JFUE 8993 No.

of Pages 7, Model 5G
19 February 2015

Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

1

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

5
6

3 A calcium oxide-based catalyst derived from palm kernel shell

4 gasification residues for biodiesel production
7 Alireza Bazargan a,b, Milan D. Kostić c, Olivera S. Stamenković c, Vlada B. Veljković c, Gordon McKay a,⇑
8 a
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Hong Kong
9 b
Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, New Museums Site, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, UK
10 c
Faculty of Technology, University of Niš, Bulevar oslobodjenja 124, Leskovac 16000, Serbia

11
12

1 4
h i g h l i g h t s
15
16  Palm kernel shell gasification residues were used for the first time to produce catalysts.
17  Various analytical methods suggest that CaO is the catalyst’s active component.
18  The applicability/activity of the catalyst in transesterification reactions was verified by methanolysis of sunflower oil.
19  Conversion ratios of approximately 99% were reached after 300 min.

20
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
2 6
3 2
23 Article history: The fruit of oil-palm trees is used to extract millions of tons of palm oil annually across the globe. The 37
24 Received 24 June 2014 extraction of palm oil leaves behind various residues such as empty fruit bunches, mill sludge and fibers, 38
25 Received in revised form 10 February 2015 shells, and palm kernel cake. Considering the large amounts of solid organic wastes that are produced in 39
26 Accepted 11 February 2015
oil palm mills, there is a need for their recovery and utilization. The current usage of these wastes is either 40
27 Available online xxxx
in boilers for energy production, or disposal in landfills. Palm kernel shells (PKS) are the most difficult 41
fraction of the solid waste to decompose. In this work, PKS solid residues which had been subjected to 42
28 Keywords:
thermal treatment in a gasifier were used as raw materials for calcium oxide (quicklime/burnt lime) pro- 43
29 Palm kernel shells
30 Biochars
duction. The produced catalyst was fully characterized by SEM–EDX, XRF, XRD, CHNS, TGA, and BET ana- 44
31 Catalyst lyses. In addition, the basic strength and basicity of the catalyst were determined. The catalytic activity of 45
32 Calcium oxide the CaO-based catalyst was verified in transesterification of sunflower oil with methanol. The effect of the 46
33 Transesterification catalyst loading on the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) formation at a methanol-to-sunflower oil ratio 47
34 Biodiesel (9:1) at 60 °C was studied. The results show that the calcium carbonate contained in the palm kernel shell 48
35
biochars is a promising source for calcium oxide catalyst production. 49
Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 50
51

52
53
54 1. Introduction Both liquid and solid wastes are generated in large quantities in 66
oil palm mills. The liquid wastewater generated from oil palm mills 67
55 Palm oil is extracted from the fruit of what is known as the is referred to as palm oil mill effluent. This effluent comes from the 68
56 oil-palm tree. This particular tropical species of palm tree originat- oil extraction, washing, and cleaning steps of the process. The solid 69
57 ed in West Africa, but now grows as a hybrid in many parts of the wastes from the process include leaves, tree trunks, decanter cake, 70
58 world. Palm oil is relatively cheap and can be used for a variety of empty fruit bunches, palm oil mill sludge (including fiber), shells, 71
59 purposes including for food or as raw material for biofuel produc- and palm kernel cake (PKC). The PKC is produced when white palm 72
60 tion. Countries around the globe have injected millions of euros as oil (palm kernel oil, also known as lauric oil) is extracted from the 73
61 subsidies and incentives to promote biodiesel production. This has kernels (endocarp, also referred to as the endosperm). The PKC can 74
62 in turn led to growth in the palm oil production sector. In addition, be processed and used as animal feed or used as compost after 75
63 with the steady economic growth of China and India as the world’s nitrogen addition [2]. About 6% weight of the entering fresh fruit 76
64 largest importers of palm oil, demand for palm oil is expected to ends up as shell waste [3]. 77
65 continue to increase [1]. Considering the large amounts of solid waste that is produced 78
in oil palm mills, there is a need for their recovery and/or recycling. 79

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2358 8412; fax: +852 2358 0054. These wastes are currently either disposed of in landfills or com- 80

E-mail address: kemckayg@ust.hk (G. McKay). busted for energy production. Palm kernel shells (PKS) do not 81

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.046
0016-2361/Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article in press as: Bazargan A et al. A calcium oxide-based catalyst derived from palm kernel shell gasification residues for biodiesel pro-
duction. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.046
 JFUE 8993 No. of Pages 7, Model 5G
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2 A. Bazargan et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

82 decompose easily and substantial furnace modifications are usual- gases (a combination of mainly hydrogen and carbon monoxide 144
83 ly required if they are to be used in boilers in place of firewood or known as syngas). The remaining palm kernel shell biochars (PKSB) 145
84 fuel oil [4]. It has been reported that when burned in their raw which are the solid residues coming out of the gasifier have been 146
85 form, PKS produce too much smoke and not enough energy [5]. supplied to the research team for further utilization by a Hong 147
86 On the other hand, biodiesel is a promising alternative to conven- Kong based company. PKSB is the abbreviation used to describe 148
87 tional fossil fuels which has gained massive support in recent years. the PKS after it has been gasified. The received PKSB is in the form 149
88 One of the main advantages of biodiesel is that it is claimed to be of a fine black powder. 150
89 ‘carbon neutral’. This means that the carbon emissions released into
90 the atmosphere while burning, are compensated by the amount of 2.1.2. Chemicals 151
91 carbon that the plant has absorbed during its growth. Other advan- Edible sunflower oil (Dijamant, Zrenjanin, Serbia) was pur- 152
92 tages of biodiesel include its biodegradability, biorenewable nature chased in a local shopping store. The acid value of the oil was 153
93 and low toxicity [6]. A high flash point and good lubricity are other 0.2 mg KOH/g. Certified methanol of 99.5% purity was purchased 154
94 advantages [7]. In addition, the emissions of carbon monoxide and from Zorka Pharma (Šabac, Serbia). CaO (p.a.) was supplied by 155
95 particulate matter have been reported to decrease when fueling Kemika (Zagreb, Croatia). Methanol, 2-propanol and n-hexane, all 156
96 automobiles with biodiesel [8,9]. Nearly 8 million metric tons of of HPLC grade, were purchased from LAB-SCAN (Dublin, Ireland). 157
97 biodiesel are produced globally each year [10]. Hydrochloric acid (36 wt%), was purchased from Centrohem 158
98 Although viscous straight vegetable oil can be used directly as (Belgrade, Serbia). 159
99 fuel it entails problems such as poor atomization, incomplete com-
100 bustion, coking of the fuel injectors, ring carbonization, and accu-
2.2. Methods 160
101 mulation of fuel in the lubricating oil. Hence, a transesterification
102 process is needed to convert oils such as vegetable oil [11] and
2.2.1. Catalyst preparation 161
103 waste cooking oil [12] into biodiesel. Solid base catalysts are
The PKSB was calcined at 800 °C for 2 h under atmospheric 162
104 among the most popular candidates to be used for the transes-
pressure immediately before the use. The calcination temperature 163
105 terification reaction. They are cost effective and easy to separate
was chosen based on the results of the TGA and XRD analysis of the 164
106 from the final product.
PKSB. The catalyst was used after cooling in a desiccator containing 165
107 CaO is an alkaline earth metal oxide with a very weak Lewis
calcium chloride and potassium hydroxide pellets. For comparative 166
108 acidity of the metal cation due to its small electronegativity. Hence,
purposes, CaO was calcined at the optimum temperature of 550 °C 167
109 the conjugate anion (oxygen) displays strong basic properties [11].
for 2 h, as suggested elsewhere [6], and used after cooling in the 168
110 Recently, CaO derived from wastes and natural resources have
desiccator. 169
111 increasingly been tested as catalysts in transesterification reac-
112 tions of vegetable oils for biodiesel production. Advantages of
113 waste-derived CaO catalysts include their low or no cost, and the 2.2.2. PKSB powder characterization 170

114 reduction of wastes. Waste egg [14], oyster [15], shrimp [16], mul- A JEOL 6300F Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with energy 171

115 lusk [17] and cockle [18] shells, as well as waste mud crab [19] and dispersive analysis by X-ray was used for viewing the surface of the 172

116 fish scale [20], have been used as resources for obtaining powders. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) was used for ele- 173

117 CaO-based catalysts. Also, tars and alkali ashes from biomass mental analysis. In addition, the quantitative composition of the 174

118 gasification processes are reported to be good waste resources samples was determined by XRF spectroscopy (Philips PW 1480 175

119 for CaO-based catalysts for biodiesel production from vegetable spectrometer). Elemental Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur 176

120 oils [21]. A review of the catalyst preparation conditions and the (CHNS) analysis was performed for determination of the absolute 177

121 reaction conditions of transesterification catalyzed by the obtained values for constituent elements. X-ray diffraction patterns were 178

122 catalysts can be found elsewhere [22]. obtained at different temperatures using a Philips PW1825 diffrac- 179

123 Solid fractions of oil-palm waste have previously been investi- tometer with Cu Ka radiation (40 kV and 50 mA). The angular 180

124 gated for biodiesel catalyst production. Boey et al. [23] used empty scanning was performed in the range of 10° < 2h < 70° at a rate of 181

125 fruit bunch ash for biodiesel production, obtaining a 90% conver- 2° min1. The specific surface area of the materials was character- 182

126 sion rate. Yaakob et al. [24] also attempted to use empty fruit ized by adsorption–desorption of N2 (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller 183

127 bunches for this purpose, with the help of KOH doping. Loading method, BET) at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) using 184

128 palm oil mill ashes with CaO has also been attempted [25]. As far an Autosorb1–Quantachrome instrument. The gas used for the 185

129 as the authors are aware, gasified palm kernel shell wastes have analysis was 99.9% pure. The N2 adsorption–desorption data 186

130 not been investigated for biodiesel catalyst production yet. Here, showed no significant improvement in BET surface area due to 187

131 the PKS ash (biochar) residue after the gasification process is used the sample calcination. 188

132 for CaO-rich catalyst production, without the need for any addi- Hammett indicators were used for determining the basic 189

133 tional doping and/or loading. Currently, the large amount of ash strength (H_) of raw and calcined PKSB and CaO [26]. Typically, 190

134 produced from gasification units (which is usually discarded as 500 mg of the sample was shaken with 1 mL of Hammett indica- 191

135 waste) is one of the problems associated with biomass gasification. tors diluted in 20 mL of methanol and left to equilibrate for 2 h 192

136 Hence using gasification residues for catalyst production could after which no further color change was observed. The following 193

137 potentially make biomass gasification processes more environ- Hammett indicators were used: neutral red (H_ = 6,8), phenolph- 194

138 mentally and economically attractive. thalein (H_ = 9.3), thymolphthalein (H_ = 10.0), thymolviolet 195
(H_ = 11.0) and 2,4-dinitroaniline (H_ = 15). To measure the basi- 196
city of raw and calcined PKSB and CaO, the method of Hammett 197

139 2. Materials and methods indicator–benzene carboxylic acid (0.02 mol/L anhydrous ethanol 198
solution) titration was used [26]. 199

140 2.1. Materials

2.2.3. Equipment 200
141 2.1.1. Palm kernel shell biochars The transesterification reaction was performed in a 250 mL 201
142 Prior to being received, the PKS have undergone a type of gasi- three-neck glass flask, which was equipped with a reflux condenser 202
143 fication treatment to produce electricity from high calorific value and a magnetic stirrer. The flask was placed in a water tank 203

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204 keeping the temperature constant at 60 °C by circulating water (a)

205 from a thermostated bath.

206 2.2.4. Transesterification procedure

207 The desired amounts of methanol (9.91 g corresponding to the
208 initial methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 9:1) and the catalyst (calcined
209 PKSB: 0.300, 0.750, 1.500 and 3.000 g corresponding to 1.0, 2.5, 5.0
210 and 10.0 wt% to the oil; CaO: 1.500 g corresponding to 5.0 wt% to
211 the oil) were added to the flask. The methanol-catalyst suspension
212 was thermostated at 60 °C while agitated for 30 min. The stirrer
213 was turned off, and the sunflower oil (30.00 g), thermostated
214 separately, was added to the reactor. Then, the stirrer was
215 switched on again and the reaction was timed. During the reaction,
216 the samples were taken from the reaction mixture and immediate-
217 ly quenched by adding a required amount of the aqueous
218 hydrochloric acid solution (5 M) to neutralize the catalyst. After
219 centrifugation (3500 rpm; about 700g) for 15 min, the upper layer
220 was withdrawn, dissolved in a solution of 2-propanol and n-hexan
(b)
221 (5:4 v/v) in a ratio of 1:200 and filtered through a 0.45 lm
222 Millipore filter. The filtrate was used for HPLC analysis. The
223 experiments were performed in duplicate.
224 To estimate the contribution of the homogeneous catalysis to
225 the overall transesterification, the methanol-calcined PKSB catalyst
226 was filtered under vacuum after thermostating at 60 °C while
227 agitated for 30 min. The filtrate was poured in the reactor. The
228 sunflower oil (30.00 g), thermostated separately, was then added.
229 The stirrer was switched on and the samples were taken from
230 the reaction mixture for HPLC analysis.

231 2.2.5. HPLC analysis

232 An HPLC chromatograph (Agilent 1100 Series) equipped with a
233 micro vacuum degasser, a binary gradient system, a thermostated
234 column compartment and a variable wavelength detector was
235 employed. A Zorbax Eclipse XDB-C18 column (4.6  150 mm with
236 5 lm particle size) was used for separation. The column
237 temperature was held constant at 40 °C. The injection volume of Fig. 1. Fine PKSB at various SEM magnifications (a) 100 times and (b) 3000 times.
238 20 lL and flow rate of 1 mL/min were applied in all experiments.
239 The mobile phase was methanol (reservoir A) and 2-propanol/
3.1.2. Elemental analysis using XRF and CHNS 262
240 n-hexane (5:4 v/v; reservoir B). A linear gradient from 100% A to
The PKSB was further characterized with X-ray fluorescence 263
241 40% A + 60% B in 15 min was employed. Components were detected
(XRF) and CHNS elemental analysis to obtain a better understand- 264
242 at 205 nm. The calibration curves were prepared by using the
ing of the material. Table 1 shows the elemental percentages of the 265
243 standard mixture of FAME and the standard glycerides.
PKSB constituents before heat treatment. Note that the XRF data 266
are relative (add up to 100%) while the CHNS analysis is absolute. 267

244 3. Results and discussion The various nutrients seen in Table 1 are needed by the plant for its 268
growth and development. For example, calcium is required for cell 269

245 3.1. Characterization elongation and division. Calcium ions are also essential for activa- 270
tion of enzymes involved in structural biosynthesis, as well as 271

246 3.1.1. SEM analysis membrane stabilization through the formation of Ca2+ bridges with 272

247 Based on SEM images, the size of the PKSB particles ranges from polar regions of the membrane [25]. 273

248 about 1 lm to more than 100 lm. As evident from Fig. 1, the size
249 and shape of the powders are diverse and non-uniform. 3.1.3. TGA analysis 274
250 The SEM images and BET tests after calcinations at 800 °C for The decomposition behavior of the PKSB is examined gravimet- 275
251 2 h confirm that the calcined powder is not particularly porous rically by TGA. The profile regarding the decomposition of the pow- 276
252 (no more than 4 m2/g). When the fine biochars are calcined in air der in air atmosphere is shown in Fig. 3. The results indicate that a 277
253 at 800 °C much of the larger particles are lost, due to the loss of car- little more than 50% of the powder is burned off during heating and 278
254 bon, and the remaining smaller particles show a change in texture. that a large fraction remains as ash. The TGA figure has been 279
255 The SEM–EDX image in Fig. 2 qualitatively shows an abundance of adjusted to discount the mass loss due to moisture removal. Two 280
256 calcium (and oxygen) after calcination. Evidently, almost no carbon mass loss stages are observed. The first is attributed to the burn 281
257 remains after the thermal treatment. The mapping images suggest off of the organic carbon content in the range of 300–500 °C. The 282
258 that the carbon has left the sample, possibly due to the formation second mass loss stage at 550–670 °C is attributed to the 283
259 of gaseous carbon dioxide. The SEM–EDX mapping data for the breakdown of the calcium carbonate. The TGA profile shows that 284
260 PKSB prior to the calcination showing an abundance of carbon is lower temperatures are required here than previously reported 285
261 provided as Supplementary material. for calcium carbonate degradation [28,29]. Hence, another 286

Please cite this article in press as: Bazargan A et al. A calcium oxide-based catalyst derived from palm kernel shell gasification residues for biodiesel pro-
duction. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.046
 JFUE 8993 No. of Pages 7, Model 5G
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4 A. Bazargan et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. SEX–EDX 1000 magnified images of PKSB after calcination at 800 °C for 2 h, showing abundance of calcium. Almost no carbon remains after the thermal treatment.

Table 1 advantage of using the PKSB for CaO catalyst production is the 287
Elemental analysis of the PKSB using XRF and CHNS analyses. relatively lower temperatures required for CaO synthesis 288
Type of analysis Constituent Mass% compared to other feedstock. Nonetheless, such relatively low 289

XRF (relative) Ca 50.6 temperature requirements for calcium carbonate degradation are 290
Si 16.7 not unprecedented [30]. 291
K 9.5
Fe 7.6
3.1.4. XRD analysis 292
Al 6.4
P 4.4 In order to gain an understanding of what happens to the crys- 293
Mg 3.1 talline structure of the material during thermal decomposition, 294
S 0.8 in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis is performed for samples 295
Others <1
calcined at a range of temperatures. Fig. 4 shows that as the sample 296
CHNS (absolute) C 39.4 is heated to 450 °C, the main constituent is calcium carbonate. At 297
H 0.8
600 °C (data not shown) a transition away from calcium carbonate 298
N 2.4
S 0.075
to calcium oxide was observed. And finally, by 750 °C it is evident 299
Ash 48.8 that the calcium carbonate has broken down into calcium oxide 300
completely. This conversion of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide 301

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120 added strain contributes to the overall lattice energy and as a result 309
lowers the apparent activation energy needed for the calcite degra- 310
dation, which therefore breaks down at lower temperatures [32]. 311
In the PKSB, the decomposition of CaCO3 to CaO occurs at 312
100 temperatures in the range of 550–670 °C. This is in excellent agree- 313
ment with the TGA profile which showed a major mass loss in this 314
range. The mass loss is believed to be due to carbon dioxide forma- 315
tion in the gaseous phase in the form of the following reaction: 316
80 317
CaCO3 ! CaO þ CO2 ðgÞ 319
Mass %

The smaller peaks of the XRD pattern correspond to the oxides 320
60 of the other metal species present in the PKSB (such as silica, alu- 321
mina, and iron oxides). Due to the abundance of calcium in the 322
samples, other metal oxides are less discussed. Nonetheless, it 323
should be noted that these oxides could also aid the transesterifi- 324
40 cation reaction [33,34]. 325

3.1.5. Basic strength and basicity 326

20 The basic strength of calcined PKSB was in the range 11.0–15.0, 327
since no color change was observed at H_ = 15. The total basicity of 328
the catalyst was 0.516 mmol/g and the main basic sites were in the 329
range 10.0–11.0 (basicity of 0.22 mmol/g) and 11.0–15.0 (basicity 330
0 of 0.192 mmol/g) with other basic sites with H_ in the range 331
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 9.3–10.0. The raw PKSB possessed weaker base strength 332
Temperature oC (6.8 < H_ < 9.3) and lower basicity (0.056 mmol/g) than the cal- 333
cined PKSB, and consequently it had no catalytic activity. 334
Fig. 3. TGA of the PKSB degradation under air atmosphere. The basic strength and total basicity of calcined pure CaO were 335
15 < H_ < 18.4 and 2.46 mmol/g, respectively which were higher 336
than those of the PKSB. The basic strength of CaO agreed with 337
302 in the PKSB occurs at temperatures noticeably lower than that the reported values for both pure CaO [35,36] and CaO obtained 338
303 observed in raw limestone calcination [31]. This may be attributed from waste materials [37,18]. Higher degree of purity (almost 339
304 to the inhibition of carbonate growth in certain crystallographic 100%) and larger specific surface area (13.7 m2/g [36]) contributed 340
305 directions due to the presence of certain functional groups in the to a larger number of active sites for the pure CaO-particles 341
306 plant during the growth stage. This constrained growth may lead compared to those of the calcined PKSB (max. 70.8% and 4 m2/g, 342
307 to distorted crystal morphology. The distorted structure leads to respectively). This leads to a higher basic strength and basicity 343
308 a calcite phase with high levels of strain in its crystal lattice. This for the CaO compared to the as-prepared catalyst. 344

Fig. 4. XRD patterns of PKSB treated at (a) 450 °C and (b) 750 °C.

Please cite this article in press as: Bazargan A et al. A calcium oxide-based catalyst derived from palm kernel shell gasification residues for biodiesel pro-
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6 A. Bazargan et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

and electricity produced from the CHP unit is more than enough to 385
produce the CaO catalyst. Furthermore, since the PKSB comes from 386
a CHP unit associated with a palm-oil plant, the raw material (oil) 387
needed for biodiesel production is also readily available. 388
Ultimately, the process is extremely attractive because in addition 389
to readily available energy, there is effectively no cost for the 390
pretreatment, collection, and transportation of the raw materials 391
used for the catalyst production and application. 392
The extensive characterization of the biochars showed a high 393
calcium content, predominantly in the form of calcium carbonate. 394
With calcination of the biochars, the calcium carbonate was 395
degraded to form quicklime (CaO). The calcined PKSB was 396
subsequently used satisfactorily for FAME formation at a metha- 397
nol-to-sunflower oil ratio of 9:1 and 60 °C. The promising results 398
show for the first time that PKSB is a good candidate for catalyst 399
synthesis for biodiesel production. Currently, the immense amount 400
of ash produced from gasification units (which is usually discarded 401
as waste) is one of the problems associated with biomass gasifica- 402
Fig. 5. The influence of catalyst type and loading on FAME production at initial
methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 9:1 and 60 °C (Heterogeneous catalysis. PKSB tion. Using gasification residues for catalyst production could 403
loading,% based on the oil mass: 1 – s; 2.5 – D; 5 – h; and 10 – e; commercial CaO potentially make biomass gasification processes more environ- 404
loading,% based on the oil mass: 5 – j. Homogeneous catalysis. PKSB: ⁄). mentally and economically attractive. 405

345 3.2. Catalytic activity of PKSB in sunflower oil transesterification 5. Uncited references 406
346 reaction
[13,27]. 407
347 Fig. 5 illustrates the effect of the PKSB loading on the fatty acid
348 methyl esters (FAME) formation at a methanol-to-sunflower oil Acknowledgments 408
349 ratio (9:1) at 60 °C. For the purpose of comparison, the effect of
350 commercial pure CaO loaded at 5 wt% under the same reaction This work has been jointly funded by the Ministry of Education, 409
351 conditions is also tested. These reaction conditions were selected Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia 410
352 as the most frequently applied in transesterification reaction of (Project III 45001), and the Hong Kong University of Science and 411
353 vegetable oils using CaO as a catalyst [14,28,38]. As can be seen Technology School of Engineering (SENG-PGRS). 412
354 in Fig. 5, the PKSB catalyst is as catalytically active as CaO at the
355 same dosage (5 wt% to the oil). Moreover, no contribution of the
356 homogeneous catalysis was observed, indicating that the transes- Appendix A. Supplementary material 413

357 terification reaction occurs at the active sites of the solid catalyst
358 particles. Granados et al. [39] have already shown that the contri- Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in 414

359 bution of the homogeneous transesterification arising from the the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.046. 415

360 leached calcium species is negligible if the catalyst loading is larger

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Please cite this article in press as: Bazargan A et al. A calcium oxide-based catalyst derived from palm kernel shell gasification residues for biodiesel pro-
duction. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.046