Boron group

The boron group are t he chemical element s in group 13 of t he periodic t able, consist ing of boron
(B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), t hallium (Tl) and nihonium (Nh). This group lies in t he p-
block of t he periodic t able. The element s in t he boron group are charact erized by having t hree
valence elect rons.[1] These element s have also been referred t o as t he triels.[a]

Boron is commonly classified as a (met alloid) while t he rest , wit h t he possible except ion of nihonium,
are considered post -t ransit ion met als. Boron occurs sparsely, probably because bombardment by
t he subat omic part icles produced from nat ural radioact ivit y disrupt s it s nuclei. Aluminium occurs
widely on Eart h, and indeed is t he t hird most abundant element in t he Eart h's crust (8.3%).[3] Gallium
is found in t he eart h wit h an abundance of 13 ppm. Indium is t he 61st most abundant element in t he
Eart h's crust , and t hallium is found in moderat e amount s t hroughout t he planet . Nihonium is not
known t o occur in nat ure and t herefore is t ermed a synt het ic element .

Several group 13 element s have biological roles in t he ecosyst em. Boron is a t race element in
humans and is essent ial for some plant s. Lack of boron can lead t o st unt ed plant growt h, while an
excess can also cause harm by inhibit ing growt h. Aluminium has neit her a biological role nor
significant t oxicit y and is considered safe. Indium and gallium can st imulat e met abolism;[4] gallium is
credit ed wit h t he abilit y t o bind it self t o iron prot eins. Thallium is highly t oxic, int erfering wit h t he
funct ion of numerous vit al enzymes, and has seen use as a pest icide.[5]

Characteristics

Like ot her groups, t he members of t his family show pat t erns in elect ron configurat ion, especially in
t he out ermost shells, result ing in t rends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons per shell

5 boron 2, 3

13 aluminium 2, 8, 3

31 gallium 2, 8, 18, 3

49 indium 2, 8, 18, 18, 3

81 t hallium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3

113 nihonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3 (predict ed)

The boron group is not able for t rends in t he elect ron
Boron group (group 13)
configurat ion, as shown above, and in some of it s
element s' charact erist ics. Boron differs from t he
ot her group members in it s hardness, refract ivit y and
reluct ance t o part icipat e in met allic bonding. An
group 12 ← → carbon group
example of a t rend in react ivit y is boron's t endency t o
form react ive compounds wit h hydrogen.[6]
IUPAC group number 13
Alt hough sit uat ed in p-block, t he group is not orious
Name by element boron group
for violat ion of t he oct et rule by it s members boron
and (t o a lesser ext ent ) aluminium. All members of t he Trivial name triels
group are charact erized as trivalent.
CAS group number IIIA
(US, pattern A-B-A)

Chemical reactivity old IUPAC number IIIB

(Europe, pattern A-B)
Hydrides

Most of t he element s in t he boron group show ↓ Period

increasing react ivit y as t he element s get heavier in
2
at omic mass and higher in at omic number. Boron, t he
first element in t he group, is generally unreact ive wit h
many element s except at high t emperat ures,
alt hough it is capable of forming many compounds
wit h hydrogen, somet imes called boranes.[7] The
simplest borane is diborane, or B2H6.[6] Anot her
example is B10H14.
Boron (B)
The next group-13 element s, aluminium and gallium, 5 Metalloid
form fewer st able hydrides, alt hough bot h AlH3 and
3
GaH3 exist . Indium, t he next element in t he group, is
not known t o form many hydrides, except in complex
compounds such as t he phosphine complex
H3InP(Cy)3 (Cy=cyclohexyl).[8] No st able compound of
t hallium and hydrogen has been synt hesized in any Aluminium (Al)
laborat ory. 13 Other metal
 4

Gallium (Ga)
31 Other metal

Indium (In)
49 Other metal

Thallium (Tl)
81 Other metal

7 Nihonium (Nh)
113 other metal

Legend

primordial element

synthetic element

Atomic number color:

black=solid
 Some common chemical compounds of the boron group[6]
[9][10][11][12][13]

Element Oxides Hydrides Fluorides Chlorides Sulfides

Boron (β/g/α)B2O3 B2H6 BF3 BCl3 B2 S 3

B2 O B10H14 BF−4

B6 O BH3 B2 F 4

B5H9 BF

B6H12

B4H10
2−
B6H6
2−
B12H12

B20H26

Aluminium (γ/δ/η/θ/χ)Al2O3 (α/α`/β/δ/ε/θ/γ) AlH3 AlF3 AlCl3 (α/β/γ) Al2S 3

Al2O Al2H6

AlO AlH4

AlH−4

Gallium (α/β/δ/γ/ε) Ga2O3 Ga2H6 GaF3 GaCl3 GaS

GaH4 GaCl2

GaH3 Ga2Cl4

Ga2Cl6

GaCl−4

Ga2Cl−7

Indium In2O3 InH3 InF3 InCl3 (α/β/γ) In2S 3

In2O

Thallium Tl2O3 TlH3 TlF TlCl

Tl2O TlH TlF3 TlCl3

TlO2 TlF3−
4 TlCl2

Tl4O3 TlF2−
3 Tl2Cl3
Nihonium (Nh2O)[b] (NhH) (NhF) (NhCl) NhOH

(Nh2O3) (NhH3) (NhF3) (NhCl3)

(NhF−6)

Oxides

All of t he boron-group element s are known t o form a t rivalent oxide, wit h t wo at oms of t he element
bonded covalent ly wit h t hree at oms of oxygen. These element s show a t rend of increasing pH (from
acidic t o basic).[14] Boron oxide (B2O3) is slight ly acidic, aluminium and gallium oxide (Al2O3 and Ga2O3
respect ively) are amphot eric, indium(III) oxide (In2O3) is nearly amphot eric, and t hallium(III) oxide
(Tl2O3) is a Lewis base because it dissolves in acids t o form salt s. Each of t hese compounds are
st able, but t hallium oxide decomposes at t emperat ures higher t han 875 °C.

A powdered sample of boron trioxide

(B2O3), one of the oxides of boron

Halides

The element s in group 13 are also capable of forming st able compounds wit h t he halogens, usually
wit h t he formula MX3 (where M is a boron-group element and X is a halogen.)[15] Fluorine, t he first
halogen, is able t o form st able compounds wit h every element t hat has been t est ed (except neon
and helium),[16] and t he boron group is no except ion. It is even hypot hesized t hat nihonium could form
a compound wit h fluorine, NhF3, before spont aneously decaying due t o nihonium's radioact ivit y.
Chlorine also forms st able compounds wit h all of t he element s in t he boron group, including t hallium,
and is hypot hesized t o react wit h nihonium. All of t he element s will react wit h bromine under t he
right condit ions, as wit h t he ot her halogens but less vigorously t han eit her chlorine or fluorine. Iodine
will react wit h all nat ural element s in t he periodic t able except for t he noble gases, and is not able
for it s explosive react ion wit h aluminium t o form AlI 3.[17] Ast at ine, t he fift h halogen, has only formed
a few compounds, due t o it s radioact ivit y and short half-life, and no report s of a compound wit h an
At –Al, –Ga, –In, –Tl, or –Nh bond have been seen, alt hough scient ist s t hink t hat it should form salt s
wit h met als.[18] Tennessine, t he sixt h and final member of group 17, may also form compounds wit h
t he element s in t he boron group; however, because Tennessine is purely synt het ic and t hus must be
creat ed art ificially, it s chemist ry has not been invest igat ed, and any compounds would likely decay
nearly inst ant ly aft er format ion due t o it s ext reme radioact ivit y.

Physical properties

It has been not iced t hat t he element s in t he boron group have similar physical propert ies, alt hough
most of boron's are except ional. For example, all of t he element s in t he boron group, except for
boron it self, are soft . Moreover, all of t he ot her element s in group 13 are relat ively react ive at
moderat e t emperat ures, while boron's react ivit y only becomes comparable at very high
t emperat ures. One charact erist ic t hat all do have in common is having t hree elect rons in t heir
valence shells. Boron, being a met alloid, is a t hermal and elect rical insulat or at room t emperat ure, but
a good conduct or of heat and elect ricit y at high t emperat ures.[9] Unlike boron, t he met als in t he
group are good conduct ors under normal condit ions. This is in accordance wit h t he long-st anding
generalizat ion t hat all met als conduct heat and elect ricit y bet t er t han most non-met als.[19]

Oxidation states

The inert s-pair effect is significant in t he group-13 element s, especially t he heavier ones like
t hallium. This result s in a variet y of oxidat ion st at es. In t he light er element s, t he +3 st at e is t he
most st able, but t he +1 st at e becomes more prevalent wit h increasing at omic number, and is t he
most st able for t hallium.[20] Boron is capable of forming compounds wit h lower oxidizat ion st at es, of
+1 or +2, and aluminium can do t he same.[21] Gallium can form compounds wit h t he oxidat ion st at es
+1, +2 and +3. Indium is like gallium, but it s +1 compounds are more st able t han t hose of t he light er
element s. The st rengt h of t he inert -pair effect is maximal in t hallium, which is generally only st able
in t he oxidat ion st at e of +1, alt hough t he +3 st at e is seen in some compounds. St able and
monomeric gallium, indium and t hallium radicals wit h a formal oxidat ion st at e of +2 have since been
report ed.[22] Nihonium may have +5 oxidat ion st at e.[23]

Periodic trends

There are several t rends t hat can be observed in t he propert ies of t he boron group members. The
boiling point s of t hese element s drop from period t o period, while densit ies t end t o rise.
 The 5 stable elements of the boron
group

Element Boiling point Density (g/cm3)

Boron 4,000 °C 2.46

Aluminium 2,519 °C 2.7

Gallium 2,204 °C 5.904

Indium 2,072 °C 7.31

Thallium 1,473 °C 11.85

Nuclear

Wit h t he except ion of t he synt het ic nihonium, all of t he element s of t he boron group have st able
isot opes. Because all t heir at omic numbers are odd, boron, gallium and t hallium have only t wo st able
isot opes, while aluminium and indium are monoisot opic, having only one, alt hough most indium found
in nat ure is t he weakly radioact ive 115In. 10B and 11B are bot h st able, as are 27Al, 69Ga and 71Ga, 113In,
and 203Tl and 205Tl.[24] All of t hese isot opes are readily found in macroscopic quant it ies in nat ure. In
t heory, t hough, all isot opes wit h an at omic number great er t han 66 are supposed t o be unst able t o
alpha decay. Conversely, all element s wit h at omic numbers are less t han or equal t o 66 (except Tc,
Pm, Sm and Eu) have at least one isot ope t hat is t heoret ically energet ically st able t o all forms of
decay (wit h t he except ion of prot on decay, which has never been observed, and spont aneous fission,
which is t heoret ically possible for element s wit h at omic numbers great er t han 40).

Like all ot her element s, t he element s of t he boron group have radioact ive isot opes, eit her found in
t race quant it ies in nat ure or produced synt het ically. The longest -lived of t hese unst able isot opes is
t he indium isot ope 115In, wit h it s ext remely long half-life of 4.41 × 1014 y. This isot ope makes up t he
vast majorit y of all nat urally occurring indium despit e it s slight radioact ivit y. The short est -lived is 7B,
wit h a half-life of a mere 350±50 × 10−24 s, being t he boron isot ope wit h t he fewest neut rons and a
half-life long enough t o measure. Some radioisot opes have import ant roles in scient ific research; a
few are used in t he product ion of goods for commercial use or, more rarely, as a component of
finished product s.[25]

History

The boron group has had many names over t he years. According t o former convent ions it was Group
IIIB in t he European naming syst em and Group IIIA in t he American. The group has also gained t wo
collect ive names, "eart h met als" and "t riels". The lat t er name is derived from t he Lat in prefix tri-
("t hree") and refers t o t he t hree valence elect rons t hat all of t hese element s, wit hout except ion,
have in t heir valence shells.[1] The name "t riels" was first suggest ed by Int ernat ional Union of Pure
and Applied Chemist ry (IUPAC) in 1970.[26]

Boron was known t o t he ancient Egypt ians, but only in t he mineral borax. The met alloid element was
not known in it s pure form unt il 1808, when Humphry Davy was able t o ext ract it by t he met hod of
elect rolysis. Davy devised an experiment in which he dissolved a boron-cont aining compound in
wat er and sent an elect ric current t hrough it , causing t he element s of t he compound t o separat e
int o t heir pure st at es. To produce larger quant it ies he shift ed from elect rolysis t o reduct ion wit h
sodium. Davy named t he element boracium. At t he same t ime t wo French chemist s, Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard, used iron t o reduce boric acid. The boron t hey produced was
oxidized t o boron oxide.[27][28]

Aluminium, like boron, was first known in minerals before it was finally ext ract ed from alum, a
common mineral in some areas of t he world. Ant oine Lavoisier and Humphry Davy had each
separat ely t ried t o ext ract it . Alt hough neit her succeeded, Davy had given t he met al it s current
name. It was only in 1825 t hat t he Danish scient ist Hans Christ ian Ørst ed successfully prepared a
rat her impure form of t he element . Many improvement s followed, a significant advance being made
just t wo years lat er by Friedrich Wöhler, whose slight ly modified procedure st ill yielded an impure
product . The first pure sample of aluminium is credit ed t o Henri Et ienne Saint e-Claire Deville, who
subst it ut ed sodium for pot assium in t he procedure. At t hat t ime aluminium was considered precious,
and it was displayed next t o such met als as gold and silver.[28][29] The met hod used t oday,
elect rolysis of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolit e, was developed by Charles Mart in Hall and Paul
Héroult in t he lat e 1880s.[28]
 The mineral zinc blende, more
commonly known as sphalerite, in
which indium can occur.

Thallium, t he heaviest st able element in t he boron group, was discovered by William Crookes and
Claude-August e Lamy in 1861. Unlike gallium and indium, t hallium had not been predict ed by Dmit ri
Mendeleev, having been discovered before Mendeleev invent ed t he periodic t able. As a result , no
one was really looking for it unt il t he 1850s when Crookes and Lamy were examining residues from
sulfuric acid product ion. In t he spect ra t hey saw a complet ely new line, a st reak of deep green,
which Crookes named aft er t he Greek word θαλλός (thallos), referring t o a green shoot or t wig. Lamy
was able t o produce larger amount s of t he new met al and det ermined most of it s chemical and
physical propert ies.[30][31]

Indium is t he fourt h element of t he boron group but was discovered before t he t hird, gallium, and
aft er t he fift h, t hallium. In 1863 Ferdinand Reich and his assist ant , Hieronymous Theodor Richt er,
were looking in a sample of t he mineral zinc blende, also known as sphalerit e (ZnS), for t he
spect roscopic lines of t he newly discovered element t hallium. Reich heat ed t he ore in a coil of
plat inum met al and observed t he lines t hat appeared in a spect roscope. Inst ead of t he green
t hallium lines t hat he expect ed, he saw a new line of deep indigo-blue. Concluding t hat it must come
from a new element , t hey named it aft er t he charact erist ic indigo color it had produced.[30][32]

Gallium minerals were not known before August 1875, when t he element it self was discovered. It
was one of t he element s t hat t he invent or of t he periodic t able, Dmit ri Mendeleev, had predict ed t o
exist six years earlier. While examining t he spect roscopic lines in zinc blende t he French chemist
Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran found indicat ions of a new element in t he ore. In just t hree mont hs
he was able t o produce a sample, which he purified by dissolving it in a pot assium hydroxide (KOH)
solut ion and sending an elect ric current t hrough it . The next mont h he present ed his findings t o t he
French Academy of Sciences, naming t he new element aft er t he Greek name for Gaul, modern
France.[33][34]

The last confirmed element in t he boron group, nihonium, was not discovered but rat her creat ed or
synt hesized. The element 's synt hesis was first report ed by t he Dubna Joint Inst it ut e for Nuclear
Research t eam in Russia and t he Lawrence Livermore Nat ional Laborat ory in t he Unit ed St at es,
t hough it was t he Dubna t eam who successfully conduct ed t he experiment in August 2003.
Nihonium was discovered in t he decay chain of moscovium, which produced a few precious at oms of
nihonium. The result s were published in January of t he following year. Since t hen around 13 at oms
have been synt hesized and various isot opes charact erized. However, t heir result s did not meet t he
st ringent crit eria for being count ed as a discovery, and it was t he lat er RIKEN experiment s of 2004
aimed at direct ly synt hesizing nihonium t hat were acknowledged by IUPAC as t he discovery.[35]

Etymology

The name "boron" comes from t he Arabic word for t he mineral borax, (‫بورق‬, boraq) which was known
before boron was ever ext ract ed. The "-on" suffix is t hought t o have been t aken from "carbon".[36]
Aluminium was named by Humphry Davy in t he early 1800s. It is derived from t he Greek word alumen,
meaning bit t er salt , or t he Lat in alum, t he mineral.[37] Gallium is derived from t he Lat in Gallia, referring
t o France, t he place of it s discovery.[38] Indium comes from t he Lat in word indicum, meaning indigo
dye, and refers t o t he element 's prominent indigo spect roscopic line.[39] Thallium, like indium, is
named aft er t he Greek word for t he color of it s spect roscopic line: thallos, meaning a green t wig or
shoot .[40][41] "Nihonium" is named aft er Japan (Nihon in Japanese), where it was discovered.

Occurrence and abundance

Boron

Boron, wit h it s at omic number of 5, is a very light element . Almost never found free in nat ure, it is
very low in abundance, composing only 0.001% (10 ppm)[42] of t he Eart h's crust . It is known t o occur
in over a hundred different minerals and ores, however: t he main source is borax, but it is also found in
colemanit e, boracit e, kernit e, t usionit e, berborit e and fluoborit e.[43] Major world miners and
ext ract ors of boron include Turkey, t he Unit ed St at es, Argent ina, China, Bolivia and Peru. Turkey is by
far t he most prominent of t hese, account ing for around 70% of all boron ext ract ion in t he world. The
Unit ed St at es is second, most of it s yield coming from t he st at e of California.[44]

Aluminium

Aluminium, in cont rast t o boron, is t he most abundant met al in t he Eart h's crust , and t he t hird most
abundant element . It composes about 8.2% (82,000 ppm) of t he Eart h's crust , surpassed only by
oxygen and silicon.[42] It is like boron, however, in t hat it is uncommon in nat ure as a free element .
This is due t o aluminium's t endency t o at t ract oxygen at oms, forming several aluminium oxides.
Aluminium is now known t o occur in nearly as many minerals as boron, including garnet s, t urquoises
and beryls, but t he main source is t he ore bauxit e. The world's leading count ries in t he ext ract ion of
aluminium are Ghana, Suriname, Russia and Indonesia, followed by Aust ralia, Guinea and Brazil.[45]

Gallium

Gallium is a relat ively rare element in t he Eart h's crust and is not found in as many minerals as it s
light er homologues. It s abundance on t he Eart h is a mere 0.0018% (18 ppm).[42] It s product ion is very
low compared t o ot her element s, but has increased great ly over t he years as ext ract ion met hods
have improved. Gallium can be found as a t race in a variet y of ores, including bauxit e and sphalerit e,
and in such minerals as diaspore and germanit e. Trace amount s have been found in coal as well.[46]
The gallium cont ent is great er in a few minerals, including gallit e (CuGaS 2), but t hese are t oo rare t o
be count ed as major sources and make negligible cont ribut ions t o t he world's supply.

Indium

Indium is anot her rare element in t he boron group. Even less abundant t han gallium at only 0.000005%
(0.05 ppm),[42] it is t he 61st most common element in t he Eart h's crust . Very few indium-cont aining
minerals are known, all of t hem scarce: an example is indit e. Indium is found in several zinc ores, but
only in minut e quant it ies; likewise some copper and lead ores cont ain t races. As is t he case for most
ot her element s found in ores and minerals, t he indium ext ract ion process has become more efficient
in recent years, ult imat ely leading t o larger yields. Canada is t he world's leader in indium reserves, but
bot h t he Unit ed St at es and China have comparable amount s.[47]
Thallium

A small bundle of fiberglass

Thallium is of int ermediat e abundance in t he Eart h's crust , est imat ed t o be 0.00006% (0.6 ppm).[42]
Thallium is t he 56t h most common element in t he eart h's crust , more abundant t han indium by a
sizeable amount . It is found on t he ground in some rocks, in t he soil and in clay. Many sulfide ores of
iron, zinc and cobalt cont ain t hallium. In minerals it is found in moderat e quant it ies: some examples
are crookesit e (in which it was first discovered), lorandit e, rout hierit e, bukovit e, hut chinsonit e and
sabat ierit e. There are ot her minerals t hat cont ain small amount s of t hallium, but t hey are very rare
and do not serve as primary sources.

Nihonium

Nihonium is an element t hat is never found in nat ure but has been creat ed in a laborat ory. It is
t herefore classified as a synt het ic element wit h no st able isot opes.

Applications

Wit h t he except ion of synt het ic nihonium, all t he element s in t he boron group have numerous uses
and applicat ions in t he product ion and cont ent of many it ems.
Boron

Boron has found many indust rial applicat ions in recent decades, and new ones are st ill being found. A
common applicat ion is in fiberglass.[48] There has been rapid expansion in t he market for borosilicat e
glass; most not able among it s special qualit ies is a much great er resist ance t o t hermal expansion
t han regular glass. Anot her commercially expanding use of boron and it s derivat ives is in ceramics.
Several boron compounds, especially t he oxides, have unique and valuable propert ies t hat have led
t o t heir subst it ut ion for ot her mat erials t hat are less useful. Boron may be found in pot s, vases,
plat es, and ceramic pan-handles for it s insulat ing propert ies.

The compound borax is used in bleaches, for bot h clot hes and t eet h. The hardness of boron and
some of it s compounds give it a wide array of addit ional uses. A small part (5%) of t he boron
produced finds use in agricult ure.[48]

Aluminium

Aluminium is a met al wit h numerous familiar uses in everyday life. It is most oft en encount ered in
const ruct ion mat erials, in elect rical devices, especially as t he conduct or in cables, and in t ools and
vessels for cooking and preserving food. Aluminium's lack of react ivit y wit h food product s makes it
part icularly useful for canning. It s high affinit y for oxygen makes it a powerful reducing agent . Finely
powdered pure aluminium oxidizes rapidly in air, generat ing a huge amount of heat in t he process
(burning at about 5500 °F or 3037 °C), leading t o applicat ions in welding and elsewhere t hat a large
amount of heat is needed. Aluminium is a component of alloys used for making light weight bodies
for aircraft . Cars also somet imes incorporat e aluminium in t heir framework and body, and t here are
similar applicat ions in milit ary equipment . Less common uses include component s of decorat ions and
some guit ars. The element is also sees use in a diverse range of elect ronics.[49][50]

Gallium

Gallium is one of the chief

components of blue LEDs
Gallium and it s derivat ives have only found applicat ions in recent decades. Gallium arsenide has been
used in semiconduct ors, in amplifiers, in solar cells (for example in sat ellit es) and in t unnel diodes for
FM t ransmit t er circuit s. Gallium alloys are used most ly for dent al purposes. Gallium ammonium
chloride is used for t he leads in t ransist ors.[51] A major applicat ion of gallium is in LED light ing. The
pure element has been used as a dopant in semiconduct ors, and has addit ional uses in elect ronic
devices wit h ot her element s. Gallium has t he propert y of being able t o 'wet ' glass and porcelain, and
t hus can be used t o make mirrors and ot her highly reflect ive object s. Gallium can be added t o alloys
of ot her met als t o lower t heir melt ing point s.

Indium

Indium's uses can be divided int o four cat egories: t he largest part (70%) of t he product ion is used
for coat ings, usually combined as indium t in oxide (ITO); a smaller port ion (12%) goes int o alloys and
solders; a similar amount is used in elect rical component s and in semiconduct ors; and t he final 6%
goes t o minor applicat ions.[52] Among t he it ems in which indium may be found are plat ings, bearings,
display devices, heat reflect ors, phosphors, and nuclear cont rol rods. Indium t in oxide has found a
wide range of applicat ions, including glass coat ings, solar panels, st reet light s, elect rophoset ic
displays (EPDs), elect roluminescent displays (ELDs), plasma display panels (PDPs), elect rochemic
displays (ECs), field emission displays (FEDs), sodium lamps, windshield glass and cat hode ray t ubes,
making it t he single most import ant indium compound.[53]

Thallium

Thallium is used in it s element al form more oft en t han t he ot her boron-group element s.
Uncompounded t hallium is used in low-melt ing glasses, phot oelect ric cells, swit ches, mercury alloys
for low-range glass t hermomet ers, and t hallium salt s. It can be found in lamps and elect ronics, and is
also used in myocardial imaging. The possibilit y of using t hallium in semiconduct ors has been
researched, and it is a known cat alyst in organic synt hesis. Thallium hydroxide (TlOH) is used mainly in
t he product ion of ot her t hallium compounds. Thallium sulfat e (Tl2SO4) is an out st anding vermin-
killer, and it is a principal component in some rat and mouse poisons. However, t he Unit ed St at es and
some European count ries have banned t he subst ance because of it s high t oxicit y t o humans. In
ot her count ries, t hough, t he market for t he subst ance is growing. Tl2SO4 is also used in opt ical
syst ems.[54]
Biological role

None of t he group-13 element s has a major biological role in complex animals, but some are at least
associat ed wit h a living being. As in ot her groups, t he light er element s usually have more biological
roles t han t he heavier. The heaviest ones are t oxic, as are t he ot her element s in t he same periods.
Boron is essent ial in most plant s, whose cells use it for such purposes as st rengt hening cell walls. It
is found in humans, cert ainly as a essent ial t race element , but t here is ongoing debat e over it s
significance in human nut rit ion. Boron's chemist ry does allow it t o form complexes wit h such
import ant molecules as carbohydrat es, so it is plausible t hat it could be of great er use in t he human
body t han previously t hought . Boron has also been shown t o be able t o replace iron in some of it s
funct ions, part icularly in t he healing of wounds.[55] Aluminium has no known biological role in plant s or
animals, despit e it s widespread occurrence in nat ure.[56] Gallium is not essent ial for t he human body,
but it s relat ion t o iron(III) allows it t o become bound t o prot eins t hat t ransport and st ore iron.[57]
Gallium can also st imulat e met abolism. Indium and it s heavier homologues have no biological role,
alt hough indium salt s in small doses, like gallium, can st imulat e met abolism.[32]

Toxicity

All of t he element s in t he boron group can be t oxic, given a high enough dose. Some of t hem are only
t oxic t o plant s, some only t o animals, and some t o bot h.

As an example of boron t oxicit y, it has been observed t o harm barley in concent rat ions exceeding 20
mM.[58] The sympt oms of boron t oxicit y are numerous in plant s, complicat ing research: t hey include
reduced cell division, decreased shoot and root growt h, decreased product ion of leaf chlorophyll,
inhibit ion of phot osynt hesis, lowering of st omat a conduct ance,[59] reduced prot on ext rusion from
root s,[60] and deposit ion of lignin and suberin.[61]

Aluminium does not present a prominent t oxicit y hazard in small quant it ies, but very large doses are
slight ly t oxic. Gallium is not considered t oxic, alt hough it may have some minor effect s. Indium is not
t oxic and can be handled wit h nearly t he same precaut ions as gallium, but some of it s compounds
are slight ly t o moderat ely t oxic.

Thallium, unlike gallium and indium, is ext remely t oxic, and has caused many poisoning deat hs. It s
most not iceable effect , apparent even from t iny doses, is hair loss all over t he body, but it causes a
wide range of ot her sympt oms, disrupt ing and event ually halt ing t he funct ions of many organs. The
nearly colorless, odorless and t ast eless nat ure of t hallium compounds has led t o t heir use by
murderers. The incidence of t hallium poisoning, int ent ional and accident al, increased when t hallium
(wit h it s similarly t oxic compound, t hallium sulfat e) was int roduced t o cont rol rat s and ot her pest s.
The use of t hallium pest icides has t herefore been prohibit ed since 1975 in many count ries, including
t he USA.

Nihonium is a highly unst able element and decays by emit t ing alpha part icles. Due t o it s st rong
radioact ivit y, it would definit ely be ext remely t oxic, alt hough significant quant it ies of nihonium (larger
t han a few at oms) have not yet been assembled.[62]

Notes

a. The name icosagens for group 13 has occasionally been used,[2] in reference to the icosahedral
structures characteristically formed by its elements.

b. To this date, no nihonium compounds have been synthesized (except possibly NhOH), and all other
proposed compounds are entirely theoretical.

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External links

oxide (chemical compound) – Brit annica Online Encyclopedia (ht t ps://www.brit annica.com/EBchec
ked/t opic/436674/oxide) . Brit annica.com. Ret rieved on 2011-05-16.

Visual Element s: Group 13 (ht t p://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelement s/pages/dat a/int ro_ groupii

i_ dat a.ht ml) . Rsc.org. Ret rieved on 2011-05-16.

Trends In Chemical React ivit y Of Group 13 Element s (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20110727214

058/ht t p://www.t ut orvist a.com/cont ent /chemist ry/chemist ry-iv/p-block-element s/react ivit y-el
ement s.php) . Tut orvist a.com. Ret rieved on 2011-05-16.

[1] (ht t p://www.et ymonline.com/index.php?search=Aluminum&searchmode=none)

et ymonline.com Ret rieved on 2011-07-27