy.
Dental Hygiene
Dentists say that the most important part of tooth care happens at home. Brushing and
flossing properly, along with regular dental checkups, can help prevent tooth decay and gum
disease. To prevent cavities, you need to remove plaque, the transparent layer of bacteria that
coats the teeth. The best way to do this is by brushing your teeth twice a day and flossing at least
once a day. Brushing also stimulates the gums, which helps to keep them healthy and prevent
gum disease. Brushing and flossing are the most important things that you can do to keep your
teeth and gums healthy. Toothpastes contain abrasives, detergents, and foaming agents. Fluoride,
the most common active ingredient in toothpaste, is what prevents cavities. So you should
always be sure your toothpaste contains fluoride.
If you have teeth that are sensitive to heat, cold, and pressure, you may want to try a
special toothpaste for sensitive teeth. However, you will still need to talk to your dentist about
your sensitivity because it may indicate a more serious problem, such as a cavity or nerve
inflammation (irritation).
Tips on Proper Brushing:
Dentists say that the minimum time you should spend brushing your teeth is two minutes
twice a day. Here are some tips on how to brush properly:
Hold your brush at a 45-degree angle against your gumline. Gently brush from where the
tooth and gum meet to the chewing surface in short (about half-a-tooth-wide) strokes. Brushing
too hard can cause receding gums, tooth sensitivity, and, over time, loose teeth.
• Use the same method to brush all outside and inside surfaces of your teeth.
• To clean the chewing surfaces of your teeth, use short sweeping strokes, tipping the bristles into the
pits and crevices.
21
• To clean the inside surfaces of your top and bottom front teeth and gums, hold the brush almost
vertical. With back and forth motions, bring the front part of the brush over the teeth and gums.
• Using a forward-sweeping motion, gently brush your tongue and the roof of your mouth to remove
the decay-causing bacteria that exist in these places.
• The main reason for going to the dentist regularly'-every six months--is prevention. The goal is to
prevent tooth decay, gum disease, and other disorders that put the health of your teeth and mouth at
risk.
Healthcare Check for the Female:

The best time for a self-breast exam is about a week after the last day of your menstrual
period, when your breasts are not tender and swollen. This should be done at the same time each
month when you no longer have your menstrual period.
Keeping the external female genitalia clean:
• Use soap and water to wash the external genitalia and your underarms every day, especially during
menstruation.
• Use either a disposable pad made of cotton, which has a nylon base, or a clean piece of cotton cloth
to absorb blood during menstruation.
• Properly dispose of the pad after each use, or wash and dry the piece of cloth used as a menstrual
pad before reuse.
• Wash only the external genitalia. Do not try to clean the inside part of the vagina.
• While washing, wash starting from the vagina towards the anus. Do not wash from the anus towards
the vagina. This will allow germs to enter the inner genitalia easily and cause infection.
• Be aware of abnormal fluids from your vagina. Do not confuse this with normal vaginal fluids.
• If you see any changes in the vaginal fluid-a change in color or odor, please visit a health
professional. Healthcare Check for the Male: Keeping the external male genitalia clean: Wash the
external genitalia at least daily with soap and water, as you wash the rest of the body.
Healthcare Check for the Male:

Keeping the external male genitalia can:
 Wash the external genitalia genitalia at least daily with soap and water, as you wash the rest
of the body.
 Boys who are not circumcised need to pull back the foreskin and gently wash underneath it
with clean water.
 Be aware of any abnormal fluids coming from your penis. Do not confuse this with the
presence of normal fluids.
 If you see any abnormal fluid or wound, please visit a health professional.
Summary
In this chapter, we have identified the important health habits for the developing
adolescent to address the various changes that take place in the growing adolescent. Practical tips
on observing good and healthy hygiene daily have been highlighted as well as indications when
to seek help, especially from a healthcare professional.
Lesson 7- Risk Behavoir of Adolescents
Lesson Objectives:
I. Understand the risky behaviors of the growing adolescent;
22
2. Identify trouble signs that can lead to risky behaviors and its complications; and
3. Discuss how to avoid risky behaviors.
Definition of terms
 Risk- the probability that a hazard in the environment can actually negatively affect the
individual.
 Risk Taking- a behaviour of doing something regardless of the potential loss.
Introduction
Majority of the youth mature successfully through adolescence without apparent long
term problems. All adolescents should be considered at risk due to the prevalence of risk
behaviors, the inherent developmental needs of adolescents, and the various risk factors for their
initiation and maintenance.
Risk-taking is a normal part of adolescent development. Risk-taking is defined as

participation in potentially health-compromising activities with little understanding of, or in spite
of an understanding of, the possible negative consequences.
Adolescents experiment with new behaviors as they explore their emerging identity and
independence. The concept of risk has been established as a characteristic that exposes
adolescents to threats to their health and well-being. Young people may be exposed to similar
risks but respond differently. Some may not sustain any physical or emotional damage while
others may be affected for the rest of their lives. The challenge for health providers is to
distinguish between what may be normal exploratory behaviors and those that are health-
compromising. Health behaviors in adolescence continue into adult life and will influence health
and morbidity throughout life. During adolescence, young people begin to explore alternative
health behaviors including smoking, drinking alcohol, drug use, sexual intimacy, and violence.
The Department of Health, in its Adolescent and Youth Health Policy (2000), has identified the
following health risks: substance use, premarital sex, early childbearing, abortion, HIV/AIDS,
violence, accidents, malnutrition, and mental health.
Guidance of family is also important as the adolescent develops into a mature adult.
Family Arrangement, based on the 2006 McCann Erickson Study, has noted that 53% of
adolescents live with both parents. Because of the overseas Filipino worker (OFW) phenomenon,
5% live without the mother, 20% live without the father, and 23% live without both parents.
Data on non-sexual behaviors where adolescents engaging in vices, such as smoking and
alcohol drinking, show that the adolescent is the fourth highest in the country who are currently
smoking(20.7%). The adolescent is likewise, the fifth highest in the country who are currently
drinking alcoholic beverages (38.9%). More than three in 100 of adolescents have used drugs,
below the national average, while greater than eight in 100 have ever thought of suicide. This has
decreased from 2002 to 2013 compared to the general population. Those who attempted suicide
decrease to 2.4%, below the national average.
Sex and Media have been identified as key influencers among adolescents engaging in
high risk behaviors, as shown in studies in NCR and CALABARZON. Three in five have
watched X-rated movies and videos, the fourth highest in the country. Three in ten have sent or
23
received sex videos through cell phones or Internet, the second highest in the country. Six in Io0
have engaged in phone sex, higher than the national average.
Identified Sexual Risks that were found among the growing Filipino adolescents are as
follows:
One in three has sexual experience. They also engage in sex at younger ages: first sex for
boys: 17.6 years old while first sex for girls: 18.I years old. One in 50 had sex before age 15
while one in four had sex before age 18. Seven in I0 of Ist premarital sex cases are unprotected
against unintended pregnancy and sexually-transmitted infections (STI) including HIV-AIDS.
I.2% have paid for sex and 1.3% have received payment for sex, this is low but above the
national average level; 6.7% have engaged in casual sex; 4.1% mostly males have fu** buddy
(FUBU) experience; 6.3% have males having sex with males (MSM) experience; 2.9% of
married youth (including those in live-in) have engaged in extramarital sex.
Giving birth at younger ages has also been evident in the Filipino youth. Such that there
is a marked increase in teenage fertility in the past decade, 7.1% aged 15-19 are already mothers.
The proportion of women who begun childbearing increases with age: 2.0% aged 16, 31.2%
aged 19. Teenage fertility is the lowest among all regions of the country.
While prevalence of sexually transmitted infections like HIV and AIDS are increasing in
the youth, as of 2013, 86.7% have heard of HIV and AIDS with poor understanding being the
highest in the country noting that three in four think that they would not get AIDS.
Harmful practices
Culture and tradition play a significant role in shaping the way young people and adolescents
behave and lead their lives. However, young people have become victims of some harmful
traditional practices, which affect their human and reproductive rights. These practices differ
from place to place but primarily affect women.
Common drugs abused by young people and their effects:
1. Marijuana (also known as Cannabis, Grass, Joint, Splif, Hashish, Pot, Weed).
Marijuana is a plant grown and used worldwide. Usually people smoke the leaves but the
leaves and the stem can be made into tea, or even cookies. The effects vary. You can stay under
the influence for about two or three hours. Some people become relaxed and happy while others
feel panic or fear. Users' eyes usually become red and their throats and mouths will become dry.
Appetite may increase.
Effects: Marijuana causes increase in heart rate and dilation of certain blood vessels in the
eyes, which creates the characteristics of blood-shot eyes. Chronic bronchial irritation is one of
the long-term effects of chronic marijuana use. Other potential adverse effects include
impairment of long term memory, gum disease, increased risk of cancers of the mouth, jaw,
tongue and lung; and impairment of the immune system. Some studies have suggested that long-
term marijuana use may result in decreased testosterone levels, decreased sperm counts, and
increased sperm abnormalities in male users. Heavy marijuana use during pregnancy may cause
impaired fetal growth and development.
24
2. Mairungi (also known as Khat, Qat, and Mirraa).
Mairungi is the common name for a stimulant leaf that is chewed in much of East Africa.
Chewing Mairungi can help someone feel more awake, confident, and energetic and can also
reduce hunger. In fact, many students use it when “cramming" for exams.
Effects: Negative effects include sleeplessness, anxiety, aggressive behaviour, and

hallucinations. Some men are unable to get an erection after they have been chewing.
3. Alcohol.
Alcohol is the most common drug and is used worldwide. Because it is legal,
often kept in the home and comes in extremely cheap local brews, alcohol is extremely
easy to find and consume. At first, alcohol causes relaxation and people feel less self-
conscious. After more alcohol, and individual gets drunk; reaction time slows down and
thinking straight becomes difficult. (This is why people who are drinking are often
involved in car accidents).
Effects: Further drinking can cause slurred speech and aggressive behaviour that can lead
to fights, rape, or other kinds of violence. People who consume too much alcohol can end
up vomiting, becoming unconscious, or even dying. Because both young men and women
often lose their inhibitions when drinking, a girl might have unsafe sex with someone she
does not know and a boy might decide to force someone to have sex. Of course, the
consequences of these alcohol-based decisions can be very dangerous, even life
threatening.
Remember: when people drink, their ability to make healthy and safe decisions is
impaired
.
4. Cigarettes (tobacco, cigars).
Many young people start smoking tobacco products for different reasons
including: influence of friends, seductive advertisements, and older role models like
siblings' or celebrities, to mention a few. Young people find smoking a 'cool 'thing to do,
but they become addicted to one of the most addictive and dangerous substances,
Nicotine, which is an active ingredient in tobacco.
Effects: According to WHO (2006), tobacco is the second major cause of death in the
world. Nicotine, which is found in tobacco products including cigarettes, is highly
addictive. The tar in cigarettes increases a smoker's risk of lung cancer, emphysema, and
bronchial disorders. The carbon monoxide in smoke increases the chance of
cardiovascular diseases. Inhaling smoke passively causes lung cancer in adults and
greatly increases the risk of respiratory illness in children.
5. Cocaine (also known as Crack, Coke, C, Charlie, Nose candy, Toot, Bazooka, Big
C,Cake, Lady, Stardust, Coco, Flake, Mister coffee).
25
Cocaine is prepared from coca leaves which are greenish-yellow leaves of

different size and appearance. Cocaine is often called the “champagne of drugs” because
of its high cost. It makes one feel like his/ her body is going very fast. His/her heart races
and the “highs” and “lows” are sudden. Crack, which is smoked, is a much stronger form
of cocaine. Cocaine usually comes in a white powdered form and crack looks like hard
white rocks. It is usually snorted up the nose. It can also be injected or smoked.
Effects: A small amount of cocaine will raise body temperature, make the heart beat
faster, increase the breathing rate, make you feel over confident, and make you more alert
with extra energy. When crack is smoked, all of these feelings are intensified. Excessive
doses may lead to convulsions, seizures, strokes, cerebral hemorrhage, or heart failure.
Long term effects of cocaine/crack use will lead to strong psychological dependence and
other health problems like destroying nose tissues, reportorial problems, and weight loss.
6. Heroine (also known as Hammer, Horse, H, Junk, Nod, Smack, Skag, White, beige,
White lady, White stuff, Joy powder boy, Hairy, Harry, Joy powder).
Heroin is a drug obtained from morphine and comes from the opium poppy plant.
Heroin is a drug that slows down the user's body and mind. It is a very strong painkiller
and can be one of the most dangerous things to mix with other drugs. Heroin usually
comes in a rock or powdered form, which is generally white or pink/beige in color and
could also come in dark grey/medium brown. Heroin can be injected, snorted, smoked, or
inhaled. This last method is often called “chasing the dragon”.
Effects: When injected, heroin provides an extremely powerful rush and a high that
usually last for between four to six hours. The effects of heroin include a feeling of well-
being, relief from pain, fast physical and psychological dependence, sometimes nausea
and vomiting, sleepiness, loss of balance, loss of concentration, and loss of appetite. An
overdose can result in death. One of the most dangerous effects of injecting heroin is the
increased possibility of contracting AIDS. A lot of the time, people who inject heroin use
each other's needles, and this is the main source of infection. Studies have also shown
that people who are “high” on drugs tend to have unprotected sex. This too, puts the
person at risk of getting HIV.
7. Amphetamines (also known as Speed, Ice, Browns, Footballs, Hearts, Oranges, Wake
ups, Black beauties, Crystal meth, Crack meth, Cat, Jeff amp, Dexies, Rippers, Bennies,
Browns, Greenies, Pep pills).
Amphetamines are stimulants that affect a person's system by speeding up the activity of
the brain and giving energy. Ice is a strong type of amphetamine and is very similar to crack.
Amphetamines are man-made drugs and relatively easy to make. Usually, they are white or
light brown powder and can also come the form of a pill. “Ice” usually comes as colourless
crystals or as a colourless liquid when used for injecting. It can be swallowed, snorted,
injected, or smoked.
26
Effects: Amphetamines can cause an increase in heart beat, faster breathing, increase blood
pressure and body temperature, sweating, make the person more confident and alert, give
him/her extra energy, reduce appetite, make it difficult to sleep, and might make the abuser
talk more. The person using amphetamines may also feel anxious, irritable, and suffer from
panic attacks. Frequent use can produce strong psychological dependence. Large doses can
be lethal.
8. Ecstasy (also know as Ecstasy, Adam, Essence, MDM, MDMA, XTC, Eve, MDE,
MDEA).
Ecstasy belongs to the same group of chemicals as the above category that is stimulants,
and is most often used in the form of tablets at rave parties. Ecstasy is a drug. that speeds up the
users system by increasing his/her physical and emotional energy. Like amphetamines, ecstasy is
also a synthetic (or man-made) drug. Ecstasy is usually a small, coloured tablet. These pills can
come in many different colours. Some ecstasy tablets have pictures on them, such as doves,
rabbits, or champagne bottles. The colour or the “brand” of the tablet is usually unrelated to the
effect is of the drug. Ecstasy tablets are usually swallowed.
Effects: A person using ecstasy will probably feel happy, warm, loving and more energetic.
He/she would feel emotionally close to others, and might say or do things that he/she usually
would not. Nausea and vomiting, rise in blood pressure and heart rate, possibly even death due to
overheating of the body, and dehydration or loss of water are some effects of ecstasy. Feelings of
depression and tiredness are common after stopping the drug. There is mounting evidence that
prolonged ecstasy use can lead to brain and liver damage.
9. Inhalants and solvents.
Inhalants and solvents are chemicals that can be inhaled, such as glue, gasoline, aerosol
sprays, lighter fluid, etc. These are not drugs as such and are, in fact, legally available from a
large number of shops. However, they are abused widely by the poorer sections of society,
particularly street youth. Inhalants can look like almost anything (glue, paint thinner, gasoline,
lighter fuel, cleaning fluids, etc). They usually come in tubes or bottles. Often, the chemical is
placed in the bottom of a cup or container and then, placed over the nose and mouth. Other
methods include: soaking a rag in inhalant; placing the rag in bag or sack and then placing the
bag over the face, and inhaling the vapors.
Effects: Inhalants may give the user a “high” for a very brief period of time. They make him/her
feel numb for a short period of time, dizzy, confused, and drowsy. They can also cause
headaches, nausea, fainting, accelerated heartbeat, disorientation, and hallucinations. They can
damage the lungs, kidney, and liver in the long term. They can also cause suffocation,
convulsions, and comas.
Tips to Avoid Drugs:
 You do not need to take drugs to be liked by other people.

 You do not need to take drugs to feel brave or courageous.
 You do not need drugs to cope with sorrow or disappointments.
 You have, inside you, the strength and inner resources to deal with any situation and any
problem.
Whatever problem you are facing, there are people available to help you.
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You can talk to a friend, a teacher, a parent, or a trusted person at your church or mosque.
Summary
The developing adolescent is very vulnerable to high risk-taking behaviors that can harm
their growth and pose a threat to their future. Warning signs of a troubled teen should be
recognized and managed early on to prevent devastating effects on the growing adolescent.
Lesson 8 – Gender and Sexuality as a Psychosocial Issue.
Lesson Objectives:
When you finish reading this Chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define the term “Psychosocial”

2. Discuss the psychosocial dimension of gender and sexuality; and
3. Reflect upon one’s attitudes towards love, intimacy, and relationship.
Definitions of Terms:
Psychosocial- a term pertaining to psychological and social factors and the interaction of these
factors.
Psychosocial Issues- needs and concerns relating to one or all of the psychosocial
Reproductive Role- the social script ascribed to individuals pertaining to their role in child-
bearing and related tasks such as maintaining the household.
Productive role- the social script ascribed to individuals pertaining to their role in the economic
production and related tasks such as engaging in the public affairs and living in the world of
work.
Introduction
In previous sesions, we discused about the biological dimension of sexuality we learned that the
human person has biological mechanisms for sexual growth and reproduction, and that depending on sex,
these mechanisms differ.
At the beginning of this text book, we also emphasized that these reproductive mechanisms are
interpreted by societies, thereby, creating differentiated social standards for behavior and expectations.
For instance, since the human female is capable of bearing a child, the society interprets this capacity as
associated to womanhood, and thus, sets fulfillment of reproductive role as an expectation among women.
On the other hand, since the human male does not have the capability to bear the child but has a relatively
larger muscular-skeletal frame, the society expects the human male to perform productive role and
associates this role to men.
However, while there are distinct physiological differences, much of the capabilities, except those
involved in reproduction, can actually be performed by either sexes. Both women and men can perform
child-rearing roles. Both can also engage and succeed in the world of work. In many cases, the limits are
only set by social expectations.
These scenarios only exemplify that much about gender and sexuality is not only biological and
physiological but also psychological and social. This perspective of exploring and understanding human
sexuality in the lens of psychological social processes is referred to as psychosocial perspective.
What Does Psychosocial Mean?
The term “psychosocial” is an encompassing term. It is comprised by two primary aspects:

psychological and social. There are myriad of ways in defining these two terms but in essence,
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psychological pertains to anything associated with mental process and behavior, while social pertains to
anything associated with human relationships, connection, and interaction.
The psychological aspect of gender and sexuality anchors itself on the feld of psychology.
Psychology is a field of science which concerns itself with how people think and feel and how thoughts
and feelings interact and lead to behavior. There are three primary psychological domains: affect,
behavior, and cognition. Affect or the affective domain pertains to people's emotions and feelings.
Behavior or the behavioral domain pertains to people's actions-both observable (overt) or not readily
observable (covert). Cognition or cognitive domain pertains to people's thought processes such as
memory, perception, and information-processing. Hence, to say that gender and sexuality have a
psychological dimension is to note that our sexual behaviors, as well as gender-related behaviors,
originate from what we sense, think, and feel.
On the other hand, the social aspect of gender and sexuality primarily anchors itself on the field
of sociology and allied fields such as social psychology. In essence, Sociology is a field of science which
concerns itself with the human person's realities and experiences as part of groups and institutions,
including the structures and functions of these institutions, and the dynamics of human relationships
within them.
Understanding the Psychosocial Dimension
There are many ways through which the psychosocial dimension of gender and sexuality can be
understood and explained. Our experience of gender and sexuality is generally a relational experience. It
is relational because while as individuals, we have our own affect, cognition and behavior to be aware of,
we are also viewing ourselves in relation to others who also have their own personal preoccupations.
There are some elements of our gendered self which are best viewed in an ecological context-that is, in
the circumstances in our physical and social environment.
Awareness
Others at the front of our experience as gendered beings is awareness. in simpler terms,
awareness is our conscious understanding of something. As individuals, we are in constant process
towards self-awareness: Who and what am I? What do I like/dislike? What are my strengths and
weakness? What motivates me? What are my aspirations? We are in an endless process of asking and
trying to understand. In the context of gender and sexuality, we ask: What am I physiologically? Am I
happy with what I am? How do I genuinely see myself? How do I feel about myself as a sexual being? Is
there anything good I should do?
But then again, we are not isolated in a vacuum. We are social beings. We live our lives in
relation to others. Hence, as we try to understand ourselves more, we are also in a constant process
towards other-awareness, that is, understanding others: What is the other's motivations, preferences, and
aspirations? Where am I positioned in her or his life, vis-à-vis where is s/he positioned in my life? How
different and or similar am I and other?
Intimacy and relationship
In certain situations, when two people recognize and become aware of each other, they decide to
keep close distance in each other's lives, share their personal bubbles, so to speak, and allow frequency of
interaction between them. This forges some form of human relationship-a bond formed between two or
more people, manifested through communication and interaction. These relationships may be in the form
of family, friendships, romantic relationship, or others. While in these relationships, we share resources
and emotions, we, as individuals, constantly aim to further understand our own selves as we also try to
understand others and be understood by them. This process of knowing others and allowing others to
know us is intimacy.
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As social beings, we also learn from our own experiences and from the lessons taught to us by
those who have come before us. How we behave in relation to other people, with due consideration to
social expectations related to our gender, and how we make choices to balance out personal goals and
social goals, might be passed on to us through education and other cultural preoccupations. The process
by which we learn cultural norms and traditions is referred to as socialization.
At the end of it all, as rational beings, we are also capable of making sense of our experiences vis-
à-vis the influences of our environments and integrate these interpretations into our own choice.
Well-being as a Psychosocial Goal
The ultimate goal of understanding the psychosocial aspects of our experiences is well- being-a state
of satisfaction, meaning, and purpose. There are two sides to well-being. One is that kind of well-being
which is observed, outward, and can be evaluated through the presence or absence of particular elements
in our environment. This is referred to as objective well-being. In the aspect of gender and sexuality here
are some of the questions to ask:
 Does the physical environment allow expression of diversity? Does the physical infrastructure
mitigate any possibility of abuse and violence related to gender?
 Are material resources (money, properties) equitably available to men, women, and other people
with different genders? Are these resources sufficient for them?
 Are there health systems which cater to gender-related needs? Are there wellness programs that
support women, men and people of different genders?
Another side of well-being is our personal experience of satisfaction, meaning, and purpose. This
is referred to as subjective well-being. It is subjective because it pertains to our own appreciation of how
well we are. Sometimes, even when the environment fully provides for all our needs, we remain
unsatisfied, and thus, having low sense of subjective well-being. There are also moments where the
environment has shortcomings, but we are at peace and satisfied with common term the closes word to
also mean subjective well- being is happiness. Some of the question to ask are as follows:
 How far is your sense of satisfaction about the various areas of your life as a sexual being?
 Is your purpose as a person clear to you and if not yet, what are you doing to clarify this purpose?
Dimensions of Well-being
Based on what well-being means, we can see that there are various dimensions into it. The
following are just the primary dimensions of well-being which we must look into when trying to
understand the psychosocial condition of a person:
 physical-physical/biological health;
 emotional-positive feelings; mood stability;
 mental-clarity of mind; healthy thought process;
 material-available and adequate financial and other resources; and
 social-healthy and positive interaction and relationship with others.
Summary
One of the essential elements of our gender and sexuality is the psychosocial dimension, Aside
from upholding human dignity and human rights, one of the ultimate goal is of our discussions of gender
and sexuality is to ensure well-being among people of different genders. Understanding our psychosocial
needs and concerns, as well as the various elements of our psychosocial conditions as humans, is
necessary.
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LESSON 9- LOVE, INTIMACY AND RELATIONSHIP
Lesson Objectives
1. Define terms such as "love," "attraction," "intimacy," "relationship," and other related terms;
2. Discuss different theories of love;
3. Identify needs, issues, and concerns experienced by people who are in a romantic relationship;
and
4. Reflect upon one's attitudes towards love, intimacy, and relationship.
Definition of Terms
• Love - a complex phenomenon characterized by an affective and cognitive inclination to

someone and a set of social behaviors geared towards cohesion.
• Intimacy the psychosocial component of love; knowing and being known by someone
in a deeply personal level; emotional closeness and connection.
• Passion the emotive and physical component of love: drive towards sexual and
romantic attraction.
• Commitment - decision to engage and maintain a loving relationship.
• Relationship - social bond between and among individuals manifested through
communication and other forms of interaction. This bond may be biological determined
by social contracts such as social consensus or laws.
Introduction
In February 15, 2015, an article featuring a study by McCann World Group, among
30,000 respondents from 29 countries, came out of a national newspaper, bannering the title
"Filipinos most expressive about love among Asia Pacific countries—study" (Hegina 2015). The
article presented an interesting result: The Filipinos say "I love you" approximately 17 times in a
week, making us sixth among the countries in the survey, which are most articulate and
expressive.
Robert Sternberg, a psychologist renowned for his theory of love asked, in his 1986
paper: "What does it mean "to love" someone? Does it always mean the same thing, and if not, in
what ways do loves differ from each other?
In this chapter, we will tackle, perhaps, one of the most complex and celebrated human emotion
and experience: love.
LOVE AS A HUMAN EXPERIENCE
Love is a human experience differently defined and conceptualized
Love as a culture universal
Love is construed as a culture universal. A culture universal is a phenomenon

experienced similarly by people across time and cultures. This means that humans, whether those
who lived in the past or who are living now and regardless of their geographic location and
socio-cultural identities, have experienced love, in one way or another. Said differently, love is
an experience that transcends time and culture. People before us, such as our grandparents,
parents, and other adolescents like us who live in other countries, are believed to know and
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encounter love as we do. The way we appreciate and experience this phenomenon may be
unique, but it is a similar phenomenon altogether.
Love as a social phenomenon
Likewise, love is viewed as a social phenomenon. Social phenomena are events or

experiences which ensue within our interaction and relationship with other people. Loving
entails communication—the process of giving and receiving information between and among
people. It also entails the use of a language symbols that are culturally agreed upon as possessing
certain meanings and that are used by people to express certain realities and worldviews.
Love as an emotion
Love is also construed as an emotion. Emotions are physiological responses that we

evaluate psychologically as we experience particular life events. There are basic emotions such
as joy, sadness, fear, disgust, and anger among others. There are also complex emotions, which
are a combination of basic emotions in varying magnitudes and are made intricate by
circumstances surrounding the experience (e.g., the people involved, the place and time where
the emotion is experienced, etc.). Love, as we know it, is a complex emotion.
Love as a neurobiological event
With recent advancements in science, love, now, can be studied as a neurobiological

event. Every split of a second, information is being passed on within our nervous system—a
conglomerate of organs (including our brain, our spinal cord, and our nerves, among others)
responsible for our ability to process and transmit essential information among the many organs
in our body. The information comes in the form of electrical signal running along our neurons
(nerve cell), which movement is facilitated by our neurotransmitters—a variety of chemicals
found in our nervous system.
Neurobiological, the experience of love is associated with various parts of our brain. For
instance, the loving experience is commonly associated with the activation of the ventral
tegmental area (VLA) of our brain which is just right behind our left eyes. It is also associated
with the increased amount in endorphins—hormones believed to provide humans a good mood.
Theorizing Love
Since love is a rather complex idea, which can be described, defined and experienced in
myriad of ways, several theories and frameworks offer diverse perspectives on how it can be
understood and explained.
Psychodynamic view on love
Psychodynamic theory is a collective term, which pertains to the psychoanalytic tradition

forwarded by Sigmund Freud (a Viennese neurologist), as well as the succeeding theories that
support, redefine, or refute his propositions.
In a nutshell, the psychodynamic theory posits that we have desires and motives fuelled
by our life (eros) and death (thanatos) instincts. For instance, desirable behaviors that promote
positive relationship with others might be viewed as influenced by our life instincts, while
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aggressive behaviors that hurt, manipulate, or harm ourselves and others might be viewed as
influenced by our death instincts.
Both the life and death instincts are thought to stream from our unconscious—the
province of our mind, which we are highly unaware of. Likewise, the psychodynamic view puts
prime on the influence of our early life experiences (from conception to around six years old)—
referred to as formative years—in our personality development. Crucial to this life stage is our
relationship with our primary caregiver—typically the mother. It suggests that the kind of
attachment (psychic bond) we have with our primary caregiver/s, influence our relationships in
later life, including our choice of romantic partners and the way we relate and operate within this
partnership.
Hence, from a psychodynamic view, love can be seen as a manifestation of our eros and
the placement of our libido (life energy) unto an object (a thing or a person towards who we
transfer our psychic energies to ease pain or achieve pleasure).
Color wheel of love
John Alan Lee (1973), a Canadian psychologist, suggested that there are different types
of love. The primary types are: eros (sexual and romantic), philia (friendly), and storage
(parental/filial love). The secondary types are: pragma (practical love), agape (universal love),
and philautia (self-love). It is possible for us to experience not just one, but two or more of these
types of love in our lifetime. A child who loves her parents (storage) might eventually find new
friends whom to like once they go to school (philia) and then experience romantic love (eros)
especially during her youth
Triangular model of love
One of the most popular theories of love is the triangular model by Sternberg (1986), a
psychologist. This theory looks at love from a psychometric stance, which means that it is
generally concerned about trying to measure love as a psychological variable and in determining
the various dimensions and facets that love has as experienced by people.
LESSON 10 SEX AND SENSES
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss the human senses in the context of sexual response; and

2. Show appreciation of how the sensorium contributes to our experience of human
sexuality.
 Sensorium – the totality of our senses and perception: a conglomerate of the individual sense
organs.
 Olfaction – sense of smell.
 Tactile – something associated with touch.’
 Pheromone – a substance believed to be emitted by organisms and which is thought to be
influencing social behaviors
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 Major Histocompatibility Complex – a set of protein molecules associated with the

immune system.
Introduction
When we were children, we were taught that there are five bodily organs, which
corresponds to our primary senses, that we use to explore and experience the world around us.
Our eyes enable our sense of sight (visual), so that we are able to see visual stimuli (color, size,
shape) in the environment. Our nose enables sense of smell (olfaction), so that we are able to
experience scent. Our ears allow us sense of hearing (audition), so that we are able to experience
sounds of varying tones, pitches, and volume. Our tongue is covered with taste buds that allow
us sense of taste (gustation), so that we are able to experience the taste (e.g., saltness, sweetness,
bitterness, etc.) of our food and other objects we put in our mouth. Then, we have sensory
reception in our skin, muscles and joints which allow us sense of touch/feeling so that we are
able to have tactile experiences, e.g., heat or its absence, various texture, various physical
pressure.
These five senses comprise our sensorium – the totality of our sensory experiences and
perception. While we receive information from our environment through the senses, our brain
has the ability to organize and interpret these numerous stimuli into meaningful ideas that are
useful for our choices (behavior).
HUMAN AFFECT AND THE SENSES
Interestingly, while human beings are hailed as rational beings who are constantly
making choices and are behaving through a set of rational choices made from higher order
thinking (e.g., evaluating, judging), it is hypothesized that our affect (emotions and feelings)
actually play a major role in our behaviors.
Affective Primary Hypothesis (Zajonc 1980) postulates that in many cases, cognitive
processing (i.e., higher order thinking) plays a lesser role compared to our emotional responses
in eliciting behavior. By virtue of this hypothesis, by default, our emotions take precedent
primarily because these are only processed and modulated by the limbic system – the emotional
part of our brain which is more primitive compared to the ones responsible for higher order
thinking (e.g., neocortex).
This is where the sensorium and the human affect meets. Here it will help us to think of a
particular case: Imagine walking in the woods with your friends when all of a sudden, venomous
snake drops down in front of you. How will you respond to the situation?
As part of our mechanisms for evolution, humans like us have three primary emotional
responses: fight, flight, or freeze. A fight response is when we face adverse or dangerous stimuli
squarely. This would mean grabbing the nearest solid object in the environment and throwing it
to the snake to “shooo” the snake away. A flight response is when we move away from the
adverse or dangerous stimuli. This would mean running away from the place, finding a new
route where the snake cannot find you. A freeze response, on the other hand, is when you are
startled and are unable to make a choice, thus, are unable to move. Sometimes, the freeze
response can also be used to buy time so you can calculate the advantages and disadvantages of
your choice: shall you fight the snake or fly away from the scene.
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In all three basic emotional response, there is a requirement: We should be able to sense
the environment, organize the stimuli we receive, and interpret these stimuli, so we can make a
choice and corresponding action. This makes our sensorium a necessary component of the
emotional response arc.
SENSES AND SEXUALITY
Having provided an overview on how human affect, the sensorium, and the brain’s limbic
system coordinate, we are now ready to discuss how the various senses play in the human sexual
response.
Visual Experience
Humans are predominantly visual. Our societies highly rely on visual culture to co-create
meaning and convey information. For instance, our language has a visual component, as
observed from our writing systems. Walking down the streets, you will see a lot of signs which
directs you what to do or not do. You will see signages placed on business establishments to tell
you where to buy your groceries, ask for medical help, or go to school. These only show that
visual culture is an essential element of our society. It is only appropriate to utilize these visual
cues since visual memory is deemed superior to other forms (Cohen et. al 2008). It is assumed
that, at the average, when realities are presented visually, we tend to remember them and easily
retrieve them from our memory.
In the context of human sexuality, some studies have explored gender differences in
visual stimuli and sexual arousal. For instance, the study of Rupp and Wallen (2007) found that
men respond more to visual sexual stimuli and tend to be influenced by the sex of the actors in a
sexual scenario. This means that when confronted by an intimate interaction, men would tend to
be rather influenced by visual cues, e.g., how the person looks physically or what the other
person is wearing. In the same study, on the other hand, women were found to be more
influenced by context, although they, too, are responsive to the sexual content of a visual stimuli.
This means that when confronted by an intimate interaction, women tend to be rather influenced
by the nature of relationship they have with another person, e.g., is the other person someone
they know and can trust.
Other studies explored how heterosexual men and women would respond to female-
filmed and male-filmed videos (Lann 1994) and to female-chosen and male-chosen videos
(Peterson and Janssen 2007). These studies established that either gender respond more intensely
on materials filmed and chosen by people of similar gender.
What can we glean from these studies? Women and men differ in strategies of viewing
sexual stimuli. Women tend to pay more attention to contextual and nonsexual cues than men
(Lann and Everaerd 1995), and thus are putting prime on subjective valuing of circumstances.
OLFACTORY EXPERIENCE
Olfactory sense is, in terms of evolution, one of the oldest senses, allowing the organisms
with receptors for the odorant to identify food, potential mating partners, dangers and enemies.
For most living creatures and for mankind smell is one of the most important ways of interaction
with the environment.
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In 1950s, Olfaction in non-human animals, which are believed to be microsmatic
organism or organisms having greater sense of smell, have been an interests among
psychologists.
Conversely, human and apes are generally believed to be microsmatic (lesser levels of
olfaction) compared to their non-ape counterparts. However, recent studies in the field of human
sexuality show that while we humans have limited olfaction, sense of smell may play an
important part in our sexual response.
For instance, in a study by Muscarella, Arantes and Koncsol (2011) explored on the
preferred scent among heterosexual and homosexual males and females. The study found that
heterosexual females who participated in the study tend to like wearing floral-sweet but musky-
spicy scent to be worn by their partners. Heterosexual males and homosexual females in their
study study preferred musky-spicy scent and like their partners to wear floral-sweet scent. On the
other hand, homosexual males who joined the study wanted musky-spicy for themselves and
their partner.
Scientists have tried to explain how human olfaction influence sexuality.
They identified through possibilities:
1. Through what is referred t as signature odor which is associated with the Major
Histocompability Complex, a set of proteins signaling our immune system the presence of
foreign substances
2. Through what is referred to as pheromones, substances putatively excreted by our glands

which signals mood and affects social behaviors
One of the famous studies about MHCs is the "Sweaty T-shirt Experiment“ (Wedekind
and Fūri 1997; Wedekind et al, 1995). In these experiments it was found that individuals tend to
be attracted to other people with different set of MHC genes.
Humans' interest in pheromones, has been present since the early 1930s when an
entomologist Bethe (1932) suggested that there are hormones emitted outwards the body, these
are called "Ectohormones".
In a few decades, the term was replaced with the word pheromones and eventually, the
concept was generalized to be true also to mammals.
In the 1970s, the McClintock effect (1971) or menstrual synchrony — the oservation
that females in the same dormitory usually would have their menstruation at nearly the same
time — was thought to be due to pheromones.
This culminated in the 1980s when the presence of a human pheromone was hypothesized
(Cutler and Preti, 1986).
What do scientists think human pheromones do?
According to Cutler (1999), Pheromones act as:
1. Attractants of the opposite sex

2. Repellants of the same sex
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3. Stabilizer of mother-infant bond
4. Modulators of Mentrual Cycle
Some chemicals thought to be human hormones are:
1. Androstadienone (AND) - a testerone-like substance found in male sweat, saliva and

urine.
2. Estratetraenol (EST) - an estrogen-like found in female urine.
3. T-Pyrroline - a substance found in human semen, pubic sweat and smegma.
TACTILE EXPERIENCES
Tactile experiences or sensations are received or felt by touch. Touch is observed to be

an element of intimacy. Our is covered in skin, often referred to as largest bodily organ. Our skin
totally accounts for 16-20% of our body weight.
It is a sensitive organ as every square inch of it houses more than a thousand nerve
endings. Hence, in social interactions, particularly intimate ones, touch holds meaning. There are
only people who we allow to touch us. There are only parts of our bodies we allow people to
touch. Touching, just like any behavior may also be governed by social norms
As a sensation, touch has some elements. Tactile element pertains to the experience relative to
the object being felt.
For example:
Is it rough? Is it smooth? Is the surface hard or soft?
Then, there is thermal element.
For example: Is it warm or cold?
Lastly, there is vibrational element.
For example:
Is the pressure of the touch strong or weak?
Is the sensation moving and pulsating or steady and stationary?
Different parts of the human body also have different threshold of tactile experience.
Areas such as the mouth, anus, genitals and nipples are referred to as "Primary Ergonous
Zones" — as they are very sensitive to touch.
The back, check, neck and buttocks are "Secondary Erogonous Zones" — as they are
also sensitive to touch but only supportive of the primary zones in eliciting response.
Often these erogonous zones are areas of the body involved in the reproductive and
sexual act.
Human touch is essential in social bonds. Often, we only give people we trust the right to
have tactile contact with us. It is always a consensual act to touch and be touched.
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When we touch, our body produces a hormone called "Oxytocin". It is referred to as the
love hormone because it is believed to influence tribal behavior and maternal bonding. Oxytocin
is observed to be produced in vast amounts during nipple stimulation, such as for instance when
a mother suckles her newly-born.
In intimate relationships, touch is suggested to be one of the love languages. A person

whose love language is touch tend to give and receive tactile stimulation to and from others
through holding, hugging and other forms of physical connections.
LESSON 11: SEXUAL BEHAVIORS
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss the variety of sexual behavior in humans

2. Tackle atypical sexual variations and
3. Show appreciation of the diversity of human sexual expression
 Sexual Behavior - an action with sexual intention and context

 Erotic - related to sexual stimulation; has something to do with the erogenous zones
 Sexual response cycle - sequence of events from arousal to orgasm to resolution of
sexual tension
 Sexual dysfunction - a concern or problem in any of the phase of the sexual response
cycle (e.g., inability to have an erection or orgasm, painful intercourse.)
 Copulatory behavior - related to the insertion of the penis to the vagina.
 Paraphilia - arousal from nonliving objects and or nonconsenting person.
Introduction
In early discussions, we mentioned that psychology has three primary components:

Affect(emotion and feelings), cognition (thought process) and behavior (actions). Hence, when
used as an framework in understanding human sexuality, it is only appropriate to explore the
diversity of behavior relevant to our understanding of human sexuality.
What is behavior? In simple term, it refers to actions. These are things that we do, both
over overt or observable and covert or not readily observable by the naked eye. On a daily basis,
we act because of the motivation-something that drives us to do something. Some psychologists
believe that we behave as a response to stimuli. Others believe that we do things because we
want to achieve a goal towards the fulfillment of our own potentials and aspirations as a human
in search of meaning.
What is interesting about behavior is it readily measurable as opposed to feelings and

thoughts. You can look at its frequency - how many times an action is done in a span of time.
You can also check on the duration - how long does an action take place, say, in seconds,
minutes or hours. A behavior has an intensity the magnitude by which it is done: is it forceful? Is
it weak? The there is diversity - what are the varieties of a similar behavior done in various
context or what are the different behaviors we are capable of depending on our physical
characteristic.
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SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Sexual behaviors are actions that humans agree to interpret as an expression of their
sexual motivations or intentions. it is important to remember that behaviors are given meaning
by people. For instance, while hugging and kissing maybe considered sexual in nature, this is
not always the case because the context of the behavior matters.
Sexual behavior are generally erotic behavior such that they involve any of the primary or
secondary erotic zones. Earlier we mentioned that body parts such as face, neck, genitalia and
chest, among others are erogenous zones.
Sexual behavior can be type according to the aim of the behavior. For instance, sexual
behavior such as masturbation or stimulation of ones own genitals can be considered as auto-
erotic (self directed). Erotic motivations can also be directed to the other people of same sex or
of the opposite sex. Homoerotic behavior are sexual behaviors oriented to the same sex. On the
other hand, heteroerotic behavior are used to refer to sexual behaviors oriented to the other sex.
For reproductive purposes, or the insertion of the penis to the vagina is necessary. Human
can assume two positions in this process. More common is the ventral-ventral position
(ventris:abdomen), HEREIN THE MALE AND THE FEMALE SPECIES ARE FACING EACH
OTHER. Alternatively, a ventral-dorsal positions (dorsum:back), maybe assume wherein the
abdomen of the male species is facing the dorsum of the female species, such that insertion of the
penis to the vagina is from behind.
SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
For heterosexual couples, one of the ultimate goals of the sexual act is reproduction. this
made possible through the fertilization of the ovum by a sperm, which necessitates ejaculation
(release of sperm) from the human male into the the internal reproductive system of female.
Before this ultimate process, both male and female undergoes a sequence of bodily changes
which prepare them for sexual climax. this sequences changes is referred to as the sexual
response cycle.
MASTER AND JOHNSON’S MODEL (1966 - 1970). Masters and Johnson (1966-1970)
proposed that the following four phases in the cycle:
EXCITEMENT. Is the first phase in the cycle. For the human male, goal of the phase is erection
or tumescence (the elongation and stiffening of the penis) so that it can be efficiently inserted
into vagina. At this phase, the testes and scrotum start to elevate and some parts of the skin (e.g.,
in the breast and chest) reddens - a phenomenon referred to as sex flush. For human female, the
goal of this phase is to lubrication (wetness of the vaginal orifice to facilitate insertion of the
penis). lubrication is made possible by vaginal vasocongestion. At this phase, there is swelling of
the glans clitoris and the labia minora, and there are sex flushes in breast and chest. In both male
and female humans, heart rate increases during excitement phase.
PLATEAU. The excitement phase is followed by the plateau phase. This phase is characterized
by a sustained peak in stimulation of the organs. In the human male, the corona and glans penis
become enlarged and reddish. Internally, the Cowper’s glands release a lubricating fluid and the
testes and the scrotum are totally elevated. In the human female, the outer vagina swells while
the inner vagina expands and becomes elongated creating the orgasmic platform (tenting).
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ORGASM. the orgasm phase is the climax of sexual response cycle. It is a stage of release
wherein the human male achieves ejaculation and the human female is ready to receive the
sperm for possible fertilization. In the human male, ejaculation is made possible by the
contraction of the vas deference, seminal vesicles and urethra, followed by the contraction of the
rectal sphincter. In the human female, the vagina, uterus and anal sphincter also contract.
RECOLUTION. In the resolution phase, the male penis return to its normal unerected phase,
whereas the testes and the scrotum descend. In the human female, the outer and inner
reproductive organs also relax.
KAPLAN’S MODEL. Unlike Master and Johnson’s model (1979) sees the sexual response
cycle as having relatively independent stages. The three phases of this model include: 1. desire 2.
arousal 3. orgasm.
DESIRE. Desire is the psychological component of the sexual cycle. It involves sexual thoughts
and feelings, which are necessary for a satisfying sexual experience. However, desire does not
necessarily translate into action.
AROUSAL. Arousal phase is the phase where the excitement and plateau (as define by master
and johnson) take place. It is the psychological component of sexual response, wherein bodily
changes occur as an outcome of sexual stimulation. Just like desire, Arousal may not necessarily
translate into orgasm.
ORGASM. Orgasm in Kaplans Model is generally similar with that of the master and johnsons
model, except that this phase also include resolution phase. In kaplans model, orgasm is the
completion of the sexual response.
SEXUAL RESPONSE DYSFUNCTION
Some people experience difficulty or problem in a some of the sexual phases. The
following are the common sexual response dysfunction.
SEXUAL DESIRE DISORDER. When an individual has a low level of desire or has an
aversion to sexual activities.
SEXUAL AROUSAL DISORDER. When an individual has problems in achieving necessary

physiological state for copulation (e.g., erectile dysfunction in males.)
ORGASMIC DISORDER. When as individual has problem in achieving orgasm (e.g.,

premature ejaculation among males; male and female orgasmic disorder)
SEXUAL PAIN DISORDER. When there is experience of pain during the sexual response
cycle (e.g., painful erection or dyspareunia, and vaginal spasms or vaginismus)
The origin of sexual dysfunction disorder are varied. It can be organic (problem with the
anatomy and physiology of the reproductive organ). It can also be psychosomatic (a
psychological concern which manifest physically). hence, there are also a gamut of interventions
that are either biomedical(e.g., surgery, medication) or psychosocial (e.g., psychotheraphy,
education, marital or couples counseling).
PARAPHILIAS
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While there are typical sexual behaviors among humans, there are also those behaviors
that are relatively atypical. There are atypical due to any of the following reasons: 1. they are not
prevalent 2. they are dangerous to self and others 3. they are bizzare and are not socially
acceptable, and 4. they are distressing either to the doer or to the other people involved in the act.
Among these atypical sexual behavioral variations, which is also considered by the APA
as a disorder, is paraphilia. Paraphilia is when an individual gets sexually aroused by an object, a
person, or a circumstance that are unusual (e.g., pain-inflicting, humiliating, non-consenting
persons). A paraphilic disorder is when the urge or act lasts for at least six months and is a
manifestation of clinically significant distress.
Some of the common paraphilic disorder are as follows:
 EXHIBITION pleasure form exposing ones genitals to non-consisting people.

 FETISHISM arousal from non-living object (e.g., shoes, socks, body parts)
 FROTTEURISM touching or rubbing one’s body or genitals to non-consisting people.
 PEDOPHILIA arousal from children (prepubescent)
 SEXUAL MASOCHISM arousal from actual suffering or humiliation
 SEXUAL SADISM arousal from actually inflicting pain to others
 TRANSVESTIC FETISHISM (for heterosexual males only) arousal from wearing clothing
by the opposite sex during sexual activities.
 VOYEURISM observing other people engaged in sexual activities.
NOTE: For paraphilic to be considered a paraphilic disorder, diagnosis has to be made. Only
trained psychologist or medical doctors can make such clinical judgement after lengthy and
comprehensive assessment.
SUMMARY
The behavioral aspect of human sexuality provides a holistic perspective as to how

physiological and psychological elements coalesce towards actions. In certain cases, behaviors
often serve as an indicator whether as organism is functional or are having problems. By know
what is normal and acceptable , as well as what behavior is the opposite, we are able to make
intelligent judgment on issue concerning human sexuality.
Lesson 12 Stereotype, Prejudices and Discrimination
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination; and
2. Understand the manifestations of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination on gender.
Definition of terms
Stereotype- extremely generalized belief about a group of people
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Prejudice- unjustified or incorrect attitude towards a person
Discrimination- When stereotypes and prejudice translate into a negative acts towards a person.
Introduction
There are 7-7 billion people across 195 countries and every race has their own belief
systems, religion, culture, and tradition. Yet, each individual is a unique mix of their own. That is
why appreciating diversity is very important to fully understand the human experience and for us
to coexist peacefully. However, understanding diversity requires us to broaden our appreciation
of the many facets of the human race and recognize that we have our own stereotypes, prejudice,
and discrimination too.
STEREOTYPES
Stereotypes are an "over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people"

(Cardwell 1996). It can be helpful in simplifying things, after all, there 7-7 billion people in the
planet. When we meet someone for the first time, we associate with them certain characteristics
and abilities that we usually base on the group they belong to.
While some stereotypes convey positive examples (like a student from Ivy League
schools would be stereotyped as very intelligent or matalino, or Filipinos being known for our
hospitality), most stereotypes, however, are drawn from negative generalizations like equating
our Muslim countrymen as terrorists and viewing farmers and blue-collar workers as lazy and
less educated.
Prejudice
Prejudice is an "unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual

based solely on the individual's membership of a social group" (McLeod 2008). Prejudice
represents our emotional response upon learning of a persons' membership to a specific group
(like age, skin color, race, disability, generation, nationality, religion, sex, sexual expression,
gender expression, and so on).
This negative attitude (prejudice) can be dangerous since it often leads to negative
actions and behaviors. For example, a sexist person is someone who has negative attitude
towards the other sex and sees them as the lesser sex. This negative attitude could manifest into
action such as bullying, discrimination, or violence.
Discrimination
Discrimination refers to actions or behaviors towards an individual or a group of people.

According to the United Nations, 'discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve
some form of exclusion or rejection
People who are discriminated on are treated worse than the way people are usually
treated just because they belong to a certain group or they have certain characteristics. Here are a
few examples of discrimination:
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Genocide is the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated
inhumanly and degraded.
Apartheid (means separateness) is a form of racial discrimination wherein one race is viewed as
less than the other, resulting in the separation of black and whites and the mass murder of
Jews in concentration camps.
Gender Discrimination is another common form of discrimination. Statistically, women earn

less than men and are often relegated to be solely responsible for child-rearing and house chores.
Men, on the other hand, are discriminated in household responsibilities such that they are
perceived as less manly when they do their share of house chores or when they become stay at
home husbands.
• LGBT discrimination happens when LGBT people are treated as lesser than straight people.
Discrimination happens early in their childhood as they get bullied when they act differently
or dress differently than other kids. During adolescence, they get judged, bullied, or
physically assaulted as they explore and express their sexuality.
Restricting opportunities or privileges that may be available to other groups is discrimination,

like the right to vote in national elections. In the Philippines, women only gained the right to vote
in 1937 and before that, Filipino women had no legal rights even to own properties. That form of
institutional discrimination was base &on illogical or irrational judgement that women are
weaker than men.
FREEDOM AND EQUALITY
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states that "all human
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights." This declaration was drafted by member
countries of the United Nations, including the Philippines, in 1948. This monumental document
outlines the fundamental rights of every human being that should be protected by everyone at all
times. Its preamble recognizes that the "inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights
of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the
world."
While discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in many
countries, many have shifted towards making opportunities and privileges accessible to
everyone. In many countries, people of the same sex can now get married and create their own
families while enjoying the same rights as straight couples. In the Philippines, all establishments
are now required by law to have an access ramp for people with disabilities. Appreciating
diversity of the human race is key to making a safer and more inclusive environment for
everyone, regardless of race, sex, religion, sexuality, gender, or creed.
While discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in many countries,
many have shifted towards making opportunities and privileges accessible to everyone. In many
countries, people of the same sex can now get married and create their own families while
enjoying the same rights as straight couples. In the Philippines, all establishments are now
required by law to have an access ramp for people with disabilities. Appreciating diversity of the
human race is key to making a safer and more inclusive environment for everyone, regardless of
race, sex, religion, sexuality, gender, or creed.
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Summary
Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination is a sensitive issue for many people since it can be
traced to our history, culture, tradition, and religion. However, with the Internet and technology,
we now live in a world that seems to have no borders. It is important to create a society that
respects the uniqueness of every human being and uphold everyone's dignity and rights.
LESSON 13: LGBT PSYCHOLOGY
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss LGBT History and Relevant LGBT Terms; And

2. Explain the Importance of these Terms.
Definition of Terms;
 LGBT- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, an acronym used to refer to different

genders.
 Lesbian- women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to women.
 Gay- men are who emotionally and sexually attracted to men.
 Bisexual- men or women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to women or men.
 Transgender- when your gender identity (how you feel) is different from your physical
sex (male/female).
Introduction
Labels are so powerful it can be used to discriminate and oppress people. Like how the
German Nazi’s used the word ‘Aryan Race’ to mean superior and ‘Jews’ and ‘homosexual’ to
justify their mass murder of what they called as inferior ‘race.
However, labels can also empower people to claim their space in our society, especially
in the political sphere. Language can be used to avoid offense or disadvantage to certain groups
of people like using “Persons with Dis-Abilities” instead of disabled, ‘African American’ instead
of blacks’, and LGBT’ instead of ‘homosexuals.”
Views on LGBT In History:
Sexual and emotional attraction towards the same sex has been recorded throughout
history of mankind. In china 600 BCE, they used the terms’ pleasures of the bitten peach and
‘Brokeback’. In Japan, they have ‘shudo’ or ‘nanshoku’. ‘Kathoey’ is used in Thailand to refer to
lady boys. In the Philippines we have the ‘babaylan’ and the ‘catalonan’ who were mostly
women priest, but some are males who lived their lives as women.
Society’s attitude towards homosexuality and other gender variants change through
history. In Ancient Greek, all males are expected to take on a younger male lover in a practice
called “pederasty”. Some societies, like the indigenous Native Americans, accepted and
celebrated what they called ‘two-spirited’ person in a dance to the ‘Berdache’.
However, late cultures see it as a “sin” following the abrahamic religion which branded it
as sodomy, A crime against nature. As these cultures colonized other countries, it enforced its
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belief systems of viewing same sex attractions as a sin through violence such as killing
homosexuals through burning, stoning, or being fed to the dogs.
Homosexuality was classified as an illness in the 19th century as a basis for them to
legally persecute homosexuals, imprison, and commit them to a mental institution. An example
of this percussion in 1952 for homosexual acts. He was sentenced with chemical castration
treatment, and he later died through cyanide poisoning.
As science advanced through years of extensive research, the APA removed

homosexuality as psychiatric disorder or sickness in 1973. This decision was after many years of
struggle from the ay and lesbian liberation movement. APA finally declared that being attracted
do people of the same sex is a natural variation of the human experiences, and it does not make
anyone any less of a healthy and functioning human being. Now that society is more accepting
towards the LGBT, new terms and labels have been used to cater to everyone.
The ABC’s of the LGBTQIA+
In an effort towards visibility and inclusion, a few letters were added to the LGBT. The term
“homosexual” sounded too clinical and it no longer adequately represents the diversity within the
LGBT community. These labels are changing, some you may be familiar with, but others may be
very new to you, so let us try to explain it as simple as we can.
 Lesbian- women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to women.

 Gay- men who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men.
 Bisexual- who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men or women.
 Transgender- when your gender identity (How You Feel) is different from your physical
sex (Male/Female).
 Queer- used by people who celebrate all ender identities, can also mean someone who do
not want to be restricted as Lesbian, Gay, or Bi.
 Intersex- people who were born with sex genitals or chromosomes patterns that do not fit
the typical male or female body.
 Asexual/Ally- asexual are people who do not feel sexual attraction to anyone, but it does
not mean that they do not engage in Romantic or Sexual Relationships. Allies Are Straight
or Heterosexual People Who Are Fighting for LGBT Rights.
 Plus +- the plus sign refers to all sexualities that do not fit the LGBTQI Spectrum.
Knowledge on the human sexuality is still evolving so there many terms that pops up. Here
are few more to help us become more inclusive:
 Androgynous – People whose gender expression (Their Physical Appearance) may or

may not be distinctly male or female.
 Gender – Your internal sense of being masculine or feminine or neither.
 Gender Identity – How you feel, man, women, or neither.
 Gender Expression – How you express your sense of being male or female or neither,
maybe through hairstyle, clothes, etc.…
 Sexual Orientation – Your emotional and sexual attraction to a person.
 Sex Assigned at Birth – Your given sex when were born based on your sex organ.
 Cisgender- when your gender identity matches with the sex you are assigned at birth.
 Non-binary- people who do not feel like a boy or a girl; they may feel like they are both
or neither, so sometimes they used the pronouns they, them, and theirs.
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Understanding Transgenderism
Society attaches a lot of meanings to our biological sex or physical sex. Parents
unknowingly set up a gender-based pattern of raising their children upon knowing the biological
sex of their babies. Pink for Girls and Blue for Boys is a reflection of our heteronormative
culture wherein we expect females to be feminine and males to be masculine.
This limited view on sexuality makes it harder for those who do not fit in the box of
masculinity and femininity, like lesbians, gays, and bisexual. However, it makes it so much more
difficult for the transgender people, those who feel like they were born in the wrong body or
given wrong biological sex.
Who is a transgender?
The APA defines transgender as “an umbrella term for persons whose gender identity,
gender expression, or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to
which they were assigned at birth”.
This means that a transgender person does not feel comfortable in their biological sex like
a person who is born male but feels like a female, and a person who is born female may feel like
he is male. This feeling or gender identity is not something that changes through time, bit is a
feeling that they have since childhood. This creates a problem for a heteronormative society
wherein everyone is expected and forced to fit in the boxes of male masculinity and female
femininity.
However, history tells us that in different cultures across the world and in different times
in our history, there are people who lived their life expressing a gender that is different from their
biological sex. This gender nonconformity or gender crossings were celebrated by the Native
Americans through the “bedache” or the two-spirited people. We also have our own “babaylan”
or “catalonnan”, precolonial priests who are mostly females but some are males who lived their
as female priests.
The word transgender is also used an umbrella term, this means that there many identities
under this term. Transsexuals, for example, is often used in the medical field to refer to people
whose gender identity is different from their biological sex and they may want to change their
body, so it resembles how they feel about their gender identity. A biologically male person may
feel like she is a woman since she was just a child and in adulthood, she may choose to have a
“hormonal replacement therapy or sex reassignment surgery”. Medical advancements have
helped transgender people live full life; however, it can be a long, difficult, and expensive
process.
Other sexualities under the transgender umbrella terms includes:
 FTM- female to male, a person whose biological sex is female and has transitioned to
living his life as a male.
 MTF- male to female, a person whose biological sex is male and has transitioned to living
her life as a female.
 Crossdressing- some people want to dress as the opposite gender from time to time,
however, unlike the transsexual, they are comfortable identifying with their biological sex.
 Drag Kings and Queens- these are people who dress as the opposite gender for
entertainment which they do out of passion or for work.
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 Gender Queer- these are people who feel like their gender does not fit the gender binary
view that is limited to the male or female category because they feel that these are too
restrictive.
The Transitioning Process
When the person realizes that he or she may be a transgender, a psychologist can guide the
person through the transition especially when a person wants to go through permanent changes
like sex reassignment surgery. In some countries, transitioning is covered by their medical
insurance, and they get support from their employees and families which is very crucial during
transitioning because it takes years to fully transition.
There are transgender people who cannot have or do not want to have hormonal replacement
therapy or sex reassignment surgery because of personal, economic, or cultural reasons and that
is okay. Transitioning to another gender is a very challenging process for many transgender
people because of the social stigma, discrimination, medical cost, accessibility of medical
treatment and support, oppressive laws in each country and the threat of violence from
prejudiced people.
Some countries allow for transgender people to change their legal gender from male to
female or female to male. This recognition is a product of decades of collective effort of the
transgender community and the LGBTQ+ community. However, Philippines still lack the laws
and the medical capacity to support transgender people in living their full potential.
The proper use of pronouns, he or she, should be observed when talking to a transgender
person to show respect as a decent human being. Often, when a person is clearly presenting
herself as a female by the way they dress and carry themselves, it is safe to assume that they
want to use “she” and “her”. The same goes for the transgender men who is clearly presenting
himself as a man you may use “him” or “her”. However, it is always a good practice to ask them
for their preferred pronoun instead of assuming but do so in a polite way.
Summary
Labels are important especially in the acceptance and promotion of human right. The
evolution of the terms used to describe people who are emotionally and sexually attracted to the
same sex have evolved through time. From homosexuality, to gay, and to LGBTQ+, let us
remember that we are all humans, born free and equal.
Lesson 14- Men and Masculinities
Lesson Objectives:
This lesson discusses the many faces of men and masculinities. It also discusses themes of
masculinity and its relationship with well-being, fathering, domestic roles, and drug and alcohol
use. This lesson finally deals with hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities. At the end of
this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Understand fully men's studies and the constructs of masculinity;
2. Know fully the themes of masculinity and its relationship with well-being, fathering,
domestic roles, and drug and alcohol use; and
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3. Comprehend hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities.
Definitions of Terms
Masculinities - a social, cultural, and historical construction of men dependent on and related to
other factors such as class, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and disability.
Hegemonic masculinity - form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in a given setting.
Protest masculinity - form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in marginalized setting.
Caring masculinity - proposes that men are able to adopt what is viewed as traditionally
feminine characteristics.
Introduction
Since 1970s, studies on different aspects of manhood (from men in the labor market to
men in the family and violent men, etc.) were made. By the 20th century, the number of these
studies increased dramatically.
A growing body of literature theorizing men and masculinities focuses on a variety of

topics including men's violence, fatherhood, pornography, men's crimes, female masculinity,
male femininity, etc. These studies arose despite the clear dominance of men over global
economic and political power. Men make up a large majority of corporate executives, top
professionals, and holders of public office. Worldwide, men held 93% of cabinet-level posts in
1996 and most top positions in international agencies (Gierycz 1999).
Essentialist views of gender are still popular and are constantly reinforced in the media.
However, they are increasingly under challenge, not only in biology (Fausto-Sterling 1992), but
also in everyday life. The rise of the women's liberation movement, and many feminisms that
have followed on from it, produced a massive disturbance in the gender system and people's
assumptions about gender.
Large numbers of men now acknowledge that their position is under challenge, that
what they once took for granted about must be re-thought, making men's studies and masculinity
became popular.
Men’s Rights Lobby
One of the main founding texts of this lobby is by Warren Farrell, in his work, The Myth of Male
Power: Why are Men the Disposable Sex? (1994). According to him:
"Men are now the gender victims as a result of feminism having gone too far, with men
having increased responsibilities but few rights around issues of marriage, divorce, child custody
and access to children."
Modern legislation is seen to be overprotective of women's interests, resulting in

discrimination against men at a time when they are under increasing threat within a rapidly
changing society.
Still, some researchers argue that these pro-male movements were only a reaction to
feminism- an attempt to accuse women and feminists for creating problems that men encounter
in society.
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Masculinity is a social, cultural, and historical construct dependent on and related to
other factors such as class, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and disability. Researches on men's studies
and masculinity established common themes which strengthened and developed this evolving
concepts.
1. Multiple Masculinity
Accordingly there is no one pattern of masculinity that is found everywhere. Different

cultures and different periods of history, construct masculinity differently. Some cultures make
heroes of soldiers and regard violence as the ultimate test of masculinity. Others cultures look at
soldiering with disdain and regard violence as contemptible.
Some countries regard homosexual sex as incompatible with true masculinity. Others
countries think that no person can be a real man without having had homosexual relationships.
The meaning of masculinity in working-class life is different from the meaning in middle-
class life and same goes among the very rich and the very poor. It is even possible that more than
one kind of masculinity can be found within a given cultural setting and within a specific class.
This only shows that masculinities cannot be delimited to a sole definition or description as
various countries, culture, and levels in life view this concept differently.
2. Hierarchy and Hegemony
Typically, some masculinities are more revered than others. Others may be dishonored,
i.e., homosexual masculinities in modern Western culture. Others are even socially marginalized,
i.e., the masculinities of disempowered ethnic minorities. Others are even exemplary, taken as
symbolizing admired traits, i.e., the masculinities of sporting heroes.
The form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in a given setting is called

“hegemonic masculinity”. "Hegemonic" signifies a position of cultural authority and leadership
but not total dominance as other forms of masculinity persist alongside.
Hegemonic masculinity embodies popular heroes, role models, and fictional characters.
According to Kimmel (1997), hegemonic masculinity: "contains within it the image of the
'man' in power, a man with power and a man of power. We equate manhood with being strong,
successful, capable, reliable, in control. The very definitions of manhood we have developed in
our culture maintain the power that some men have over other men and that men have over
women."
Hegemonic masculinity was understood as the pattern of practice that allowed men's
dominance over women to continue. Hegemonic masculinity embodied the currently most
honored way of being a man as it required all other men to position themselves in relation to it
and it ideologically legitimated the global subordination of women to men. Men who received
the benefits of patriarchy without enacting a strong version of masculine dominance could be
regarded as showing a complicit masculinity. Hegemony did not mean violence, although it
could be supported by force; it meant ascendancy achieved through culture, institutions, and
persuasion.
Hegemonic masculinity in Western society hinges on heterosexuality, economic

autonomy, being able to provide for one's family, being rational, being successful, keeping one's
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emotions in check, and above all, not doing anything considered feminine. Hegemonic male
norms stress values such as courage, aggression, autonomy, mastery, technological skill,
adventure, toughness in mind and body.
Moreover, hegemonic masculinity is hegemonic not just in relation to other masculinities,

but in relation to the gender order as a whole. It is an expression of the privilege men
collectively have over women. The hierarchy of masculinities is an expression of the unequal
shares in that privilege held by different groups of men. Thus, some masculinities are deemed as
higher than the others, as well as higher than other forms of gender.
3. Collective Masculinities
Gender structures of a society define particular patterns of conduct of individuals as either

"masculine" or "feminine". These patterns also exist at the collective level-in institutions, such as
corporations, armies, governments, and even schools. Masculinities are also defined collectively
in the workplace and in informal groups like street gangs.
Masculinity also exists impersonally in culture. Video games, for example, circulate
stereotyped images of violent masculinity. Cinema and TV Shows portray stereotypes of
masculinity such as abandoning father, disgruntled student, abusive partner, and the drug
convict.
In sports, an aggressive kind of masculinity is created organizationally by its structure,

pattern of competition, system ot training, and hierarchy of levels and rewards.
Masculinities and well-being
Research confirms a strong association between rigid norms about what it means to be a
man and men's negative health practices and vulnerabilities (Barker et al. 2011). Men are
unlikely to talk about their worries and more likely to drink and engage in other destructive
behaviors when stressed. These findings echo the evidence in the literature that conforming to
stoic and rigid notions of masculinity contributes to suicidal behavior and depression (Möller-
Leimkühler 2003; Emslie et al. 2006).
Culturally dominant forms of masculinity, which often urge men to practice strict
emotional control, serve as barriers to health- and help-seeking behavior, or encourage some men
to engage in practices detrimental to their own health and that of their families. Evidence
confirms that death and disability rates related to alcohol and substance abuse are considerably
higher for men than for women, making substance abuse and addiction predominantly male
phenomena worldwide. (Pyne et al. 2002; WHO 2004).
The requirement of physical strength appears to be a nearly universal component of a

dominant masculinity (Katz 1999). The physical version of hegemonic masculinity has been
promoted by globalization via film, toys, and other goods (Katz 2003).
Katz points out the unrealistic evolution of action figures' biceps, in many cases depicted
as larger than the dolls' heads. Katz even notes that these toys reinforce the association of
masculinity with violence, even if this violence is sometimes heroic.
Family Formation, Fathering, Caregiving, and Domestic Roles
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Domestic roles are closely associated with women as carrying them out can involve a loss
of face for men. Great deal was heard about increases in women's labor force participation in
recent decades but less about men's caregiving and domestic roles.
Research, however, shows that men are, on average, not greatly increasing their role in
household work and unpaid care (Barker and Pawlak 201t). Less do they know, men are missing
out in not engaging more in their domestic and family roles. It has been shown that being
involved in the lives of their children brings psychological and health benefits to men (Dykstra
and Keizer 2009). Research on child development demonstrates lasting benefits to children of
their fathers' involvement, in terms of their confidence and school performance (Ruhm 2000;
Sarkadi et al. Bremberg 2008).
However, it was said that men may contribute to the "domestic enterprise" in other
important ways, including through providing financial support, accompanying children to
activities outside of school or home (National Center on Fathers and Families 2002; Brown and
Chevannes 1998).
Better-educated men are more likely to put more time into domestic roles and caregiving
(Hernandez 1996; Garcia and Oliveira 2004; Barker and Verani 2008). Men's schooling may
have expanded their sense of norms and weakened stereotypes through their exposure to broader
ideas and more diverse people.
Masculinities and Alcohol and Drug Use
More men drink than women; and men drink more than women (Room et al. 2002).
Studies show that men were more likely to drink than women, drank alcohol in greater quantity
and more frequently than women, and were more likely to face alcohol-related health and social
problems than women (Wilsack et al. 2000).
In many settings, men’s drinking encourages solidarity and stimulates courage. It is a key
peer group ritual as well as being a recreational activity (Coombs & Globetti, 1986). When men
become drunk, fights and homicides are rationalized (Pange, 1998), and women are encouraged
to tolerate men’s drunkenness as a natural part of their being men (Caetano, 1984).
Drug use and drug dealing can serve as ways of constructing a powerfully masculine
identity (Collision 1996).
Protest Masculinity
Protest Masculinity is a form of marginalized masculinity which picks up themes of

hegemonic masculinity in the society at large but reworks them in a context of poverty (Connel
2005). In other words, it is akin to hegemonic masculinity but in socially-deprived contexts.
Protest masculinity refers to describe instances of extreme forms of sex-typed behavior

on the part of some males. Key to the concept of protest masculinity are high levels of physical
aggression. The protest masculinity profile is also proposed as including destructiveness, low
tolerance for delay of gratification, crime, drinking, and similar dispositions (Braude 190).
Protest masculinity is often a product of narcissism built from deep feelings of

powerlessness and insecurity. Connell compares it to a "tense, freaky façade, making a claim to
power whęre there are no real resources for power" (Connell 1995).
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Caring Masculinity
The emergence of caring masculinities in many parts of the world has been assessed in
several reports since the early 2000s, all of them highlighting the virtuous impact of this reshape
in male identities and practices for gender equality improvements in societies (Connell 2003;
Norwegian Ministry for Children and Equality 2009; Scambor et al. 2013; Levtov et al. 2015;
Heilman et al. 2017; Santos et al. 2016; Wall et al. 2017). After decades of women demanding
equal rights and opportunities and for the end of male domination and its harmful costs in their
lives, caring masculinities arise as a strong ally against hegemonic masculinity.
The concept of a caring masculinity proposes that men are able to adopt what is viewed
as traditionally feminine characteristics (i.e. emotional expression, sensitivity, domestication,
interdependence, caring, etc.) without departing from or rejecting masculinity (Elliott 2015;
Miller 2011).
Caring masculinities can be seen as masculine identities that exclude domination and
embrace the affective, relational, emotional, and interdependent qualities of care; a critical form
of men's engagement in gender equality because doing care work requires men to resist
hegemonic masculinity and to adopt values and characteristics of care that are antithetical to
hegemonic masculinity (Elliot 2016).
So, besides the commitment to care work and gender equality, caring masculinities entail
a mindful refusal of hegemonic masculinity and inherent prerogatives (privileges, domination,
power), as well as of the plural manifestations of "complicit masculinity" that it assumes (Aboim
2010).
Men who approximate this form of masculinity are viewed as a form of "new man"
(Edley and Wetherell 1999; Smith 2016; Singleton and Maher 2004).
Summary
Masculinity and men's studies have been continuously developing from its inception and
up to present. These studies covered common themes of masculinities, different kinds of
masculinities such as hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities and the relationship of these
masculinities to various aspects of life and the environment.
Lesson 15- Gender- Based Violence: Survivor, Victim, Perpetrator, and Human Rights
Lesson Objectives:
1. Understand the definition of gender-based violence, other related terms, and its forms and
consequences;
2. Understand gender-based violence as a human rights issue
3. Determine the relationship between human rights and gender-based violence; and
4. Differentiate perpetrators, survivors, and victims in gender-based violence.
 Gender-based violence- any harmful act that is perpetrated against a persons’ will and that
is based on socially-ascribed (gender) differences between males and females (Inter-agency
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Standing Committee Guidelines for Integrating gender-based violence in Interventions in
humanitarian action 2015).
SURVIVOR, VICTIM AND PERPETRATOR
Survivor
 A survivor is defined by their life afterwards
 A survivor has continued to live and prosper despite having been victimized.
 A survivor has reclaimed their power. Survivor can be used as a term of empowerment
to convey that a person has started the healing process and may have gained a sense of
peace in their life.
Victim
 A victim is defined by the harm that has come to them.
 A victim has been destroyed and mistreated.
 A victim has been killed and suffered.
 A victim is powerless, at the mercy of others.
Perpetrator
 It is a person, group, or institution that inflicts, supports, or condones violence or other
abuse against a person or group of persons. There might be only one perpetrator, or there
might be more.
Characteristics of Perpetrators includes:

a. Persons with real or perceived power;
b. Persons in decision-making position; and
c. Persons in authority.
According to National Demographic and Health Survey, here in the Philippines 2 out of 10
women and girls age 15-49 years old experienced violence in their lifetime. These Gender-based
violence can affects everyone. Children raised in the families where a woman is abused also
victims of violence. Sometimes not physically, but always emotionally and psychologically.
In Conclusion:
In all incident of Gender-based Violence, there is always a survivor/victim and a
perpetrator. Therefore, all actions in the prevention and responses to Gender-based Violence
need to address both the survivor and the perpetrator.
CONSEQUENCES OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
 Gender-based violence- is one of the most widespread and human rights abuses, but least
recognized in the world. It also refers to harmful acts directed at an individual based on
their gender. It is rooted in gender inequality, the abuse of power and harmful norms.
 Gender-based violence (GBV) is a serious violation of human rights and a life-
threatening health and protection issue. It is estimated that one in three women will
experience sexual or physical violence in their lifetime. During displacement and times of
crisis, the threat of GBV significantly increases for women and girls.
 Gender-based violence can include sexual, physical, mental and economic harm inflicted
in public or in private. It also includes threats of violence, coercion and manipulation.
This can take many forms such as intimate partner violence, sexual violence, child
marriage, female genital mutilation and so-called ‘honour crimes’. The consequences of
gender-based violence are devastating and can have life-long repercussions for survivors.
It can even lead to death.
What are the difference type of Violence?
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 Physical Violence- is when a person hurts or tries to hurt a partner by hitting, kicking, or
using another type of physical force.
What causes physical violence?
 Stress — from such factors as relationship difficulties, financial problems, work

demands, drugs and alcohol, job insecurity, and physical threats — that can heighten the
risk of conflict escalating.
Sexual violence refers to any sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act, or unwanted sexual
comments or acts to traffic, that are directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion by
anyone, regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including at home and at
work.
Rape is the term that is commonly used for the first type of sexual violence mentioned above
(forced/coerced intercourse). Rape can be defined as non-consensual sexual penetration, however
slight, of any part of the body of the victim with a sexual organ, or of the genital opening of the
victim with any object or any other part of the body. The invasion is committed by force, or by
threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention,
psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or another person, or by taking
advantage of a coercive environment, or committed against a person incapable of giving genuine
consent.
Marital Rape: Sexual intercourse forced on a woman by her husband, knowingly against her
will. Sexual Harassment - behavior characterized by the making of unwelcome and inappropriate
sexual remarks or physical advances in a workplace or other professional or social situation.
‘Psychological violence’ (often also referred to as ‘emotional violence’) refers to any act or
omission that damages the self-esteem, identity, or development of the individual. It includes,
but is not limited to, humiliation, threatening loss of custody of children, forced isolation from
family or friends, threatening to harm the individual or someone they care about, repeated yelling
or degradation, inducing fear through intimidating words or gestures, controlling behavior, and
the destruction of possessions.
Economic violence- ‘Economic violence’ includes denying a woman access to and control over
basic resources. It causes, or attempts to cause, an individual to become financially dependent on
another person, by obstructing their access to or control over resources and/or independent
economic activity. It includes acts such as the denial of funds, refusal to contribute financially,
denial of food and basic needs, and controlling access to health care or employment.
Maltreatment - Involves physical, sexual and psychological/emotional violence; and neglect of

infants, children and adolescents by parents, caregivers and other authority figures, most often in
the home but also in settings such as schools and orphanages.
Bullying (including cyberbullying)- Unwanted aggressive behaviour by another child or group of

children who are neither siblings nor in a romantic relationship with the victim. It involves
repeated physical, psychological or social harm, and often takes place in schools and other
settings where children gather, and online.
In conclude:
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Health consequences of violence against women include injuries, untimed/unwanted pregnancy,
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV, pelvic pain, urinary tract infections, fistula,
genital injuries, pregnancy complications, and chronic conditions. Some examples include
depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, suicide and death. Social consequences, include
undermined confidence, physical disabilities, stigma and shame. Hinders their ability to earn a
living, access education, and participate in social and political life. For example, when children
are born following a rape, or if family members choose to stand by a survivor, fellow members
of their community may avoid them. Economic consequences, has a wider societal impact,
including lower productivity and thus reduced economic output and growth, and increased
pressure on social and health services. Quantifying the cost of GBV in terms of human suffering
and economic indicators is difficult: its hidden nature makes prevalence hard to establish. The
effects of GBV on the economy can be attributed to lost tax revenue, lost earnings, diverted
resources, opportunity costs and various other cost.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world,
from birth until death, they apply regardless of where you are from, what you believe or how you
choose to live your life, they can never be taken away, although they can sometimes be restricted
– for example if a person breaks the law, or in the interests of national security. These basic
rights are based on shared values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect and independence, these
values are defined and protected by law. Human rights are standards that recognize and protect
the dignity of all human beings. Human rights govern how individual human beings live in
society and with each other, as well as their relationship with the State and the obligations that
the State have towards them.
Human rights law obliges governments to do some things, and prevents them from doing
others. Individuals also have responsibilities: in using their human rights, they must respect the
rights of others. No government, group or individual person has the right to do anything that
violates another’s rights.
UNIVERSALITY AND INALIENABILITY
Human rights are universal and inalienable. All people everywhere in the world are
entitled to them. No one can voluntarily give them up. Nor can others take them away from him
or her.
INDIVISIBILITY
Human rights are indivisible. Whether civil, political, economic, social or cultural in
nature, they are all inherent to the dignity of every human person. Consequently, they all have
equal status as rights. There is no such thing as a 'small' right. There is no hierarchy of human
rights.
INTER-DEPENDENCE AND INTER-RELATEDNESS
The realization of one right often depends, wholly or in part, upon the realization of
others. For instance, the realization of the right to health may depend on the realization of the
right to education or of the right to information.
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EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION
All individuals are equal as human beings and by virtue of the inherent dignity of each
human person. All human beings are entitled to their human rights without discrimination of any
kind, such as race, color, sex, ethnicity, age, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, disability, property, birth or other status as explained by the human
rights treaty bodies.
PARTICIPATION AND INCLUSION
Every person and all peoples are entitled to active, free and meaningful participation in,
contribution to, and enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural development,
through which human rights and fundamental freedoms can be realized.
ACCOUNTABILITY AND RULE OF LAW
States and other duty-bearers must comply with the legal norms and standards enshrined
in human rights instruments. Where they fail to do so, aggrieved rights-holders are entitled to
institute proceedings for appropriate redress before a competent court or other adjudicator, in
accordance with the rules and procedures provided by law.
In conclude:
Values of tolerance, equality and respect can help reduce friction within society. Putting
human rights ideas into practice can helps us create the kind of society we want to live in. In
recent decades, there has been a tremendous growth in how we think about and apply human
rights ideas. This has had many positive results - knowledge about human rights can empower
individuals and offer solutions for specific problems. Human rights are an important part of how
people interact with others at all levels in society - in the family, the community, schools, the
workplace, in politics and in international relations. It is vital therefore that people everywhere
should strive to understand what human rights are. When people better understand human rights,
it is easier for them to promote justice and the well-being of society.
This doesn't mean that abuses and violations of human rights don't occur. On television
and in newspapers every day we hear tragic stories of murder, violence, racism, hunger,
unemployment, poverty, abuse, homelessness and discrimination. However, the Universal
Declaration and other human rights treaties are more than just noble aspirations. They are
essential legal principles. To meet their international human rights obligations, many nations
have incorporated these principles into their own laws. This provides an opportunity for
individuals to have a complaint settled by a court in their own country. Individuals from some
countries may also be able to take a complaint of human rights violations to a United Nations
committee of experts, which would then give its opinion.
In addition, education about human rights is just as important as having laws to protect
people. Long term progress can really only be made when people are aware of what human
rights are and what standards exist.
LESSON 16 - Gender-Based Violence: Power, Use of Force and Consent
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Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:
1. Identify the relationship between abuse of power and GBV.

2. Understand the term “violence” in the context of GBV means using some type of force,
which may or may not include physical force; and
3. Understand the meaning of “informed consent” and its relationship to GBV.
INTRODUCTION
In the early session, we have discussed what GBV and the agent/subjects who are
involved in it: the survivor and the perpetrator, among others. This session explores the meaning
of the three important concept behind GBV: Power, Use of Force/Violence, and Informed
Consent.
POWER
Perpetrator can have “real” or “perceived” power. Some examples of different types of power
and powerful people and the following:
a) Social – peer pressure, bullying, leader, teacher, parents;

b) Economic – the perpetrator controls money or access to goods/services/money/favors;
sometimes the husband or the father;
c) Political – elected leaders, discriminatory laws, President of the United States;
d) Physical – strength, size, use of weapons, controlling access or security; soldiers,
robbers, gangs;
e) Gender-Based(social) – males are usually in a more powerful position than females; and
f) Age – often, the young and elderly people have the least power.
Power is directly related to choice. The more power one has, there are more choices
available. The less power one has, fewer choices are available. Un empowered people have
fewer choices and are therefore, more vulnerable to abuse. GBV involves the abuse of power.
Unequal power relationships are exploited or abused.
USE OF FORCE/VIOLENCE
“Force” might be physical, emotional, social, or economic in nature. It may also involve
coercion or pressure. Force also includes intimidation, threat, persecution, or the other forms of
psychological or social pressure. The target of such violence is compelled to behave as expected
or to do what is being requested, for fear or real harmful consequences.
Violence consist of the use of physical force or the means pf coercion such as threat,
inducement, or promise of a benefit to obtain something from a weaker or more vulnerable
person. Using violence involve forcing someone to do something against her/his will use of
force.
INFORMED CONSENT
Consent means saying “yes,” agreeing to something. Informed consent means making an
informed choice freely and voluntarily by person in an equal power relationship.
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Acts of GBV occur informed consent. Even if she says “yes,” this is not true consent
because it was sais under duress—the perpetrator(s) used some kind of force to get her to say
yes. Children (under age 18) are deemed unable to give informed consent for acts such as female
genital cutting (FGC), marriage, sexual relations, etc.
CYCLE OF VIOLENCE
The cycle of violence refers to repeated acts of violence in a relationship. It starts with
minor incidents and moves on to more serious levels of violence. The cycle of violence may start
in a child who is a victim or witness to violence and may be repeated when the child becomes an
adult.
The impact of being a victim or a witness to violence on a child is traumatic. It can make
a child scared, unhappy, lonely, lose self-confidence, blame themselves, lose sleep, and pick up
fights with peers.
Children should understand that having conflicts is alright, but resolving conflict
through violence is not right.
When children understand that violence is not acceptable, they will grow up into adults
who respect other people.
SUMMARY
Power and abuse of the same are integral components of GBV. These components also
had an effect to the consent to be given by the survivor. Consent may be informed or vitiated, on
which violence is perpetrated. This violence plays along a cycle of being overpowered and
giving of consent to the detriment of women and their children.
Lesson 17- Women and the Law
Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses about the various Philippine laws affecting women and their rights. At
the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Know about the various Philippine laws affecting women;

2. Identify the various rights of women; and
3. Understand the impact of these laws and rights to the Filipino woman and Society.
The 1987 Constitution – the fundamental law of the country upon which all the laws are
anchored or based on;
Magna Carta of Women – the main law enshrining all the rights of women and their roles in
building the nation; and
Nation Building-collaborative efforts and means to establish and develop the Country.
Introduction
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The 1987 Constitution
The Philippines is known for its very liberal and progressive Constitution that was
formulated during the euphoria of People Power Revolution in 1986. Gender equality is a key
element of this Charter and as enshrined in Article II Section 14 of the 1987 Constitution, “the
State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality
before the law of women and men.”
Recognizing the country’s unequal gender relations, the Constitution also provided for
women’s representation in the legislature (as one of the nine marginalized sectors) through the
party-list system (which should cover 20 percent of the lower house).
Finally, Article 13 Section 14 specifically mentioned that the “State shall protect working
women by providing safe and healthful working conditions, taking into account their maternal
functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to
realize their full potential in the service of the nation”.
Various Laws Promoting Gender Equality
• Local Government Code of 1991. Provides for the election of sectorial representation,
including women, in local legislative councils.
• Party List Law. Provides for the creation of women-oriented or women-based parties to
compete under the party-list system. Women is one of the nine sectors identified in the law.
• Labor Code (1989). Covers issues, such as night work prohibition, specifies that employers
must provide special facilities for women, prohibition of discrimination against women in
respect to terms and conditions of employment, and prohibition of discrimination by reason of
marriage of a women worker.
• Women in Nation Building Law. Republic Act 7192 (1991) is an act promoting the
integration of women as full and equal partners of men in development and nation-building. It
encourages the full participation and involvement of women to remove gender bias.
• 1988 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law. Gave Filipino women the right to own land that
previously reverted to sons and other male family members.
• Republic Act 7688 (1994). An act giving representation to women in social security
commission.
• Anti-Sexual Harassment Law. RA 7877 (1955). An act declaring sexual harassment to be

unlawful in the employment, education, or training environment.
• Republic Act 7822 (1995). An act providing assistance to women engaging in micro and
cottage business enterprises.
• Republic Act 8353 (1997). An act expanding the definition of the crime of rape, reclassifying
the same as a crime against persons.
These laws not only promote gender equality, but also gives protection to women’s rights and
enhances women empowerment.
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National Programs
National program means a document which determines actions to be taken in order to

implement objectives set forth within the State Policy and the Government Action Plan.
Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development (1995-2025)
Philippine Plan for Gender and Development, 1995-2025, is a National Plan that
addresses, provides and pursues full equality and development for men and women. Approved
and adopted by former President Fidel V. Ramos as Executive No. 273, on September 8, 1995, it
is the successor of the Philippine Development Plan for Women, 1989-1992 adopted by
Executive No. 348 of February 17, 1989. The National Plan for Women that consolidates the
action commitments of the Philippines during the Beijing World Conference on Women.
Gender and Development Budget (GAD)
Integral to the national plan, it is aimed at “institutionalizing gender concerns in the

mainstream development process and agenda and not just peripheral programs and projects of
the government”.
Framework Plan for Women (FPW)
The FPW emphasizes human rights and situates VAW in its goal to promote women’s
human rights committing to protect and advance women’s human rights thorugh strengthened
service and justice delivery system for survivors of VAW and an information, education
campaign on women’s rights.
This is part of the Philippine Plan for Women developed to focus on three thrusts, namely:
 Promoting women’s economic empowerment;

 Advance and protect women human rights; and
 Promote gender responsive governance.
Women’s Right to Participate
Women’s right to vote was granted in 1937. The Constitution of 1935 stipulated that the
right of suffrage would be extended to women, only if 300,000 women voted in its favor during a
national plebiscite. This consolidated the emerging women’s movement and … brought to the
fore the activism of such women as:
 Concepcion Felix de Calderon who formed the Asociacion Feminista Filipina in June
1905
 Rosa Sevilla de Alvero and a young Trinidad Almeda
 Miss Constancia Poblete, founder of Liga Femenina de la Paz
 Pura Villanueva Kalaw and Paz Mendoza Guazon, Pilar Hidalgo Lim, President of
the National Federation of Women’s Clubs .
 Josefa Llanes Escoda, president of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines” (Ugnayan ng
Kababaihan sa Pulitika 1998).
The General Council of Women was then established in Manila to direct the plebiscite campaign.
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 Its aim was to draw the support of the broadest number of women.
 As it turned out, 447.725 women voted yes in the 1937 plebiscite. Interestingly, 44.307
women voted against the provision.

Women’s Involvement in Civil Society
Participation of women in Philippine Politics and Society such as:
 The PILIPINA feminist movement- gives special attention to the struggles of women
during different historical events and political regimes.
 The militant GABRIELA (General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms,

Integrity, Equality, Leadership and Action) women’s group- an umbrella organization
of more than 200 grassroots women’s organizations. GABRIELA is a militant women’s
organization that is unabashedly feminist in orientation, with a national democratic bent.
 The Ugnayan ng Kababaihan sa Pulitika (UKP-Network of Women in Politics)-

have a right to engage in civil society, vote in elections, be elected to government office,
serve on boards, and make their voices heard in any process that will ultimately affect
them, their families, and their communities.
 The KILOS KABARO (Act Sisters Coalition)- a network of Philippine women’s

groups and organizations that have united to campaign against poverty and violence
against women.
 SIBOL (Sama-samang Inisyatiba ng Kababaihan sa Pagbabago ng Batas at

Lipunan) Legislative Network- It was produced by women for women. It approaches
legislative advocacy from the experience and perspective of activist women’s groups.
Along with other women groups and gender oriented institutions, they have succeeded in raising
gender specific issues such as:
•Domestic Violence- is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a
marriage or cohabitation.
•Prostitution- the practice of engaging in relatively indiscriminate sexual activity, in general

with someone who is not a spouse or a friend, in exchange for immediate payment in money or
other valuables.
•Reproductive Health- is defined as a state of physical, mental, and social well-being in all
matters relating to the reproductive system, at all stages of life.
•Sexual Harassment- behavior characterized by the making of unwelcome and inappropriate

sexual remarks or physical advances in a workplace or other professional or social situation.
•Rape- is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual
penetration carried out against a person without that person’s consent.
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Summary
In conclusion, there are numerous laws affecting Filipino women, ranging from the
country’s fundamental law to current legislation. More legislation of this like is likely to emerge
in the future. These laws are critical because they can serve as springboards for a variety of
national programs, as well as women’s involvement, participation, and inclusion—all aimed at
empowering women. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for
women contributes to economic growth, it improves child survival and overall family health, and
it reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is
central to sustainable development. Reproductive rights are a key part of gender equality. When
women make their own reproductive choices, their lives improve. They are then able to better
care for the children they do choose to have. Having equal pay with men, women can provide
better healthcare, better food, and better opportunities for their kids. The importance of
protecting women’s rights, it emphasizes that equality between women and men is a matter of
human rights and a condition for social justice and is also a necessary and fundamental
prerequisite for equality, development and peace.
Lesson 18 “Violence against Women and Their Children Act” or Republic Act No 9262
Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses the important provisions of the Violence against Women and their
Children (VAWC) Act or RA 9262. This module also discusses important cases involving the
said Law.
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the important provisions of VAWC Act or RA 9262

2. Understand the details of its commission; and
3. Comprehend actual cases involving the said law.
Protection Orders - orders issued by the Barangay or the Courts distancing the perpetrator from
the victim and vice versa for reasons provided for by the law.
Public Crime - nature of crime wherein it is considered to be an affront to the society allowing
anyone who has personal knowledge to file a case for VAWC.
The Republic Act 9262, or the Anti- Violence against Women and their Children (Anti-
VAAWC) Act of 2004, is a result of the strong advocacies on women’s human rights in the
country. This law was deemed to be significant victory for all Filipinos women as it was based
on the right of women not to suffer abuse, discrimination, and violence in their perspective
relationships.
Important features of the law include:
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1. Four kinds of violence against women and their children are defined- the law defined
four kinds of violence- physical, psychological, sexual, and economic-in its effort to
encompass all types of abuses inflicted to women and their children.
2. VAWC is a public crime- the crime is perpetrated not only against a single individual,
but against the entire society, thus, anyone who has personal knowledge of the abuse,
violence, or discrimination can file a complaint;
3. Protection orders can be issued against the perpetrator- upon filing the case, the
victim-survivor or anyone who has personal knowledge can apply for a protection order
to enforce distance between her and the perpetrator; and
4. Stronger community mechanisms to respond the cases- various government agencies
are mandated to apply respond or formulate mechanisms to respond to reported cases of
VAWC is immediately.
Four kinds of Violence
 Physical Violence
 Psychological Violence
 Sexual Violence
 Economic Violence
Protection Orders
A protection order under the Anti- VAWC Law is defined as:
“… an order issued… for the purpose of preventing further acts of violence against a women and
her child specified in Section of this Act and granting other necessary relief. The relief granted
under a protection order should serve the purpose of safeguarding the victim, minimizing any
disruption in the victim’s daily life, and facilitating the opportunity and ability of the victim to
independently gain control of her life.
The law enumerates the following reliefs that may be availed of through a protection order:
1. Prohibition of the respondent(perpetrator) from threatening to commit or committing

personally or through another, any of this acts penalized by the Anti- VAWC law;
2. Prohibition of the respondent from harassing, annoying, telephoning, contacting, or
otherwise, communicating with the petitioner (victim-survivor) directly or indirectly;
3. Removal exclusion of the respondent from the residence of the petitioner whether
temporarily or permanently;
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4. Directing the respondent to stay away from the petitioner and any designated family
household member at a distance specified by the court;
5. Directing lawful possession and use by the petitioner of an automobile and other personal
effects regardless of ownership;
6. Granting temporary or permanent custody of a child/ children to the petitioner;
7. Directing the respondent to provide support to the women and/ or her child if entitled to
legal support;
8. Prohibition of the respondent from any use or possession of any firearm or deadly
weapon and order him to surrender the same, including revocation of license and
disqualification to apply for any license to use or possess a firearm;
9. Restitution for actual damages caused by violence inflicted including property damage,
medical expenses, and loss of income;
10. Directing the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) or any
appropriate agency to provide temporary shelter and other social services that the
petitioner may need; and
11. Provision of other forms of relief as may be necessary to protect and provide for the
safety of the petitioner.
Rights of Victim-Survivors of VAWC Cases
RA 9262 specified the following as rights of the victims-survivors:
“Section 35. Rights of Victims- In addition to their rights under existing laws, victims of
violence against women and their children shall have the following rights:
(a) To be treated with respect and dignity;

(b) To avail of legal assistance from the Public Attorney’s Office and the Department of
Justice or any public legal assistance office;
(c) To be entitled to support services from the DSWD and the LGUs (local government
units);
(d) To be entitled to all legal remedies and support as provided for under the Family code;
and
(e) To be informed of their right to apply for protection order.”
The right to privacy of the victim is also provided in the law, and its violation is punishable by
the imprisonment and fine.
Duties of National and Local Government Offices
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Section 39 RA 9262 provides for the creation of the Inter-Agency council on Violence
against Women and their Children (IAC-VAWC), which shall formulate gender sensitive
programs for their employees.
The IAC-VAWC consists of the following agencies:
• DSWD National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women

• Civil service commission
• Commission on Human Rights
• Council for the Welfare of Children
• Department of Justice
• Department of Interior and Local Government
• Philippine National Police
• Department of Health
• Department of Education
• Department of Labor and Employment
• National Bureau of Investigation
The implementing rules and regulations of the Anti-VAWC Act

“Section 47. Duties and Functions of Barangay Officials-In order to eliminate violence against
women and their children, barangay officials shall:
a. Undertake an education program

b. Have a family violence prevention program
c. Support organizing efforts and development programs for women in the community
d. Prioritize livelihood projects for victim-survivors
e. Involve women in planning and implementation of all programs and projects in the
barangay
f. Have an Anti-VAWC desk officer in the barangay
g. Ensure that all barangay officials and other workers undergo gender sensitivity seminars
h. Develop a system to document and report cases of VAWC and assistance program to
victims thereof;
i. If applicable/ necessary, prescribe additional guidelines and standards provided that these
are consistent with the Act
Summary
The VAWC Act is a landmark legislation championing the cause of women. This specific
law pertains to specific violations captured as four (4) acts of violence defined in the law. Also
VAWC was considered to be a public crime allowing other person’s to file the complaint, not
only the victim-survivor. Furthermore, the laws allows protection orders distancing the
perpetrator from the victim and vice versa for several purposes as provided for therein.
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Importantly, government units are mandated to provide specific and immediate mechanisms to
respondent appropriately to these VAWC Cases.
Lesson 19 - Laws and Policies on Violence and Discrimination of the members of LGBTQ+
Lesson Objectives:
The lesson discusses salient Philippine Laws and Policies for protection of rights of members of
LGBTQ+. Also it explains the salient Anti Discriminatory Laws and Policies. at the end of this
class, you should be able to:
1. Determine the various Philippine Laws and Policies for protection of rights of members of
LGBTQ+;
2. Identify the different Anti-Discriminatory laws and Policies; and
3. Know the acts leading to violations of these Laws and Policies.
Definition of terms:
· Equal Protection- refers to an idea that a governmental body may not deny people equal
protection of its governing laws. the governing body state must treat an individual in the same
manner as others in similar conditions and circumstances.
· Due process- is a requirement that legal matters be resolved according to established rules
and policies and that individuals be treated fairly due process applies to both civil and criminal
matters.
Introduction
The 1987 Constitution (Equal Protection and Due Process)
The 1987 Philippine Constitution states that; “The state values the dignity of every
human person and guarantees full respect to human rights”. It means that there is no
discrimination on what choices the people could take in their own preferences as long as it not
violate any right of a person. Apart from this, the 1987 Constitution enshrines in its due process
and equal protection clauses that: “No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property
without due process of law, nor shall any person be denied equal protection of the Laws”
( Article 3, Sec 1, 1987 Philippine Constitution).
Article 1 Bill of Rights: We declare that all men are created equally that they are endowed by
their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness; that all power is inherent in the people; and that all free governments are and of right
ought to be founded on their authority and instituted for their peace, safety and well being for the
advancement of these ends the people have at all time an indefeasible right to alter and reform
their government.
as the fundamental law of the land the guarantees on equality, lawful process and the paramount
consideration on ensuring human dignity and respect for human rights in these provision serve
as the basis for the protection of the rights of members of the LGBTQ+
Ang Ladlad Case
Facts: The Comelec refuses to accredit ang Ladlad as a party list organization under R.A.
7941 known as the party list system act on the ground that the LGBT sector is neither
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enumerated in the constitution and R.A. 7941 nor is it associated with or related to any if the
sectors in the enumeration. Ang Ladlad is an organization composed of men and women who
identify themselves as Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered individuals (LGBTQ)
The Comelec’s Second Division ruled: “Until the time comes when Ladlad is able to
justify that having mixed sexual orientations and transgender identities is beneficial to the nation,
its application for accreditation under the party-list system will remain justEven if society’s
understanding, tolerance, and acceptance of LGBT’s is elevated, there can be no denying that
Ladlad constituencies are still males and females, and they will remain either male or female
protected by the same Bill of Rights. As a society, the Philippines cannot ignore its more than
500 years of Muslim and Christian upbringing, such that some moral precepts espoused by said
religions have seeped into society and these are not publicly accepted moral norms.”
Article III Section- “No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof” At bottom, what our non-establishment clause calls for is
“government neutrality in religious matters.”
Clearly, governmental reliance on religious justification is inconsistent with this policy of

neutrality. We thus find that it was a grave violation of the non-establishment clause for the
COMELEC to utilize the Bible and the Koran to justify the exclusion of Ang Ladlad. Moral
disapproval, without more, is not a sufficient governmental interest to justify exclusion of
homosexuals from participation in the party-list system.
The denial of Ang Ladlad’s registration on purely moral grounds amounts more to a
statement of dislike and disapproval of homosexuals, rather than a tool to further any substantial
public interest.
The court ruled in favor of allowing Ang Ladlad to be a party list reasoning that:
“ From the standpoint of the political process the lesbian gay bisexual and transgender
have the same interest in participating in the party list system on the same basis as other political
parties similarly situated. hence laws of general application should apply with equal force to
LGBT and they deserve to participate in the party list system on the same basis as other
marginalized and under-represented sectors”.
Violence and Discrimination
Despite the widespread anecdotal evidence o crimes perpetrated against LGBTQ+

community in the Philippines most data on these cases have not undergone official verification
and collation. in March 2016 the trans murder Monitoring Project listed 41 casesof transgender
people murdered in the country since 2008. example of this cases is the Jennifer Laude’s case.
October 12, 2014 a police report reveals Laude was found dead naked on the floor of a
comfort room in Celzone Lodge. Her head “was leaning” on a toilet bowl, while her “lower body
was partially covered with a color cream blanket.” Police also saw injuries on Laude’s neck.
October 14, 2014 The PNP names Private First Class Joseph Scott Pemberton as a
suspect in Laude’s killing. Police reports call it a hate crime, and say “a case of murder is being
readied against the suspect.”
Pemberton’s discovery that Laude was “gay,” the investigation report says, “prompted
him to kill the victim.”
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On September 7, President Rodrigo Duterte granted absolute pardon to Joseph Scott
Pemberton, a United States Marine convicted of killing Laude in an Olongapo lodge in October
2014.
Pemberton was granted an early release by a regional trial court through Good Conduct
Time Allowance (GCTA), which was questioned and challenged.
Violence and Discrimination against LGBTQ+ Youth in Education
Anti Bullying act of 2013 (Republic Act 10627)
Anti Bullying act of 2013 (Republic Act 10627) includes gender based bullying as a
prohibited and punishable act. gender based bullying is defined as any act that humiliates or
excludes a person on the basis of perceived or actual sexual orientation and gender identity.
 unwanted physical contact

 damage to victim mental and emotional well being
 slander
 cyber bullying
Child protection Policy
In cases where the bullying is committed by a principal, teacher or any other school
personnel the law being violated is department of education Order No. 40 on Child Protection
Policy. This Policy includes the protection of students from any form of violence regardless of
their sexual orientation or gender identity.
Special Protection of Children Against Child abuse Exploitation, and Discrimination Act of
1992 ( Anti Child Abuse act or Republic Act 7610)
Parents of children who suffer abuse at the hands of teachers or members of the School’s
Administration violates R.A. 7610 or the Anti Child Abuse Act. Such cases can cover instances
of physical injury or cruelty on the basis of the child’s SOGIE.
Violence and Discrimination against LGBTQ+ in the Workplace
Introduction
Pre-existing deeply engrained homophobic and transphobic attitudes, frequently

combined with a lack of adequate legal protection against discrimination on the basis of sexual
orientation and gender identity, expose many LGBTQ+ people in the workplace and at home to
egregious violations of their human rights. Knowing what you are entitled to, to safeguard your
safety in the workplace, is a must. There are certain workplace policies and code which protects
the LGBTQ+ community from violence and harassment.
Definition of Terms
Heteronormativity- the concept that heterosexuality is the preferred or normal mode of

sexual orientation. It assumes the gender binary and that sexual and marital relations are most
fitting between people of opposite sex.
Discrimination- the act of making unjustified distinctions between people based on the
groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong.
Labor- physical or mental work, especially of a hard or fatiguing kind; toil. a job or task
done or to be done.
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Innuendoes- an allusive or oblique remark or hint, typically suggestive or disparaging.
The experiences of LGBTQ+ persons at work based on Preliminary research findings

 Common for LGBTQ+ workers to face discrimination at work on the basis of their sexual
orientation and/ or gender identity
 Experience discrimination and harassment in education, which hampers employment
prospects.
 LGBTQ+ workers being bullied, mobbed, and sexually or physically assaulted
Discrimination, harassment and exclusion from the labour force often occur because of
perceived non-conformity with heteronormativity (the social belief that being heterosexual is
“normal”) and because of preconceptions of how women and men are expected to appear and
behave. Others outlined how they had to “prove” their femininity or masculinity in order to be
accepted at the workplace and to have their contribution valued.
The Labor Code of the Philippines (PD 442)

 The Labor Code is the national law covering employment for the private sector in the
Philippines. With the exception of prohibitions against discrimination of women, it does not
contain any provision that prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender identity,
particularly on the members of the LGBTQ+.
 Advocates REVISING AND CONSOLIDATING LABOR AND SOCIAL LAWS TO
AFFORD PROTECTION TO LABOR, PROMOTE EMPLOYMENT AND HUMAN
RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND INSURE INDUSTRIAL PEACE BASED ON
SOCIAL JUSTICE.
Declaration of Policy Article 3 - "State shall afford protection to labor, promote full
employment, ensure equal work opportunities."
 This code being an overgeneralized equality for all tends to lean for heterosexual
people, this is because it does not specify as much to minority groups
CSC No. 01-0940-the Civil Service Commission's Policy on Anti-Sexual Harassment
The Civil Service Commission Administrative Disciplinary Rules on Sexual Harassment

Cases includes other less grave, punishable offences. These include prohibiting "derogatory and
degrading remarks or innuendoes directed toward the members of one's sex, or one's sexual
orientation or used to describe a person".

This Rule applies to all government entities that fall under the Civil Service jurisdiction. These
includes offices under;
 Office of the President.
 Office of the Vice President.
 Department of Education.
 Department of Interior and Local Government.
 Department of Finance.
 Department of Health.
 Department of Science and Technology.
 Department of Trade and Industry.
The policy is important because it explicitly covers derogatory remarks regarding sex,
sexual orientation, or other remarks that are used as description of a person with the intention to
insult. In addition, this policy for government agencies does not require that the offender has
moral ascendancy over the victim.
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The fact that the perpetrator and the victim are of the same level or position will not
preclude the victim from filing a case. While gender identity is not specifically mentioned as a
ground, if a LGBTQ+ civil servant is harassed verbally by co-workers, they would be able to rely
on the generic protection from "derogatory and degrading remarks'.
Despite no specific laws or safeguards existing specifying th LGBTQ+ community,they fall

under general laws of the workplace and they are seen as equals and are to be treated as such.
Any kind of person should feel safe at work as they are at home.
Case of Silverio v Republic of the Philippines, the Supreme Court (SC)(2007)

Ruled against petitioner Silverio's wish to change her first name and gender marker on
her birth certificate. Mely Silverio who underwent "sexual reassignment surgery initially won in
the trial court. The Office of the Solicitor General (OSG) intervened thereafter, arguing in the
Court of Appeals (CA) that the Regional Trial Court of Manila was mistaken in its ruling due to
the fact that that there is no law allowing change of first name on the basis of "sexual alteration".
The CA ruled against Mely Silverio and the SC affirmed the CA ruling.
 In this case, the SC ruled that there was no mistake to be corrected as the birth recordis
not in dispute, as the sex of the person was determined by the birth attendant at the timeof
birth. It elaborated that "sex" as a term does not contemplate inclusion of persons who
have undergone "sex reassignment". Likewise, it argued that allowing her to change her
name and gender marker will alter established laws on marriage and family relations.
Case of Republic of the Philippines v Jennifer Cagandahan, the Court (2008)

Ruled in favor of a name change to Jeff Cagandahan on the ground that Jeff had an
intersex variation, Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH). The Court agreed with Jeff's ability
to self-define his sex because he "has simply let nature take its course and has not taken
unnatural steps to arrest or interfere with what he was born with".
This focus on biological sex is consistent with the Court's contrary position for
transgender people, who are deemed to be attempting to change their biological sex, is is
apparent when the Court favorably notes that Jeff "could have undergone treatment and taken
steps, like taking lifelong medication to force his body i the categorical mold of a female, but, he
did not". Furthermore, the Court in ruling for the change of name, clarified its effect on Jeff's
gender marker. Such a change will conform with the change of the entry in his birth certificate
from female to male.
Summary
The Philippines have various Anti-Discriminatory Policies for members of the LGBTQ+.
However, these policies are not yet sufficient and a national law on anti-discrimination is still
wanted. Cases in the SC already involve topics and issues of LGBTQ+, making this matter of
high importance already. Nonetheless, the rampancy of discrimination of members of LGBTQ+
are prevalent-a huge issue that the Philippines must address.
Lesson 20- DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION,

GENDER IDENTITY AND EXPRESSION (SOGIE) IN THE PHILIPPINES
Objectives:
1. Understand the issues on human rights violations and discrimination on the basis of
SOGIE;
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2. Understand the impact of human rights violations and discrimination to the Filipino
society; and
3. Formulate activities and programs to address these human rights violations and
discrimination on the basis of SOGIE.
Definitions of Terms:
 SOGIE- an acronym for Sexual Orientation, Identity and Expression aspect of gender of
a persons which must be considered and given attention.
 Anti-Discriminatory bill- a proposed legislation before the Philippine Congress
intended to prevent various economic and public accommodation-related acts of
discrimination against people based on their SOGIE.
Introduction
The Universal Policy
Article 2(I), 3, and 26 of the Convention provid for the respect l, equality, and non-
discrimination of all individuals on the ground of, inter alia, race, color, and sex.
In thr landmark decision of Toonen v Australia in 1994, it is found not only that the reference
to "sex" in Article 2(I) and 26 must be taken to include sexual orientation, but also that laws
which criminalize consensual homosexual acts expressly violate the privacy protection of the
law.
National and Local Policies
Anti-discrimination Ordinances that prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and

gender identity have been enacted in twenty five (25) LGU's.
In Quezon City, anti-discrimination in employment was enacted in 2004, and LGBT-

friendly provision are supplemented in the Quezon City Gender and Development Ordinance.
Albay Province and Bacolod City Passed an anti-discrimination ordinance. Angeles City not
only passed anti-discrimination legislation, but created a Gay Right Desk as well.
In the House of Representatives, Representive Raymond Palatino of the Kabataan Partylist

filed House Resolution No. 1333, which seeks to investigate prejudicial, discriminatory, and
unjust practices and policies against LGBT students implemented to tolerated in schools,
partnering with the DepEd and other government agencies to explore the inclusion of a
Comprehensive Gender Curriculum on basic and secondary education and in vocational and
technical school to incorporate discussion on issues of LGBT persons.
In May of 2012, the DepEd issued DepEd Order No. 40 or, "The DepEd Child Protection
Policy" to guarantee the protection of children in schools from any form of violence, abuse, or
exploitation regardless of sexual orientation and gender identity.
Discrimination by the Catholic Church
The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) and Episcopal Commission
on Family and Life (ECFL) has been fervently demanding Congress for the removal of “sex,
gender, sexual orientation and gender identity” in the comprehensive anti-discrimination
ordinances filed in the Senate and in the House of Representatives.
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Antagonist of the anti-discrimination bill claim that the passage of the anti-discrimination
legislation will open the door for same-sex marriages.
Participation of the members of LGBTQ+ in Public Life
Article 25 of Convention provides for the right of each citizen to participate in public
affairs, to vote, and to have equal access to public service in the country.
Discrimination in the Military
According to the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), that the individuals who display
and manifest explicit acts of their homosexual orientations and the propensity to engage in
homosexual acts shall be excluded from the profession of arms.
Philippine military and the police are adhering to the non-discrimination clause of the
Philippine Constitution (Art 2) and the ICCPR by its declaration of openness to admit gays,
lesbian and bisexual persons in military and police services.
The additional inspection conditions required from gay, lesbian, and bisexual applicants
and cadets demonstrate lingering prejudices and negative stereotypes toward LGBT person.
The identification of sources of discrimination is vital so that you will know how these
acts are committed or performed by the social institutions, their respective actors.
SUMMARY
Discrimination against persons based on their sexual orientation, gender identity, and
expression is rampant in the Philippines. Despite the fact that international and local rules exist
to combat this problem, certain institutions continue to promote and spread it. What is evident
and important is that everyone, including students, must take action to address and resolve this
problem.
Lesson 21
UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL HARASSMENT
Lesson Objectives:
This module explains the various theoretical perspectives on Sexual Harassment. Also, this
module discusses the laws of the Philippines on Sexual Harassment in the academe and in the
workplace. At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand fully the various theoretical perspectives on Sexual Harassment;

2. Distinguish the various theoretical perspectives on Sexual Harassment from each other,
and
3. Understand the laws of the Philippines on Sexual Harassment in the academe and in the
workplace.
 Sexual Harassment- it is an act or a series of acts involving any unwelcome sexual

advance, request, or demand for a sexual favor, or other verbal or physical behavior of a
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sexual nature, committed by a government employee or official in a work-related,
training-, or education-related environment.
Introduction
Sexual Harassment
Harassment and sexual harassment are recognized as a form of discrimination on the

grounds of sex and, thus, are contrary to the principle of equal treatment between men and
women (Numhuser Henning and Laulom 2012).
Like many other crimes, sexual harassment is all about power, control, and domination.
International Labor Organization (ILO) (2001) defined sexual harassment as a sex-based
behavior that is unwelcome and offensive to the recipient. Thus, sexual harassment is not merely
a problem of safety and health and unacceptable working conditions, but is also a form of
violence primarily against women (ILO 1992).
In the Philippines, Republic Act No. 7877 or the "Anti Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 defines
work, education or training related sexual harassment is committed by an employer. employee,
manager, supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher, instructor, professor, coach Trainot, or any
other person who, having authority, influence, or moral ascendancy over another in a work or
training or education environment, demands, requests, or otherwise requires any sexual favor
from the other, regardless of whether the demand, request, or requirement for submission is
accepted by the object of said Act.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT
Sexual harassment cannot be understood from the perspective of a single theory, but it is
always a combination of different predictors. Previous researchers have looked at sexual
harassment using a number of frameworks including organizational approach, feminist theory,
role theory, and attributional models of sexual harassment. However, all these models share
common basic assumptions and can be labelled as socio-cultural models of sexual harassment
(Sheets and Braver 1999).
However, there have been five widely accepted theories of sexual harassment that attempt to
explain the phenomenon from different angles and perspective, to wit:
1. Natural/Biological Theory
According to this model, men have stronger sex derives, and are therefore, biologically
motivated to engage in sexual pursuit of women. Thus, the harassing behavior is not meant to be
offensive or discriminatory, but is merely the result of biological urges. Its assumptions
include a natural, mutual attraction between men and women, a stronger male sex drive, and men
in the role of sexual initiators. A key strength of the natural/biological perspective is that it
acknowledges the innate human instincts potentially driving sexually aggressive behavior
(Tangri et al. 1982).
2. Sex Role Spillover Theory

This theory is based on the proposition of irrelevant gender-based role expectations that
individuals bring to the workplace in guiding their interactions with women. Men hold role
perceptions of women based on their traditional role in our culture.
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When women take jobs outside of these traditional areas to work in the male dominated
workplace, men rely on these gender-based expectations when interacting with women therefore,
perceiving women in their gender role over and above their work role. Therefore, men are more
likely to sexualize their experiences, including work experiences, and are therefore, more
likely to make sexual remarks or engage in sexualized behavior, thus accounting for the fact
that women experience more sexual harassment than men (Barbara Gutek 1982).
3. Organizational Theory
Proponents of this theory propose that one of the central concepts that helps to explain sexual
harassment is power (Cleveland and Kurst 1991). This theory proposes that sexual harassment
results from the opportunities presented by power and authority relations which derive
from hierarchical structures of organizations (Gruber 1992).
This perspective emphasizes that the structure of organizational hierarchy invests power in
certain individuals over others, that can lead to abuse. Thus, sexual harassment is all about
expression of male power over women that sustains patriarchal relations.
4. Socio-cultural Theory
Socio-Cultural theories examine the wider social and political context in which sexual
harassment is created and occurs. According to this perspective, sexual harassment is a logical
consequence of the gender inequality and sexism that already exists in society (Gutek 1985;
Thomas and Kitzinger 1997).
This theory asserts that women's lesser status in the larger society is reflected at the
workplace structures and culture-thus, male dominance continues to be the rule.
Herein, sexual harassment is only one manifestation of a much larger patriarchal system in
which men are the dominant group reflecting the larger society's differential distribution of
power and status between the sexes. The perpetrators of sexual harassment have no regard for
women as an equal human being. Therefore, molesting women is a part and parcel of male idea
of fun in the society.
5. Feminist Theory
According to the feminist perspective, sexual harassment is linked to the sexist male ideology
of male dominance and male superiority in the society. Therefore, feminists' theories view sexual
harassment as the product of a gender system maintained by a dominant, normative form of
masculinity. Thus, sexual harassment exists because of the views on women as the inferior
sex, but also sexual harassment serves to maintain the already existing gender stratification
by emphasizing sex role expectations (Gutek 1985).
Relevance of Sexual Harassment Theories
An interpretation of these theoretical perspectives reveals that both biologically, as well as

socio-culturally, men happen to have always occupied a dominant position over women in
societies, of which the workplaces are only a part.
Considerable data have been accumulated confirming that harassment is widespread in both
the public (Culbertson et al. 1992; Fitzgerald el al. 1997) and the private sectors and it has
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significant consequences for the employees' health and psychological well-being (Fitzgerald
1993; Schneider et al. 1997).
Therefore, the vulnerability of women as a weaker sex has traveled towards workplaces and
academe, where it is considered natural and normal for men to be responding sexually
towards women as colleagues, subordinates, and superiors.
Philippine Laws on Sexual Harassment
Republic Act No. 7877, or the Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (RA 7877), is the
governing law for work-, education-, or training-related sexual harassment.
Specifically, in a work-related or employment environment, sexual harassment is committed

when:
1. The sexual favor is made as a condition in the hiring or in the employment, re-
employment or continued employment of said individual, or in granting said individual
favorable compensation, terms of conditions, promotions, or privileges; or the refusal to
grant the sexual favor results in limiting, segregating, or classifying the employee which
in any way would discriminate, deprive, or diminish employment opportunities or
otherwise, adversely affect said employee;
2. The above acts would impair the employee's rights or privileges under existing labor
laws; or
3. The above acts would result in an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment for the
employee.
On the other hand, in an education or training environment, sexual harassment is committed:
1. Against one who is under the care, custody, or supervision of the offender;
2. Against one whose education, training, apprenticeship, or tutorship is entrusted to the
offender,
3. When the sexual favor is made a condition to the giving of a passing grade, granting of
honors and scholarships, or the payment of a stipend, allowance or other benefits,
privileges, or consideration; or
4. When the sexual advances result in an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment for
the student, trainee, or apprentice.
Sexual Harassment in the Civil Service
Sexual Harassment in the Civil Service is punishable by Civil Service Commission No. 01-
0940, also known as Administrative Disciplinary Rules on Sexual Harassment Cases.
Here, sexual harassment can be committed at the following places:
1. In the premises of the workplace or office or of the school or training institution,

2. In any place where the parties were found, as a result of work or education of training
responsibilities or relations;
3. At work, education, or training-related social functions;
4. While on official business outside the office or school or training institution or during work,
school, or training-related travel:
5. At official conferences, fora, symposia, or training sessions; or
6. By telephone, cellular phone, fax machine, or electronic mail.
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The following forms of sexual harassment are committed thru: (1) Physical, (a) Malicious
touching; (b) Overt sexual advances; (c) Gestures with lewd insinuation; (2) Verbal, such as but
not limited to, (a) requests or demands for sexual favors and (b) lurid remarks; (3) Use of
objects, pictures or graphics, letters, or written notes with sexual underpinnings; (4) Other forms
analogous to the foregoing.
Summary
Sexual harassment constitutes an extremely important kind of violence which has been
existing and rampant in the Philippines and worldwide. This complex concept consists of several
theories and are punished by Philippine laws.
The Philippine laws on sexual harassment punishes work-related, training, and education
environment sexual harassment. It can happen everywhere. The acts of sexual harassment are
also punishable by law.
LESSON 22: WOMEN’S ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT
Lesson Objectives:
This lesson discusses the thee (3) distinctive models explaining how development affects women
and why women and men are affected by development differently. Also, this lesson discusses the
practical approaches to the development of women.
At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:
1. Understand fully the principle, model, and concept of WID, WAD and GAD;
2. Distinguish the three (WID, WAD and GAD) from each other; and
3. Determine the importance of these three principles to national development.
 Development – the process in which someone or something grows or changes and becomes
more advanced.
 Women in Development – approach of development projects that emerged in the 1960’s,
calling for treatment of women’s issues in development project.
 Women and Development – approach comes from the perspective that equality will be
essential to improving women’s positions, but still frames change in terms of providing
women access to the productive sector.
 Gender and Development – was developed in the 1980’s, stepped away from both WID and
WAD and was founded in socialist-feminist ideology (Rathgeber 1990, 493). The GAD
approach holds that the oppression of women stems largely from a neoliberal focus on
improving women’s reproductive and productive capacities.
Introduction
Women in Development (WID)
By 1970’s it became clear that women were being left out of development. Women in
development is an approach emerged in the 1970’s with the goal of integrating women more
fully into the development process.
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The main task, therefore, was to improve women’s access to resources and their
participation to development. It was said that this approach was the best way to improve
women’s position in society.
WID approach believed that, when women would be integrated in development, traditional role
of women would change and patriarchy would end. If there are equal opportunities for women,
they would contribute in development and structural roles would change.
This approach although it had limitations, increased the visibility of women in development
issues. Also, it successfully helped to secure a prominent place for women’s issues at the United
Nations (UN) and other international development agencies. The UN declared that the decade of
1975 to 1985 to be the decade for women.
In Zambia, United National Independence Party (UNIP), was formed as the national machinery
to address women’s development issues.
Women and Development (WAD)
In the second half of the 1970’s, the WAD approach developed. WAD approach was
advocated by women from Africa, Latin America, and Asia who felt that the “bigger” issues of
colonialism and unequal global relationships had not been taken into account in the WID
perspective.
WAD argues that women have always been a part of the development processes but their work
has been exploited to profit others in the global north.
WAD approach also accepts women as important economic actors in their societies.
Women’s work in the public and private domain is central to the maintenance of their social
structures in the society.
However, this integration has only served to sustain global inequalities making the WID
approach that placed emphasis on integrating women into development incorrect.
Therefore, the WAD perspective was more concerned about the relationship between
women and development rather than integration of women into development.
Criticisms of WAD
WAD approach was being criticized because of the following reasons:
First, the WAD approach downplays the class, racial and ethnic differences among women.
Second, it only focused on international relations of power and neglected relations between
genders and classes.
Third, the WAD position equally downplays the role of patriarchy and does not adequately
explain gender power relations and their impact on development, and
Lastly, the advocacy for separate projects for women, as well as, women’s only organizations did
not produce the desired transformational impact.
Gender and Development Approach (GAD)
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The Gender and Development approach was developed in the 1980’s. It brought together
both the lessons learned from, and the limitation of, the WID and WAD approaches.
Gad looks at the impact of development on both women and men. It ensures that both of
them participate in political aspect and benefit in the economics of the society through
emphasizing their equal access to the control of resources.
GAD focuses not only on women (as WID and WAD did) but on the unequal social
relations between men and women and they seek to transform this inequality. It also puts the
responsibility on the state to provide social services to support women’s social reproduction role
just like caring and nurturing children and taking care of the old and sick. The GAD paradigm
argues that this would help in promoting the emancipation of women.
Furthermore, GAD approach recognizes women as agents of change rather than mere
recipients of development and it emphasizes the need for women to mobilize in order to achieve
greater political impact.
Practical Approaches to the Development of Woman
The Welfare Approach
It was the earliest approach introduced in the 1950s and 1960s. It is residual model of
social welfare under colonial administration and became most popular during early 1970s. The
focused of the welfare approach was on the mother and child health, child care, and nutrition.
But, due to the link between population growth and poverty, population control or Family
Planning became the focal point of this approach. Therefore, the focus was clearly on meeting
practical needs.
The welfare approach is based on three assumptions:
First, the women are passive recipients of development, rather than participants in the
development process.
Second, the motherhood is the most effective role for women in all aspects of economic
development.
Third, the child rearing is the most effective role for women in all aspects of economic
development.
The Equity Approach
It was introduced within the 1976-1985s UN women’s decade. The aim of this approach
was to eliminate discrimination and to gain equity for women in the development process. It
recognized women's triple roles or the productive, reproductive and community roles of women
and seeks to meet strategic gender needs through direct state intervention, giving political and
economic autonomy to women and reducing inequality with men.
The equity approach, in contrast to the welfare approach, perceived women as active participants
that brings necessary changes in the society.
The Anti-Poverty Approach
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The anti-poverty approach is identified as the second WID approach, introduced in
1970’s, in which economic inequality between men and women is linked not to subordination
but to poverty. The emphasis thus shifts from reducing inequality between men and women to
reduce income inequality.
Also, the anti-poverty approach focused mainly to their productive role of women, on the basis
that poverty alleviation and the promotion of balanced economic growth requires the increased
of productivity of women in low-income households.
The Efficiency Approach
Efficiency is the third, and now predominant WID approach, particularly since the 1980s
debt crisis. Its purpose is to ensure that development is more efficient and effective through
women’s economic contribution.
This approach emphasis has shifted away from women and towards development, on the
assumption that increased economic participation for women is automatically linked with
increased equity.
Also, efficiency approach succeeded in bringing the concerns about women and gender
into the mainstream of development.
The Empowerment Approach
Empowerment is the most recent approach, articulated by third world women. Its purpose
is to empower women through greater self-reliance and to influence change at the policy,
legislative, societal, economic, and other levels to their advantage.
Its main strategy is awareness-raising and situates women firmly as active participants in
ensuring change takes place.
The empowerment approach has become very important in securing those opportunities
are opened for women to determine their own needs. However, this approach has been
misunderstood to be an end rather than a means. And because of that, poor women becoming
very knowledgeable about issues while realizing little change to their material situation, which is
often dreadful.
Summary
WID, WAD, and GAD evolved towards achieving women empowerment since the mid-
19 century and up to present. Aside from that, several practical approaches had been utilized to
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underscore the role of women in nation-building and vice versa. The evolution of these theories
and approaches only state the women empowerment is a developing principle, alongside
development of the country.
Lesson 23- GENDER INEQUALITY IN MARRIAGE AND CRIMINAL LAWS
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand fully the gender inequality in marriage and criminal laws

2. Determine the status of gender inequality in selected provisions of these laws; and
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3. Assess provisions on the proposed same-sex marriage
 Marriage - a special contract of permanent union between a man and woman entered in
accordance with law foe the established of conjugal and family life. It is the foundation of
the family and an inviolable social institution.
Introduction
Marriage is the most important decisions in everyone’s life. It is the beginning, the
beginning of the family and a lifelong commitment. According to Art, XV, Section 2, 1987
Constitution, marriage is an inviolable social institution, is the foundation of the family and shall
be protected by the State while according to Article 1, The Family Code of the Philippines,
marriage is defined a special contract of permanent union between a man and woman entered in
accordance with law for the establishment of conjugal and family life.
Marriage is only between man and but what about those people who are attracted to their
same sex that want to marry with their loved ones? Marriage laws in the Philippines have always
been based on sex and not on gender and the facts that there are specific laws that provides
marriage only for man and a woman, it causes exclusion of homosexual relationship as it
accommodates only the heterosexual ones. The fight to legalize same-sex marriage or union in
the Philippines has always been put to uncertainty due to the dominance of Catholic belief in the
country and the legislation because same sex union contradicts the nature of marriage for the
reason that it cannot create a new life. This deprives the members of the LGBTQ+ of these
constitutionally enshrined rights. Even though there are ways for same sex partner to get married
without involving the church or religion, they still cannot enjoy the same rights and privileges
granted to married couples like they can’t have a conjugal property, a partner can’t give consent
to medical treatments on behalf of his or her civil partner with a serious medical condition, and
they can’t enjoy the rights that granted to married couples in social security and insurance
memberships such as benefits in SSS, GSIS and PhilHealth.
If the Supreme Court rules that the provisions of the Family Code are unconstitutional
and permits same-sex marriage, Philippines will join Taiwan at the forefront of Asian countries
with marriage inequalities. At the end of the day, equality for all human beings’ is should be the
main goal. The love between two people whether they are same sex or not is something really
between them and that must be respected, hence, the rights and protection and benefits that law
provide for married couples should same for homosexual people and we must respect the rights
of individuals to enter such partnerships as part of their human rights.
Apart from marital laws, various personal laws in the Philippines present a picture of
inequality in its provisions:
 Article 333 and 334 of the Revised Penal Code- The crime of adultery presents harsher
requisites than he crime of concubinage
 Article 202 of the Revised Penal Code - Vagrants and prostitutes pertain only to women
 Article 130 - “Nightwork prohibition. No women, regardless of age, shall be employed or
permitted or suffered to work, with or without compensation”
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-This provision of the Labor Code shows a gender equality issue and deprive women of
equal opportunities of employment because this article forbidden women to work at
night.
 Rule 131 Section 3 of the Rules of court - Disputable Presumption

 RA 8353 – Removal of criminal liability for rapist
These various personal laws that presents an inequality in its provisions and it is vital to be
addressed as otherwise, this ill concept will further be escalate or proliferated.
THE PRIMACY OF THE DECISION OF THE HUSBAND/FATHER
 Article 14 Of The Family Code. This article talks about the Consent of Marriage of an
underage person which is still being used by the local civil registrar. The phrase ‘in the
order mentioned’ shows that the law is explicitly partial to the father's decision to give or
withhold consent to the marriage of a son or daughter. Thus, if the mother consents but the
father objects to the marriage, there is no valid consent to the said marriage or even if the
mother may have serious objections to the marriage, the child's father still has the power to
decide.
 Article 96 and 124 of The Family Code. This deals with the administration of community
property and conjugal partnership. The Administration and enjoyment belong to spouses
jointly and again, if disagreement occurs, the husband decisions shall prevail. Instead of
automatically favoring the decision of the husband in case of disagreement, the court must
intervene to decide which spouse is better fit to administer the property, based on certain
objective, criteria, and evidence. This way, the wife will be given an equal opportunity to
show her capability to administer the conjugal or community property
 Article 211 and 225 of The Family Code. This article talks about the rights in the exercise
of parental authority over the person and legal guardianship over their child’s and in case of
disagreement fathers’ decision should prevail. This is discriminatory to women because it
uses the proxy standard of sex by blindly presuming that the man always knows the best
thing to do for the family whereas the woman is not fit to make such sound judgment.
Parents have equal rights over their children so instead of automatically favoring the
decision of the father in case of disagreement, it would be better and fairer for the court to
intervene and decide, taking into consideration the best interest of the child, as to which
parent is better suited to exercise parental authority over the child.
In Conclusion:
Provisions of the Family Code such as 14, 96, 124, 211 and 225 which give more weight to the
judgment of the husband than the mother must therefore be amended to eliminate the existing
discrimination against a woman when it comes to decision-making in the context of family
relations.
HIGHER BURDEN ON WOMEN/WIVES THAN MEN/HUSBAND
Adultery is committed by any married women who shall have sexual intercourse with a
man not her husband. Adultery maliciously interferes with marriage relations and sometimes
open the door to divorce. Under Revised Penal Code Article 333 adultery refers to an extra
marital relationship of a woman to a man other than her husband even if the man already know
that she is already married. A crime of adultery is committed for each sexual intercourse that
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takes place. In adultery the Law discriminates against wives, the crime of adultery can be
committed only by a wife and her paramour. The husband need only to prove that his wife had
sexual intercourse with a man other than him.
On the other hand, concubinage refers to the cohabitation of a married man with a
mistress in the same or conjugal dwelling or an involvement of a married man with a woman
who is not his wife in any other place. The sexual intercourse of a married man to the concubine
took place under scandalous circumstance. The crime of concubinage can be committed only by
a husband and his concubine but it requires that the wife must prove that her husband has kept a
mistress on the conjugal dwelling or has had sexual intercourse under scandalous circumstances
or live together with his mistress in any other place.
Penalties of adultery and concubinage are quite different. For adultery, the guilty wife
and her paramour may be imprisoned for up to 6 years. For concubinage, the husband may be
imprisoned for up to 4 years and 1 day. While his concubine may be merely “banished” but may
not be imprisoned.
Concubinage has lower penalty than adultery and the concubine’s penalty is only
distierro which refers to banishment or prohibition from residing within the accuse party’s actual
residence. The distance should be within the radius of 25 kilometers and banishment will be
given for a specified length of time. In adultery the penalty for the man is the same as that of
guilty wife.
The Laws work to the great disadvantage of women there is no divorce in the Philippines
and abandoned wives are often accused of adultery to force them to agree to their husband’s
petition to nullify the marriage. The Philippine Commission in women reports that in many cases
women who are faced by these threats are forced to forego legitimate custodial claims of their
children while some are forced to give up their claims over conjugal properties, assets, and the
like.
FORGIVENESS CLAUSE IN THE CIME OF RAPE (RA 8353 OR THE ANTI LAW)
The Anti-Rape Law (RA 8353) contains a clause than can easily exonerate the offender and can
further endanger the victim.
In the law, it was stated that: “subsequent valid marriage between the offender and the
offended party shall extinguish the criminal action or the penalty imposed.
This gives an easy way out for the offender, which in effect, does not bar him from
committing the crime.
The Anti-Rape-Law of 1997 redefines rape as:
 A crime against person – rape violates a woman’s well-being and not just her virginity
or purity. The law considers that any women whether a prostituted woman, not virgin, or
one who has an active sexual life may be victimized by rape.
 A public offense – by declaring that rape is a crime against person, the law no longer
considers it as a private crime. Anyone who has knowledge of the crime may file a case
on the victims’ behalf. Prosecution continues even if the victim drops the case or pardons
the offender.
Rape is committed under the following circumstances:
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1. A man has sexual intercourse with a woman: through force, threat or intimidation, when
the victim is deprived of reason or is unconscious, through fraudulent machination or
grave abuse of authority and when the victim is under 12 years of age or is demented,
even if none of the above conditions are present.
2. Any person who under any above conditions, commits an act of sexual assault through
oral or anal sex or by inserting an instrument or object into the anal or genital orifice of
another person.
Rape in the Philippines is considered as criminal offense. In Philippine Jurisprudence, it
is a heinous crime punishable by life imprisonment when committed against women. Rape of
males is also legally recognized as rape by sexual assault which is penalized by
imprisonment of 6 to 12 years.
Rape is committed by any man or women may be held liable for rape. It is possible that a
man rapes his own wife an act deemed as marital rape (act of sexual intercourse with one’s
spouse without the spouse’s consent) the penalty for rape in general may apply on the
offender who commits marital rape.
Punishment of Rape:
1. Reclusion Perpetua – imprisonment from 20 to 40 years. It is imposed on the offender

if rape is committed through sexual intercourse
2. Prision Mayor – imprisonment from to 12 years. It is imposed on the offender if rape
has committed through oral or anal sex or through the use of any object or instrument
that was inserted into the mouth or anal orifice of the woman or a man. This may also be
elevated to reclusion temporal or reclusion Perpetua depending on the circumstances
surrounding the crime.
What to do if someone is raped:
1. Advise the victim to seek help of a counsel or a therapist who is an expert in handling cases of
sexual abuse.
2. Assist her in securing a safe and temporary shelter if she needs to move to another place for
security reason.
3. Make sure that evidence is safe and intact.
4. Secure medico-legal certificate from a medico legal officer.
5. Support the victim along the way when she decides to file a case.
6. Ensure that she is prepared in all aspects.
7. Help the victim choose the lawyer who understands her most.
8. Coordinate with people who can assist or support her all throughout.
EXLUSIVE DEFINITION OF PROSTITUTION
Article 202 of the Revised Penal Code, amended by Republic Act No. 10158, retained the
decades old definition of prostitutions as “women who, for money or profit, habitually engage in
sexual intercourse or lascivious xxx”
Prostitution is an incredibly dangerous profession for the women involved; sexual assault,
forced drug addiction, physical abuse, and death are common in the industry. For the women
who work in this field, it is often very difficult to get help or get out. Many are recruited into
prostitution by force, fraud, or coercion. Some women need money to support themselves and
their children, others need money to support their drug habits.
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In a survey of prostitution, the majority of prostitute say, “their own sexuality, sexual
curiosity and money are the main reasons they choose their line of work”. Half of the prostitutes
in a new survey say they became prostitute because of sexual curiosity and 68% consider their
line of work as part of their sexuality. According to Jens Cofod, while there is no doubt that
money is the primary reason for the women becoming prostitutes it is very surprising that sexual
motivation rises so highly.
Prostitution has been condemned as a single form of human rights abuse, and an attack on
the dignity and worth of human beings.
SUMMARY
The Family Code, which contains marital laws and provisions, include provisions which
depict gender inequality. Legislations on “Same Sex Marriage” are good initiatives to address
this issue on gender inequality in marital laws. Criminal laws are not that different as clearly,
some provisions therein, favor the male sex over the female sex. Worse, this pertains to crimes,
involving penalties for imprisonment.
Lesson 24: CRITIQUE ON THE RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACT OF 2012, REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10354 ALSO KNOWN
AS RH LAW
Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses background, rationale, salient provisions, and potential impacts of the
“Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012” or RA I0354,also known as RH
Law.This module also discusses the pros and cons of the said law.
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Understand fully the background, rationale, salient provisions and potential impacts
of the “responsible parenthood and reproductive health act of 2012" or rai0354;and
2. Have a stand/position on whether he/she agrees/disagrees on the existence and
legality of the said law.
Introduction
As you will notice, it is quite common for your grandparents have seven (7) or eight (8) siblings.
Some even have more. This is not the commonplace nowadays, as most couples settle for two (2) or three
(3) kids, that is why most of you have few siblings unlike previous limes.
RATIONALE OF THE RH LAW
The “Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012” or RA 10354, also known
as the “RH Law” was primarily enacted on a vision that the poor will have access to
Reproductive Health (RH) goods and services which they cannot afford. With this Law, the poor
will likely have sufficient access to information about the poor use and effectiveness of these RH
products.
Apparently the failure of the market RH goods and services to reach marginalized women
compelled the Philippine Government to step in and initiate measures to address this occurrence.
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WHAT IS RH LAW?
Republic Act 10354 or the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Law of
2012 (RH Law) is a national policy that mandates the Philippine government to comprehensively
address the needs of Filipino citizens when it comes to responsible parenthood and reproductive
health. As such, the RH Law guarantees the following: (1) access to services on Reproductive
Health (RH) and Family Planning (FP), with due regard to the informed choice of individuals
and couples who will accept these services, (2) maternal health care services, including skilled
birth attendance and facility-based deliveries, (3) reproductive health and sexuality education for
the youth, and (4) regular funding for the law’s full implementation.
WHAT DOES THE RH LAW UPHOLD?
The RH Law is rooted on the human rights of every individual including their right to
equality and nondiscrimination, the right to sustainable human development, the right to health
including RH, and the right to make decisions for themselves in accordance with their religious
convictions, ethics, cultural beliefs, and the demands of responsible parenthood.
The RH Law also recognizes the inviolable institution and foundation of the family and
guarantees the promotion of gender equality, gender equity, women empowerment and dignity as
a health and human rights concern and as a social responsibility.
Consistent with its foundations, the RH Law reiterates that the State guarantees universal
access to medically-safe, non-abortifacient, effective, legal, affordable, and quality RH care
services, methods, devices, and supplies which do not prevent the implantation of a fertilized
ovum.
The RH Law also reiterates that the State guarantees the provision of relevant
information and education thereon according to the priority needs of women, children and other
underprivileged sectors who shall be voluntary beneficiaries of RH care, services and supplies
for free.
WHO SHALL BENEFIT FROM THE RH LAW?
Foremost of the beneficiaries of the RH Law are Filipino women who have for long been
deprived of comprehensive information and services on RH. With the RH Law in place, women,
especially the poor, will now have full access to RH information and avail of services that they
deem necessary to address their RH concerns. In turn, women will have the power to decide on
matters that concern their own bodies.
Alongside its benefits to Filipino women, an efficient implementation of the RH Law will
also benefit the health of children. With mothers’ health taken care of during their pregnancy and
delivery under a comprehensive RH program, the effective implementation of the RH Law will
also translate into healthier children.
However, RH Law was depicted by paintings of promoting abortion and abortifacient

products-thus sinful and frowned upon by the Catholic Church.
Since the enactment in December 2012 of Republic Act No. 10354, the Reproductive
Health Law, the Church and other religious and allied groups have hindered its rollout by
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questioning in the Supreme Court its constitutionality, invoking the state’s responsibility to
protect the life of the unborn child.
Dean Tony La Vina of the Ateneo School of Government8 has this to say about the
Reproductive Health Law: “Among others, it is clear that abortifacient methods are prohibited,
freedom of conscience is respected, and there is neither a mandate to reduce our population nor a
preference for smaller families.”
In his view, the RH Law’s most important provision is the guarantee by the State to
provide “universal access to medically-safe, non-abortifacient, effective, legal, affordable, and
quality reproductive health care services, methods, devices, supplies which do not prevent the
implantation of a fertilized ovum and relevant information and education thereon according to
the priority needs of women, children and other under privileged sectors.”
THE ELEMENTS OF THE RH LAW
What are the elements of the recently enacted RH Law? They are:
1) Family planning information and services which shall include as a first priority making
women of reproductive age fully aware of their respective cycles to make them aware of when
fertilization is highly probable, as well as highly improbable;
2) Maternal, infant and child health and nutrition, including breastfeeding;
3) Proscription of abortion and management of abortion complications;
4) Adolescent and youth reproductive health guidance and counseling;
5) Prevention, treatment and management of reproductive tract infections (RTI), HIV and AIDS
and other sexually transmittable infections (STI);
6) Elimination of violence against women and children and other forms of sexual and gender-
based violence;
7) Education and counseling on sexuality and reproductive health;
8) Treatment of breast and reproductive tract cancers and other gynecological conditions and
disorders;
9) Male responsibility and involvement and men’s reproductive health;
10) Prevention, treatment and management of infertility and sexual dysfunction;
11) Reproductive health education for the adolescents; and
12) Mental health aspect of reproductive health care.
The law provides for the following among other things:
Midwives for skilled birth attendance : The law mandates every city and municipality to
employ an adequate number of midwives and other skilled attendants. Currently, only 57% of
Filipino women 3 give birth with the assistance of a trained medical professional.
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Emergency obstetric care: Each province and city shall ensure the establishment and
operation of hospitals with adequate facilities and qualified personnel that provide emergency
obstetric care.
Ensure that an ideal skilled health professional-topatient ratio is achieved by hiring an

adequate number of nurses, midwives and other skilled health professionals for maternal health
care and skilled birth attendance; (Sec. 5, RA 10354) b. Endeavor to establish or upgrade
hospitals and facilities with adequate and qualified personnel, equipment and supplies and able to
provide emergency obstetric and newborn care;
Hospital-based family planning: The law requires family planning services like ligation,
vasectomy and intrauterine device (IUD) placement to be available in all government hospitals.
Contraceptives as essential medicines: Reproductive health products shall be considered

essential medicines and supplies and shall form part of the National Drug Formulary. Their
inclusion in the National Drug Formulary will enable government to purchase contraceptives and
not merely rely on unpredictable donations.
Strengthen the capacities of health regulatory agencies to ensure safe, high quality,
accessible and affordable RH services and commodities with the concurrent strengthening and
enforcement of regulatory mandates and mechanisms; b. Facilitate the involvement and
participation of NGOs and the private sector in RH care service delivery and in the production,
distribution and delivery of quality reproductive health and family planning supplies and
commodities to make them accessible and affordable to ordinary citizens;
Reproductive health education: RH education shall be taught by adequately trained

teachers in an age-appropriate manner.
Employers’ responsibilities: Employers shall respect the reproductive health rights of all

their workers. Women shall not be discriminated against in the matter of hiring, regularization of
employment status or selection for retrenchment. Employers shall provide free reproductive
health services and education to workers.
Capability building of community-based volunteer workers: Community-based workers

shall undergo additional and updated training on the delivery of reproductive health care services
and shall receive not less than 10% increase in honoraria upon successful completion of training.
PROHIBITED ACTS
The law also provides for penalties for persons who perform certain prohibited acts such as the
following:
 knowing (with malicious intent) withholding or impending the dissemination of information

about the programs and services provided for in this Act or intentionally giving out
incorrect information.;
 . refusing to perform voluntary ligation and vasectomy and other legal and medically- safe
reproductive health care services on any person of legal age on the ground of the lack of
spousal content or authorization;
 . refusing to provide reproductive health care services to an abused minor and/or an abused
pregnant minor, whose condition is certified to by an authorized DSWD official or
personnel, even without parental consent particularly when the parent concerned is the
perpetrator.
 . refusing to extend reproductive health care services and information on account of the
patient's civil status gender or sexual orientation, age, religion, personal circumstances, and
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nature of work: Provided that all conscientious objections of health care service providers
based on religious grounds shall be respected: Provided, further, that the conscientious
objector shall immediately refer the person seeking such care and services to another health
care services provider within the same facility or one who is conveniently accessible:
Provided, finally, that the patient's is not in an emergency or serious case, as defined in RA
8344, penalizing the refusal of hospitals and medical clinics to administer appropriate initial
medical treatment and support in emergency and serious cases.
 .requiring a female applicant or employee, as a condition for employment or continued
employment to involuntarily undergo sterilization, tubal ligation, or any other form of
contraceptive methods.
LEGISLATING RH
The road to the enactment of the RH law was a painstaking path. The main blockade was
constitutional provision, particularly that provided in Article II , Section 12 of the 1987
constitution which mandates that:
"The State recognizes the sanctity of life. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the
life of the unborn from conception."
In this regard the 1987 constitution itself mandates that the Philippines Government must
recognize the importance of life and protect the life of the mother and unborn.
Inasmuch as artificial family planning methods are labeled as "anti-life" and against the sanctity
of life making them contrary to the said fundamental law of the land. In addition, these "pro-life"
groups strongly advocate the uses of natural methods.
On the other hand, advocates of the RH law counter of proliferating abortion or
abortifacient products by scientific finding which claimed otherwise.
What these debates are missing out is clearly the spirit of the law-to allow women to choose
freely whatever method of the family planning is fit and appropriate to them. Claiming that one
is better as compared to the other delimits these supposedly free-choice that women truly
deserve.
In 2015, a further temporary restraining order (TRO) issued again by the nation's SC
prevented the food and drug administration (FDA) of the Philippines from procuring
distributing, or issuing new certificates of product regist6 on more than 50 different
contraceptive, allowing many licenses to eventually expire.
The TRO was launched after the FDA registered a contraceptive implant called
implanon, which accordingly, could be used to induce abortion. Two years after the said TRO,
the FDA then certified that implanon and implano NXT are not abortifacient
With the TRO finally lifted, the department of health now freely distributes contraceptive to their
regional offices and to various NGOs.
SUMMARY
The "Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012" or Ra 10354, was
truly a landmark legislation which has the noblest intention of allowing women, especially those
who are poor, to have a choice on their family planning methods.
It is a given that the Catholic Church will vehemently oppose this move and will keep doing so
because of what they believe in and what they fight for. This exercise of arguments only
strengthens our democratic institution and citizenry as more people become aware of what the
law is all about and what it provides.
No matter the debate and long wedding journey, the RH law is now implemented and it is
expected that all actors must comply to the same. As can be seen, the RH law is replete with
substantial provision envisioning an empowered Filipino Women with choices in her life.
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LESSON 25: GENDER AND LABOR
Definitions of terms
• Labor- activities pertaining to developing goods and services for economic reasons.
• Workforce – a sector in the population engaged in economic and productive activities.
Introduction
Women face different constraints from men in the labor market. This recognized in Republic Act
9710, known as the Magna Carta of Women, enacted in 2009.
This act recognizes that equality of men and women entails the abolition of the unequal structure
and practices that perpetuate discrimination and inequality. In connection with employment, the
Philippine Commission on Woman indicates that the Magna Carta of Women will level the
playing field by making productive resources and economic opportunities equally available for
both men and women.
As children grow up, they learn to do various work, but society encourages them do certain
specific work, e.g. girls are asked to help in cooking and cleaning, while boys are asked to repair
certain things. This distribution of labor is based on sex, and not on individual capacity or skills
sets.
Both boys and girls should be given equal opportunity to learn different skill sets based on their
interest and to grow. Household chores are not only women’s responsibility, it is also
household’s responsibility, and all family members should contribute to it.
EMPLOYMENT SECTOR
Agriculture
Women farmers do not have an equal opportunity to acquire land or register it in their
own names. They have fewer inheritance rights than male farmers than male farmers. Land
ownership is important not only to women’s ability to earn income, but also as a source of
empowerment and autonomy within the household. Their lack of land also affects their ability to
gain access to credit facilities.
Gender inequalities in agriculture may stem from structural barrier that block women’s
access to land ownership and other key services. In fact, research shows that “ patrilineal
inheritance of both farmland and farm knowledge creates barrier for women farmers and reveal
large gender gap in farm income.
Industry and Manufacturing
The number of women working in economic zones is estimated to represent 64% of total
employment and may be much higher in some industries, such as electronics and apparel.
Women’s share of employment in the export- processing sones is much greater than women’s
share of employment in the labor force as a whole, and the conditions of employment are of
concern.
Historically, men have held the majority of jobs in the manufacturing industry in 1970, women’s
share of employment in the manufacturing industry has remained relatively constant, peaking at
only 33.2% in 1990 before declining to 29.0% in the year 2016.
Tourism
It appears that tourism planning has not included women or ahs had insufficient regard
for gender issues. Within the tourism industry, relatively few women have the educational
89
qualifications or foreign language skills to complete for front-of-house positions in the hotel
industry, as tour guides, or in travel agencies, and women are more likely to be employed as
housekeeper, waitresses, or similar low-level positions.
Tourism employs approximately 1 in 10 people globally. Tourism is the fastest growing
economic sector in the world and the world’s second largest employer. Tourism’s global force
means it cannot be kept out of the conversation around gender equality if we wish to achieve.
Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)
What is BPO?
Business process outsourcing (BPO) is the delegation of one or more IT-intensive

business processes to an external provider that, in turn, owns, administrates and manages the
selected processes based on defined and measurable performance metrics. BPO offerings are
categorized in two major categories: horizontal offerings (those that can be leveraged across
specific industries) and vertical-specific offerings (those that demand specific industry vertical
process knowledge).
The BPO sector has experienced rapid growth over the past decade, although it only
accounts for about 1.7% of total employment. Nonetheless, the sector is an important source of
employment for college-educated women. Further expansion of employment and improvement
of decent work opportunities for women in the BPO sector will require ensuring that women
obtain appropriate skills across all categories of present and future BPO activities; measures to
increase the entry of women into the areas presently dominated by men, such as hardware and
software technology-based jobs; examining employment practices and the reasons for pay
differentials among men and women in various jobs; and enhancing safety and working
conditions.
Business Processing Outsourcing
The Philippines' Information Technology Business Process Outsourcing Road Map 2011-
2016 is not gender responsive and does not address women's constraints in accessing higher-paid
work in non voice services or likely growth in the information technology and engineering.
These matters, as well as the pay differentials between men and women and employment
conditions, require specific government attention.
Government Services
Public sector employment is an important source of jobs with better pay and conditions
for women than many other industrial sectors, but women are constrained by being
predominantly employed in traditional, gender-stereotyped care sector government occupations
such as health and education, and they are under-represented in the higher paying subsectors.
The Philippines has strong gender mainstreaming programs, which has given women greater
access yo government employment generally, but women in the civil sector may still be
underpaid, given their levels of education, experience, and ability.
When setting up a business, women have different motivations and requirements than men. For
instance, women need access to improved microcredit programs and can benefit from improved
access to information, training, and outreach services to build their capacity to start up their
businesses and upgrade them over time. Entrepreneurship.
90
There has been a rapid surge in the number and proportion of Female entrepreneurs in
developing countries (Minniti and Naude 2010, 280). Studies indicate that female-led MSMEs
increase employment opportunities for women and contribute to wider development goals (ADB
and ILO 2013a). One survey indicated that women entrepreneurs are more likely than men to be
motivated by necessity; these are livelihood-oriented entrepreneurs attempting to escape
unemployment (Viet Nam Women Entrepreneurs Council 2007).
Entrepreneurship
Measures to support and facilitate women upgrading their businesses and employment
circumstances are necessary to encourage a progressive integration of women’s businesses into
the formal economy. This report makes recommendations in this area, particularly with relation
to women in rural areas, and highlights examples of good practices.
Salient Policies on Gender Equality in the Labor Market
The Philippines has ratified 34 ILO conventions and is party to all the fundamental
United Nations human rights covenants and conventions. The country's 1987 Constitution has
enshrined these rights in Section 3, Article XIII (Bills of Rights), and in Section 14, Article II,
which ensures fundamental equality of women and men before the Law.
Article 3, Chapter 1 of the Labor Code, as well as Republic Acts 6725, 7192, 7877, and 8551, all
provide for fundamental human rights protection, including anti discrimination provisions, and
they ensure fundamental equality, prohibition of sexual harassment, and temporary special
measures. The Philippines' Anti Sexual Harassment Act No. 7877 of 8 February 1995 is an
example of good legislative practice.
The Magna Carta of Women (Rupublic Act 9710) is an overall legislative framework that
articulates the specific rights, needs, and support by women in their general and working lives.
In the Philippines became the first country in Asia to ratify the ILO Domestic Workers
Vonvention, 2011 (No. 189). In early 2013, President Aquino also signed a new law, Republic
Act 10361 known as the "Batas Kasambahay" (Domestic Workers Act) in order to better protect
this large group of mostly young, female workers.
Gender Equality in the Labor Market
Economic growth in the Philippines, however, has not translated into sufficient
employment growth and the employment growth has not been inclusive for women. Generally
speaking, there has been little improvement in gender equality in the labor market, as measured
by the share of women in waged employment in the non-agricultural sector. In the Philippines,
the estimated proportion of women's annual earnings to men's annual earnings stands at less than
60%.
Summary
Gender, gender equality, and labor market are very important principles and related to
one another. Gender equality is not properly implemented in the labor market as women still
treated with disfavor and discrimination. Policies are in place to address gender inequality, but
still the issue persists and prevails even up to present. However, employment growth alone is not
sufficient to judge whether there is inclusive growth, especially in low-income countries where
there is significant underemployment and a large informal employment sector. Gender inequality
in the labor market is ascertained here by reference to seven gender gaps (or deficits for women):
labor force participation, human capital, the unpaid domestic and care work burden, vulnerable
employment, wage employment, decent work, and social protection. Despite a variety of gender-
responsive legal and policy initiatives, an assessment of the labor market in the Philippines
91
reveals that although some gender gaps have been reduced, women still suffer from persistent
gender deficits.
Lesson 26: GENDER AND MEDIA
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss the importance of media representation; and

2. Appreciate the progress in media representation of gender.
Communication- is the process of exchanging information and co-creating meaning through

various means.
Communication is essential to the existence and survival of humans, as well as the existence
and survival of an organization. It is the process of generating and disseminating ideas,
information, points of view, facts, and feelings among people in order to reach a common
understanding.
The different categories of communication include:
 Spoken/Verbal Communication- the exchange of information between people through the

use of words and vocal noises
 Non-Verbal Communication- is the transmission of messages or signals through
nonverbal means such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and body
language
 Written Communication- involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written
word which includes letters, e-mails, social media, books, magazines, the Internet and other
media.
 Visual Communication- is the practice of using visual elements to communicate
information or ideas. Graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can all
communicate messages.
Communication can travel in two directions:
 One-way communication- is linear and limited because it occurs in a straight line from
sender to receiver and serves to inform, persuade or command
 Two way communication- always includes feedback from the receiver to the sender and
lets the sender know the message has been received accurately.
Media- means through which information is transferred and received. The term media, which
is the plural form of the word medium, refers to the communication channels through which we
disseminate information such as news, music, movies, education, promotional messages, and
other types of data. It includes print and online newspapers and magazines, television, radio,
billboards, telephone, the Internet, fax, and billboards, among other things.
92
When it comes to reaching a large number of people, we refer to it as mass media. Local
media can include, for example, your local newspaper or local/regional television/radio stations.
Media is an important part of our life now, it is playing a very important role in every way of
life. It connects us with the scenarios in the world and informs us many things like news, history,
entertainment etc. Media helps in bringing the true facts and information of the world in front of
our eyes.
Introduction
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, 81% of Filipinos watch the television,
and it still remains to be the most used and trusted source of information in our country. We
watch TV for entertainment and information through TV soap operas’, news, and entertainment
programs.
We become passive consumers of what TV has to offer; information, shock, humor, and
etc. Therefore, the media influence our perception on different topics. It is important for us to
look deeply into what it is presents or fails to represent of our everyday realities.
Gender and Media
Media and gender refers to the relationship between mass media and gender, and how
gender is represented within media platforms. These platforms include but are not limited to
film, radio, television, advertisement, social media, and video games.
A study of the relationship between mass media and gender, as well as how gender is
represented within media platforms, is called media and gender. Film, radio, television,
advertisements, social media, and video games are examples of platforms that can be used.
Media Representation
Media representation is how the media presents or frames “aspects of society such as
gender, age, or ethnicity” (BBC 2019). It is important because it shapes the audience’s
knowledge and understanding and will contribute to their ideas and attitudes.
The basic definition of representation in the media is simply how media, such as
television, film and books, portray certain types of people or communities. There are a number of
groups who are underrepresented in most Western media. They include women, people of color,
LBGTQA+ people, people with a range of body shapes and types, people of non-Christian
religions, and differently-abled people. There has been a steady increase of diversity in media,
but progress has been long and slow.
93
Because of our exposure to television, the media ultimately represents our social realities
as it mirrors the ideologies, belief systems, and stereotypes. There are many factors affecting
media representation, after all, what we see in the television has already gone through a long
process wherein many people are involved.
Media representation is very important and it is an aspect that affects everyone, it is an aspect
that starts out when you are young. For example, if a black child is watching a show, and there
are no characters that remind that child of himself or herself, that child will begin to believe that
it is impossible for black people to be actors or actresses because of the lack of diversity being
shown on their television. And also women in the media are often times degraded because of the
ways that they carry themselves and their actions. Women are degraded in today’s society,
whether it be on television, on the big screen, or in the music industry. Women are constantly
sexualized and made to be seen as a sex figure, which is not fair, because men are not seen in
that way. It is important that women are represented in a more respectful light, instead of being
seen in a sexual connotation.
The people behind the production of the content have their own ideology, ideas and
beliefs, and that greatly contribute to what we see in the media. Media producers, editors,
directors, writers, and a networks’ values reflect through its content. Since the TV uses one way
mode of communication wherein feedback is rarely received or encouraged, more often we are
left on our own to process the ideas and opinion directed towards us, the viewers. We passively
laugh at stereotypes, not giving it a second thought.
When we say one way mode of communication, information is transferred in one

direction only, from the sender to the receiver. There is not any opportunity for the receiver to
give feedback to the sender. So that is the reason why the media producers, editors, directors,
writers, and a networks should train their presenters or senders to deliver the message in a simple
and clear manner in order for the receivers to understand it well and to avoid miscommunication
when they are delivering a message.
Media Stereotype “are simplified representation of a person, groups of people or a

place, through basic or obvious characteristics-which are often exaggerated” (BBC 2019).
Although stereotype can help people connect with the content as they reflect it in their own
realities, it can have negative effect on disadvantaged group like the LGBT community by
reinforcing negative and false stereotypes.
94
A systematic representation, repeated in a variety of forms from jokes and cartoons to
news broadcast, feature films, and television series. A descriptive or designative (based on
physical appearance) aspect combines with an evaluative aspect in which people are judged from
a particular perspective or point of view.
The LGBT community are highly misrepresented in the Philippine media. There are
many stereotypes of the LGBT in the media and most are not flattering. Often they are used as a
comic relief in their portrayal of the loud and boisterous “bakla”, the straight male who acts like
a “bakla” with exaggerated gestures, the sex deprived muscular male homosexual, or the
awkward “tomboy” who eventually becomes a feminine woman after meeting the man of her
dreams.
Why LGBT Representation Matters?
The importance of LGBT representation on television is twofold. First, exposure to

LGBT characters through the media can affect how the general, mostly straight population views
the LGBT community and related public policy issues. Secondly, media representation can have
a positive effect on members of the LGBT community, especially among adolescents.
There are very few LGBT main characters in the international television and even very
scarce in the Philippine Television. They are often relegated as sidekicks, victims, or villains.
Although there are few LGBT celebrities in the Philippines who are out and proud of their sexual
orientation such as Boy Abunda, Vice Ganda, Aiza Seguerra, and Jake Zyrus, their sexuality is
rarely the focus of the programs they are in.
LGBT topics in children shows cause controversy so they are omitted in the broadcast.
Example is Glee, a popular American TV show that featured teenagers who are gay and lesbian.
But in the past, there are some valuable lessons that addressing LGBT-related topics that educate
every people. Example is CBS Schoolbreak Special, an American anthology series for teenagers
that aired in December 1978. In the episode titled “What if I’m Gay?”, the episode told the story
of a teenage boy struggling to come to terms with his sexuality.
In the Philippines, there is a lack of awareness on SOGIE (Sexual Orientation and Gender
Identity Expression) among media practitioners as they are often left confused on the LGBT
terms and labels. Most news from the LGBT community are often on coming out stories of
celebrities (Aiza Siguerra, Jake Zyrus (Charice Pempengco), and Rosana Roses), Pride March
events, hate crimes, and controversies. Media coverage of the LGBT community in the
Philippines went from no-coverage, ridicule, censorship, to limited portrayal. However, limiting,
it is taken as a sign of greater social acceptance as compared to its total black out just decades
ago.
There are landmark TV shows about LGBT community such as: My Husband’s Lover
(2013) and The Rich Man’s Daughter (2013). There are also a handful of LGBT themed movies
that featured the different aspects of the LGBT person from realization of their sexual
orientation, their coming out, to their acceptance in the families and communities.
95
In conclusion, strong and positive representation can aid in the battle against and
dismantling of stereotypes that can be harmful to people and society as a whole. When a group of
people is only ever represented badly, it has a detrimental impact on how others see them.
Diverse representation also brings fresh and better options to the table.
Media representation is a great way to teach society that everyone is unique and that there
should be diversity in all aspects of our lives. The media's portrayal of a subject is critical. It's
critical that the media reflect the diversity of society. In today's society, people can be large,
small, short, tall, black, or white, and it is important that all of these characteristics are
represented in order to inspire others.
Lesson 27 Gender and Activism
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss heteronormativity and its manifestation, and
2. Appreciate the contribution of activitism in social change.
Activism - collective efforts to shape and transform political, sociocultural, and other
environmental status quo.
Participation – contributing in transforming social realities by engaging and taking part in
various aspects of an initiative or reform.
Collaboration – working together towards a goal.
Introduction
Our society is now advocating towards equal rights for everyone through the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which was drafted in 1948 by all countries who are
members of the United Nations. It acknowledges that everyone, including LGBT people, is equal
in dignity and in rights. Although most countries no longer punish or outlaw homosexuality,
there is still so much to be done for the LGBT people to fully enjoy their human rights.
Understanding Heteronormativity
Heteronormativity means “of relating to, or based on the attitude that heterosexuality is
the only normal and natural expression of sexuality” (Meriam-Webster Dictionary). Put more
simply’ it is when we assume that everyone is heterosexual or straight and that it is the standard
for everyone.
With a heteronormative point of view, straight people are placed at a privileged group by
viewing them as the standard or normal. Anyone who does not adhere to that standard are
96
viewed as lesser, like women who love women (lesbians), men who love men (gays), people who
love men or women (bisexuals), people who feel that they do not belong to their biological sex
(transgender), and other who reject the notion of gender binaries (male/female,
masculine/feminine).
Heteronormativity has been so ingrained in our social and political institutions that it has
almost become invisible. Most people unknowingly sbscribe to heteronormative standards just
because that is the way it has always been for them. Like assigning blue for boys and pink for
girls. But what happens when a boy wants pink toys? They are reprimanded and criticized in a
process called normalization.
This normalization limits a person’s choices and freedom. For the LGBT, it means they
are maginalized, treated as inferior, discriminated on, branded as abnormal, and are treated as
second class citizens. This leads to homophobia, transphobia, biphobia, prejudice,
discrimination, violence, and other hostile acts towards the LGBT people.
One example of heteronormative violence is the murder of LGBT men and women
during the Nazi holocaust.
In present day, it means punishing LGBT childrenmfor expressing who they are or being
vocal about who they are attracted to. In the workplace, it could mean being fired or not being
promoted just because you are not straight. At home it could mean being disowned by our family
because you are LGBT or being bullied by your family because you are not masculine enough or
feminine enough.
In politics, it manifests in policies denying LGBT their freedom such as anti-sodomy

laws in many countries where being LGBT is a crime punishable by imprisonment or death. It
could also mean the absence of laws that would let LGBT live a full life like being able to marry
the person they want to marry or enjoying the same rights and privileges that straight families
have.
Challenging heteronormativity through activism
Heteronormativity is a social construct and history has proven society’s changing

attitudes on homosexuality. History showed us the egalitarian acceptance of homosexuality in
the ancient hunter-gatherer civilizations, the violent erasure of the gender deviants, and
condemnation of homosexuality wiht the spread of Abrahamic Religion (Jews, Christians,
Muslims, and other religions who believe in one god; the god of Abraham).
LGBT activism have had various social movements to advocate for LGBT people’s equal
rights (2000s), liberation (1960’s-1970’s), and self-acceptance through the homophile movement
(1950’s). These social movements engaged in political and social activism through street rallies,
pride marches, law lobbying, engaging the media, arts, research, and many other activities that
empower the LGBT communty.
Dissent is so powerful it can make significant changes in our society. Breaking the culture of
silence on the daily heteronormative violence that are committed and condoned by society is the
first step towards social change. We can start by refusing to participate in heteronormative
violence towards the LGBT and participating in participating in various events for the LGBT
community.
97
 May 17 – International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia – IDAHOT
 May 31 – International Transgender Day of Visibility
 November 20 – Transgender day of Remembrance
 June- June Pride Month
Summary
Heteronormativity, as a social construct, can be updone through activisim. Social change

may not be something that happens right away, but decades of LGBT struggle has proven that
change can happen. You do not have to be an LGBT to fight for equal rights. You just have to be
a human being who believes in freedom and equality for all.
Lesson 28- Gender and Other cross-cutting issues (Education, General health, Mental
Health)
Lesson Objectives:
When you finish this chapter, you should be able to
1. Discuss how and why gender lens is necessary in understanding other social issues and
2. Show appreciation of the intersectionality between gender, education, and health
(especially mental health).
Definition of terms:
 Social services – services that are necessary for individuals and families to maintain social
functioning and achieve their utmost potentials.
 Education – process of teaching and learning, and related activities geared towards maing
this process organized, effective, and responds to people’s needs.
 Health – sense of well-being; absence of disease.
 Mental health – sense of mental well-being which allows achievement of human potentials
through positive coping.
Introduction
In earlier discussions, it has been noted that laws provide equity among people of all
genders. In principle, humans regardless of genders have basic human rights emerging from their
intrinsic human dignity.
Practically, these rights are translated into programs, projects, and services that are made
accessible to us, for the purpose of satisfying our basic needs and for achieving our highest
potentials. Regardless of gender, we have seen that people are capable of making something—
creating, of making responsible choices, of developing. This capability is promoted by resources
we have access to. The state has a role in making sure that we people receive the services we
need and deserve. Two of the primary needs of individuals are a) access to education, and b)
access to health services.
A. GENDER AND EDUCATION
The UNICEF (2011) report on adolescence show that while there is already an increase in
access to education for all genders, there remains to be many girls and women who are unable to
go to school.
98
However, interesting trends can be observed from 2013 Functional Literacy, Education, and
Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS). This study showed that there are more males (4.6 in a 1000)
children aged 6 to 14 who are able to attend school compared to females (2.4 in a 1000).
However, for people aged to 15 to 24, there are actually more females (24 in a 1000) who
are able to school compared to males (11.2 in a 1000) (Philippines Statistics Authority 2015).
This may mean that while there are more males who are able to receive basic education, there are
more females who are able to proceed to higher education.
Practically, this only shows that interventions towards making education accessible to
women and men may also differ, e.g., encouraging younger girls to go to basic education, and
providing opportunities for men to earn a college degree.
B. GENDER AND HEALTH
Another basic social service we all need is health service. Health, according to World
Health Organization, does not only mean absence of diseases but a state of well-being. The
Department of Health of the Philippines follows a cluster approach in health, wherein there are
more primary clusters: a) public health, b) water sanitation and hygiene, c) nutrition, and d)
mental health and psychosocial support.
In earlier lessons, we discussed that males and females have unique reproductive health
needs. This also means that in terms of health service, all genders should be able to access
services. In turn, health services should also be gender-responsive.
C. GENDER AND MENTAL HEALTH
One of the most prevalent issues facing adolescents nowadays is mental health. The
changing environment also brings forth stressors that are not existing before. People are
challenged to pay attention not only to their physical health, but also to their psychological
wellness.In the context of gender and sexuality, some issues faced by human related to their
sexuality and to the roles they assume in the society are mental/ psychological in nature.
Some of these are as follows:
 Coping with sexual and reproductive health issues (teen pregnancy, STD/HIV, confusion
and doubt);
 Psychological impacts of SOGIE-related concerns and gender roles and expectations;
 Psychological concerns emerging from intimate/romantic relationships; and
 Psychological trauma from GBV
Hence, there is also a need to establish systems so people would have access to services that
address these issues. In schools, for instance, there are counselors (trained professionals who has
a master's degree in counseling and have seated and passed a licensure in counseling) who deal
with students' mental health concerns. In some other schools and workplaces, there are also
psychologists (trained professional who have a master's degree in psychology and have seated
and passed a licensure in psychology), social workers (trained professionals with license in social
work), and psychiatrists (a medical doctor with specialization in psychiatry), who are able to
provide additional and more specialized help.
Summary
99
As our course culminates, this lesson only underscores that Gender and Sexuality
principles are not only exclusive to those people who are specializing in these topics. In fact,
having a clear and solid gender lens will help us perform our tasks better, in whatever field of
expertise we are in.
This lesson emphasizes that in various spheres, making sure that unique issues, concerns,
and needs of women, men, and the LGBTQ+ shall bring us closer to our desire to promote
human rights and uphold human dignity.
REFERENCES
Main textbook: Course Module
 Botor, N., Laude, T.M., & Peralta, E.P. Gender and society: A Human Ecological
Approach. Manila; Rex Book store, Inc 2019.
100

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Social Science 2 – Gender and Society

Lesson 1- Gender, Sex and Sexuality

 Sex- the biological aspect of sex maleness or femaleness

• Sex- is often referred to as the act of reproduction (scientifically, copulation), it is,

• Chromosomes determine one's sex. Chromosome XX equates to female, and XY equates to

• These models are perceived to conform to society's definition of what is conventionally

Lesson 2: Gender and Sexuality across Time

However, Humans’ discovery of paternity (fatherhood/ role of the father in conception),

Historical Views on Gender

Women’s liberation movement, women’s movement, or feminism is a continuing series

Le movement de Liberation des Femmes or The Women’s liberation movement was

Lesson 3- Gender and Sexuality as a Subject of Inquiry

1. Define gender studies;

Diversity and Inclusion

GENDER STUDIES AND RESEARCH

As a subject of inquiry, Gender Studies utilizes a systematic approach in identifying

 phenomenology- conducting intensive interviews with individuals who have experienced

Quantitative approach, on the other hand, focuses more on characterizing a population

 survey- collecting information from a sample; and

Ethics in Gender and Sexuality Research

 Non-maleficence and beneficence - A study should do no harm (non-maleficence) to

GENDER, SEXUALITY, AND HUMAN ECOLOGY

First, it sees gender and sexuality as an organismic and personal experience.

Lesson 4- Anatomy and Physiology of Reproduction

1. Differentiate the female and the male reproductive systems;

• Reproduction- process of producing off springs.

The Biological Female

• Anatomy the study of body structure in relation to body parts.

A. The Female External Genitalia consist of the following

• Ovaries- produce estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen influences female sex

It involves changes in the endometrium in response to the fluctuating blood levels

Problems associated with menstruation include premenstrual syndrome (PMS) (80-95% of

Female Secondary Sexual characteristics emerge after Puberty

Most Female Characteristics

 Generally shorter than men

The Biological Male

A. The male external genitalia consists of the following

B. The male internal reproductive organs:

• Vas deferens- travels from testicle toward urethra carrying sperm;

• Ejaculatory ducts- ducts connect vas deferens to urethra;

Most Male characteristics:

• Generally taller and greater proportion of body weight composed of water;

Male Secondary Sexual characteristics that emerge after puberty:

Lesson 5 – The Process of Reproduction

1. Define fertilization, conception and pregnancy;

How does one ovulate?

How does pregnancy occur?

What can be done to prevent teenage pregnancy?

1. Identify the important health habits for the developing adolescent;

Sweat and Body Odor

Tips on Proper Brushing:

Healthcare Check for the Female:

Keeping the external female genitalia clean:

Healthcare Check for the Male:

Lesson 7- Risk Behavoir of Adolescents

I. Understand the risky behaviors of the growing adolescent;

Risk-taking is a normal part of adolescent development. Risk-taking is defined as

Common drugs abused by young people and their effects:

2. Mairungi (also known as Khat, Qat, and Mirraa).

Effects: Negative effects include sleeplessness, anxiety, aggressive behaviour, and

Cocaine is prepared from coca leaves which are greenish-yellow leaves of

9. Inhalants and solvents.

Tips to Avoid Drugs:

 You do not need to take drugs to be liked by other people.