Module – 2 ` 18IP821

Weldability of Metals: Stainless steel, Cast iron, Copper, and Aluminium.

Advanced soldering and brazing processes: Different types. Welding of plastics- different methods.

Weldability is considered as ease of accomplishing a satisfactory weld joint and can be determined from quality
of the weld joint, effort and cost required for developing the weld joint. Quality of the weld joint however, can be
determined by many factors but the weld must fulfil the service requirements. The characteristics of the metal
determining the quality of weld joint includes tendency to cracking, hardening and softening of HAZ, oxidation,
evaporation, structural modification and affinity to gases.In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be
divided into the following types:
Steels
Stainless steels
Aluminium and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Titanium and its alloys
Cast iron

FACTORS AFFECTING WELDABILITY :

▪ Metallurgy: The science of heating or manipulating metals to produce desired properties or shapes

in them.

▪ Welding Process: there are several types of processes in welding. Various factors set them apart:

how the heat and pressure are applied, how much heat and pressure are used, and the type of

equipment employed.

▪ Joint Design: The combination of the dimensions required for the welded joint and the geometry of

the joint.

▪ Weld Preparation: a set of techniques to execute prior to welding to prevent defects in the weld.

▪ Melting Point: The temperature that must be reached for a solid substance to melt or fuse.

▪ Electrical Resistance: A metal’s opposition, or resistance, to the flow of electrical current.

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Steels
Carbon and alloy steels
Steels alloyed with carbon and only a low concentration of silicon and manganese are known as plain carbon
steels

Alloy steels contain specified larger proportions of alloying elements.

▪ Low-Carbon or Mild Steel: have carbon content of less than 0.30%. These steels can be welded

easily by all welding processes.

▪ Medium-carbon steels: have carbon content of 0.30% to 0.50%

▪ High-carbon steels usually have a carbon content of 0.50% to 0.90%. These steels are much more

difficult to weld than either the low- or medium-carbon steels. Because of the high carbon content,

the heat-affected zone can transform to very hard and brittle martensite.

▪ Tool steel has a carbon content from 0.8% to 1.50%, and is very difficult to weld.

▪ High-manganese steel contains 12% or more manganese and a carbon content ranging from 1% to

1.4%.

▪ Low-alloy steels are used increasingly because of requirements for high strength with less weight.

These types of steel are readily weldable by all of the common welding processes.

▪ Chromium-molybdenum steel is used for high-temperature service and for aircraft parts. It can be

welded by the following processes: shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc, gas metal arc, flux cored,

and submerged arc.

▪ Maraging Steel, which combines nickel and elements such as cobalt, titanium, molybdenum or

aluminum. With a lower carbon content, this type of steel is known for its high yield strength.

Stainless steels
Stainless steels consist of four groups of alloys:
▪ Austenitic: The austenitic group is by far the most common. Its chromium content provides
corrosion resistance, and its nickel content produces the tough austenitic microstructure.
▪ Ferritic: contain almost no nickel

▪ Martensitic: Martensitic stainless steels are also low in nickel but contain more carbon than the
ferritic

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▪ Precipitation hardening: Can be much stronger than the austenitic, without losing toughness. Their
strength is the result of a special heat treatment used to develop the precipitate.

Aluminium and its alloys

Characteristics of Aluminum
▪ High thermal conductivity: Higher welding current is needed to assure fusion

▪ High solidification shrinkage: Aluminum shrinks about twice as much as steel during solidification

due to its high coefficient of thermal expansion. Causes higher buildup of residual stresses around

the weld and greater distortion. Shrinks approximately 6% in volume

▪ High hydrogen solubility: In molten state, aluminum has a very high hydrogen solubility.

▪ Oxide coating: One of the characteristics of aluminum and its alloys is that it has a great affinity for

oxygen. Aluminum forms an oxide layer when it comes in contact with air and combines oxygen.

This aluminum-oxide layer is very porous and traps moisture, grease, oil and other contaminants.

Pure aluminum melts at 1200°F (650°C). The oxide that protects the metal melts at 3700°F (2037°C). The
metal must be cleaned prior to welding. Aluminum can be arc welded using aluminum welding rods.

Copper and its alloys

There are many different types of copper alloys. Copper is often alloyed with other metals such as tin, zinc,
nickel, silicon, aluminum, and iron. Copper and copper alloys can be joined by most of the commonly used
methods such as gas welding, arc welding, resistance welding, brazing, and soldering.When you are welding
copper, the welding current should be considerably higher than when welding steel.
Cast iron
Types of Cast Iron:
▪ Gray cast iron is the most widely used type. It contains so much free carbon that a fracture surface
has a uniform dark gray color. Gray cast iron is easily welded, but because it is somewhat porous it
can absorb oils into the surface, which must be baked out before welding.
▪ White cast iron is the hardest and most brittle of the cast irons because almost all of the carbon atoms
are combined with the iron atoms. White cast iron is practically unweldable.
▪ Malleable cast iron is white cast iron that has undergone a transformation as the result of a long heat-
treating process to reduce the brittleness. Malleable cast iron can easily be welded. To prevent it
from reverting back to white cast iron, do not preheat above 1200°F (650°C).
▪ Alloy cast iron has alloying elements such as chromium, copper, manganese, molybdenum, or nickel
added to obtain special properties.

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Titanium and its alloys

Titanium is a silver-gray metal weighing approximately half as much as steel or approximately one and one-
half times as much as aluminum.

Properties of titanium

▪ Extremely high strength-to-weight ratio (in alloy form)

▪ Corrosion resistance.

Titanium alloys, unlike most other light metals, retain their strength at temperatures up to approximately
800°F (426°C).

Nickel and its alloys

Nickel alloys can be joined reliably by all types of welding processes or methods, with the exception of
forge welding and oxyacetylene welding.

Welding of Cast Nickel Alloys: Cast nickel alloys can be joined by the GTAW, GMAW and SMAW
processes. For optimum results, casting should be solution annealed before welding to relieve some of the
casting stresses and provide some homogenization of the cast structure.

Chart

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Advanced soldering and brazing processes:

Soldering:
Soldering is a process that joins two or more types of metals through melting solder. The first soldering iron
was developed in 1896 by Richard Schneider and August Tinnerhol and was called the “First Electric
Heating Apparatus”.

Soldering is commonly used in electronics, as it is simple and safe in joining sensitive materials. Likewise,
the process is also known for metalworking, plumbing, roofing and joining wires. Let’s take an in-depth
look into soldering to find out more.

Soldering uses a filler metal with a low melting point, also known as solder, to join metal surfaces. The
solder is usually made up of an alloy consisting of tin and lead whose melting point is around 235°C and
350°C, respectively.

But when tin and lead are mixed then the melting point of the mixture is reduced to 183°C. The alloy is
melted by using a hot iron at above 316 °C (600 °F).

As the solder cools, it creates a strong electrical and mechanical bond between the metal surfaces. The bond
allows the metal parts to achieve electrical contact while it is held in place.

Note that lead-free solders are increasingly used as an alternative to environmentally harmful lead-based
solders due to regulations.

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Soldering Process

The first step in soldering is to wear protective gear in a well-ventilated area. Next, the soldering iron should
be preheated. For cleaning the soldering tip, you can use a wet sponge. Likewise, any residue on the
workpiece surface should be wiped off.

After finishing the preparations, it’s time to heat the base metal to a working temperature using the hot iron.
Doing so will help prevent thermal shock, activate the solder, and overall improve the quality of the joint. A
good indicator that the metals are well-heated is when the molten solder freely flows into the joint. The filler
material solidifies as it cools down, making it the best time for inspection.

The key to successful soldering is ensuring that the metals being joined are clean and free of any oxides or
other contaminants.

Desoldering

From time to time, components fail and need replacement. When these components are mechanically held in
place with solder, a process called desoldering removes the material cleanly and safely.

A soldering iron or a heat gun can be utilised to melt the solder, allowing you to safely remove any
soldered components. To remove the liquid solder, you can use a desoldering pump as a vacuum, or a
soldering wick to absorb the molten solder.

Alternatively, you can resort to an aggressive method using compressed air that can blow off the liquid
solder.

Soldering v/s Welding

While soldering and welding are processes that join two pieces of metal alloy together, there are some key
differences in how the metals are joined.

Soldering uses melted filler metals to bond heated base materials. It works at a lower temperature than
welding but requires preheating the base materials to create an effective joint.

Welding runs at higher temperatures to melt both filler material and workpiece together. It results in a
stronger bond, with some changes to the mechanical properties of the metal from heating and cooling.

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Soldering works well with the following base metals:

▪ Gold
▪ Silver
▪ Iron
▪ Brass
▪ Copper
▪ Aluminium
▪ Steel
▪ Titanium

While some of these metals can easily be soft-soldered, harder metals may require filler materials with a
higher melting point to be joined.

Soldering Tools

Soldering irons are hand tools that heat the solder above its melting temperatures. They offer a wide variety
of sizes, which is great for different applications. The tip of the iron has different types and sizes that suit a
variety of projects.

Soldering guns are employed when higher temperatures require more power. A soldering gun heats quicker
and offers better flexibility as it can be operated in confined spaces, heavy electrical connections, and
metalworks.

Soldering stations are multipurpose devices that have everything covered for minor projects. They are more
durable than regular soldering irons due to them being equipped with sensors, fuses, alerts and temperature
regulation.

Solders:

Lead-based solder

Most soldering projects are typically performed using lead solder consisting of a 60-40 tin-to-lead ratio. This
solder melts in a range of 180 to 190°C and is usually the best choice for soldering electrical connections.

Lead-free solder

As a way to mitigate the use of harmful elements, lead-free solders were developed. These usually come as
solder wire and are composed of metals with higher melting points: tin, copper, bismuth, silver, brass,
indium, and antimony.

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Flux core solder

These filler metals come as paste or soldering wires that contain a flux solder core. The flux releases a
protective layer around the workpiece as it is consumed, which achieves cleaner electronic connections and
better wetting properties.

Flux

Rosin flux (alternatively called passive flux) is used for electronics as it leaves a residue that doesn’t lead to
corrosion.

Acid flux solders contain aggressive properties, which are effective in removing the oxides of the metal
surface. This leads to stronger and cleaner metal joints compared to rosin.

The type of flux can be broken down into two groups depending on its application. No-clean flux is made
with natural rosin or other synthetic materials, requiring no post-cleanup, while water-soluble flux contains
water-soluble resin that is easily removed by rinsing.

Heating Methods

While the concept of soldering is fairly simple, there are different heating methods that depend on the
application or project. Primitive methods involve a fire heating element through butane, but this has now
evolved into more advanced techniques.

Laser

Commonly used in delicate electronics, lasers at 30-50 watts can accurately create a soldered joint while
preventing heat in the surrounding area. It is commonly used on circuit boards where the components are
compact.

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Induction

Copper coils induce heat to the solder by using an oscillating high-frequency alternating current. Induction
allows for an even application of thermal energy to heat solder, being a great application to cylinders and
pipes, minimizing holes and maintaining uniformity.

Resistance

This soldering form generates heat by applying an electrical current to the solder and soldering iron. Heat is
generated in a small space and it dissipates quickly, reducing the risk of damaging components.

Infrared

This method uses infrared (IR) light as a mode of heat transfer to the targeted area. It only takes a few
seconds, reducing the heat exposure time of the surrounding area.

Types of Soldering

Here are three soldering types that are used at varying temperature levels that result in different joint
strengths:

▪ Soft soldering (90 °C – 450 °C)

The solder melts alloys containing lead that has a low melting point. With a lower melting point, this
soldering type minimises the thermal stress wherein the base metals are subjected.
▪ Hard soldering (above 450 °C)
Brass and silver are usually hard soldered, with the use of a flame via blowtorch to melt the filler
metal. Hard soldering has better mechanical strength than soft soldering, which applies to crafting
jewellery and some machining operations.
▪ Brazing (above 450 °C)
Brazing uses metals with a much higher melting point compared to hard and soft soldering. It
produces the strongest result, which is perfect for metal repairs and for pipe joining.

Advantages of Soldering

▪ Soldering is operated at lower temperatures compared to common welding methods.

▪ Most metals and non-metals can be soldered.
▪ A simple process makes it easy to learn.
▪ The base metal isn’t melted in the process, unlike welding techniques such as stick welding, flux-
cored welding, etc.
▪ Soft soldering can be undone using a desoldering tool without damaging the base materials.

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Disadvantages of Soldering

▪ Weaker joints compared to other welding methods such as MIG and TIG.
▪ Soldering isn’t suitable at high temperatures, as the solder has a low melting point.
▪ Heavy metals aren’t suitable for soldering.
▪ Melted solder might leave a toxic flux residue.
▪ Improper heating may cause deformities or voids in the solder.

Applications

Electronics Industry

The most popular application of this fusion process is electronics soldering, where wires are joined and
electronic components are fused to a circuit board. This technique allows soldering components together
with the luxury of desoldering when needed.

Roofings

Soldering can be used in creating leak-proof roofings wherein the galvanised steel is infused with solder.
The soldering iron tip is far broader when used in this application compared to other uses.

Sections

Soldering is applied in the piping and plumbing industry as a way to create joint sections. It is a
straightforward process and a reliable solution in sealing the connections in copper pipes, for example.

Art

Soldering can be used to create stained glass art, wire modelling, sculptures, jewellery and other creative
works.

Metalwork

The soldering material can be used to fill cavities and even out rough surfaces. This process is practiced to
fuse metal sheets, pipes and other applications where metals don’t undergo high temperatures.

Automation

Technology allows us to automate the soldering process through the use of programmed robots. Not only
does it create precise joints but it is also fast in production speed.

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Brazing:

Brazing is a process that joins two or more metal surfaces by letting molten metal flow into the joint. The
filler metal has a lower melting temperature than the parts to be joined to keep the workpieces from melting.

Although brazing is one of the oldest joining methods, it is still used today for a good reason.

Brazing joins metal surfaces together with a filler metal which has a low melting point. The process uses
capillary action wherein the homogenous liquid flow of the filler material bonds with the base metals.

A unique quality in the brazing process is that it keeps the mechanical properties of the metals which are
useful in applications such as silver brazing or other similar metals.

Brazing Process

One of the most crucial steps in the metal joining process is the cleaning of the base metal surfaces. Emery
cloth or wire brush are both great tools to remove contaminants.

Having calculated joint gaps for the liquid filler metal to achieve surface tension with the workpiece, the
brazing operation begins with properly positioning the assembly. A torch is normally used to slowly heat the
workpiece’s metal surface and filler metal into its brazing temperature.

As the filler metal liquefies, capillary action lets it pass through the tight spaces, thus forming a bond
between the surface of the base metals.

The brazed joints are formed as it cools down with the assembly.

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Materials

▪ These are the metals that are often joined by brazing:

▪ Aluminium
▪ Cast iron
▪ Magnesium
▪ Copper and copper alloys
▪ Silver

Filler metal requirements

1. Once the molten flux and filler metal solidify, the brazed joint should possess the expected
mechanical properties.
2. Brazing temperatures must efficiently achieve a proper liquid flow from the molten braze alloy into
the joints.
3. Filler metals must achieve proper wetting conditions in order to create strong bonds.

Difference Between Brazing, Soldering & Welding

Brazing uses capillary action to join different metal surfaces. It makes use of a process called wetting,
wherein the base metals are bonded with a melted filler material. The brazing filler metal has a melting point
above 450 °C.

Soldering uses filler metals that have a melting point below 450 °C. Although soldering uses the same
concept as brazing, the main difference lies in their working temperatures and thus in the strength of the
created joint.

Welding also melts the workpieces in addition to the filler metal. This allows the creation of stronger bonds
than with brazing. Processes such as TIG, MIG, and stick welding operate at much higher temperatures.

Braze welding is a type of MIG/MAG welding. The difference lies in the melting point of the filler wires
which is significantly lower than the parent metal. The filler metal is deposited in order to fill in the gaps via
capillary action. There is no significant fusion of the parent metals but it may occur in a limited amount.

Different Methods of Brazing

Brazing uses different heating methods to suit a variety of purposes and applications. Heat can either be
applied directly to a joint (localised) or to the whole workpiece (diffuse heating).

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Localised Heating Techniques

 Torch brazing – Combusted fuel gas is formed by burning acetylene, propane, or hydrogen with
oxygen to heat and melt the filler metal. Flux is required while using this technique in order to
protect the joint, which requires post-cleanup later on. Torch brazing is mainly used for small
production assemblies where metal weight is unequal. The process is often performed with gas
welding equipment.
 Induction brazing – High-frequency alternating current is supplied into a coil to achieve brazing
temperature, which heats the workpiece and melts the filler material.
 Resistance brazing – Heat is generated from the electrical resistance of the brazing alloy, which is
perfect for highly conductive metals. This heating technique is best suited for creating simple joints
between metals.

Diffuse Heating Techniques

 Furnace brazing – Gas firing or heating elements are used to bring the furnace to the desired
temperature. The brazing filler metal is applied to the surfaces to be joined and then the entire
assembly is placed into the furnace and brought to brazing temperature. Furnace brazing allows
accuracy in controlling the heating and cooling cycles of the metals. The process is often performed
in a vacuum to protect the braze alloy from atmospheric conditions. This also negates the need for
flux protection.
 Dip brazing – The workpiece or assembly is immersed in a bath of molten filler metal (molten
metal bath brazing) or molten salt (chemical bath dip brazing). Brazing flux is applied to the parts
to prevent oxidation. The assembly can be removed once the molten brazing filler metal has
solidified.

Advantages
▪ Can join dissimilar metals, unlike most welding methods.
▪ High production rates.
▪ Consumes less power than welding.
▪ Produces cleaner joints compared to most welding processes.
▪ Base metals don’t melt, keeping their shape and mechanical properties.
Disadvantages

▪ Weaker results compared to welded joints.

▪ Cannot join components operated at high temperatures.
▪ Requires tight, uniform joint gaps to achieve capillary action.
▪ Unclean or contaminated metals may cause leaky joints.

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Welding of plastics

Welding plastic is a process applicable in plastic part fabrication for joining two compatible thermoplastics
parts. It involves preparing the two thermoplastic parts, pressing them together in the proposed joints, and
heating them using several heating techniques. Moreover, the heating technique used depends majorly on the
plastic material. For example, ultrasonic plastic welding is commonly used for PVC because it does not
involve direct heating which leads to the emission of dangerous fumes by the material.

Continuous application of pressure during heating and cooling forms a molecular bond between the two
parts. Consequently, plastic welded joints are strong, unlike other plastic joining processes such as adhesives
and riveting. Plastic welding has been a widely used technique in medicine, electronics, construction, etc.

3 Steps of Welding Plastics

Step 1: Set up the working space and clean the plastic

The first thing to do is to set up a workspace. The workplace needs proper ventilation since most heating
techniques emit dangerous fumes. Aside from that, operators should wear protective gear.

Clean the thermoplastics to ensure a high welded joint. Cleaning is achievable by washing with soap and
warm water and then drying the plastics with a clean, lint-free cloth. Also, it’s suggested that you
remove stains using liquid solvents such as Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK), 80-frit sandpaper, or a paint
scraper.

Step 2: Join the plastic

Clamp and tape the two plastic pieces to form and hold the desired joint. Furthermore, place the plastic
pieces on a working bench and pin them using C-clamps. The style of joining the plastic depends on the
welding technique. For example, ultrasonic welding is only suitable for lap joints.

Step 3: Complete the weld

Fix the weld before cooling to deal with issues such as smoothness. Allow the welded plastic to cool for
about 5 minutes or reach room temperature. Furthermore, sand the welded joint after cooling or use other
surface finishing processes to make it smooth.

Methods of Plastic Welding

There are many plastic welding techniques based on the heating processes. Below are the eight common
techniques used in part manufacturing in the plastic industry.

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1. Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic plastic welding uses mechanical vibrations with high frequency (15 kHz to 40 kHz) and
low amplitude to join two plastic polymers. The mechanical vibration generates frictional heat,
which in turn melts the plastic polymers. Due to mechanical vibrations, a molecular bond is formed
between the plastic polymers. Therefore, ultrasonic plastic welded joints are strong and of the highest
quality.

Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding

 It has high throughputs and short turnaround times
 It is highly safe because it does not heat the plastic parts using direct heat
 Its use of direct heat also makes it suitable for materials like polyvinyl chloride, renown for
producing dangerous fumes on direct exposure to heat
 It produces high quality welded joint, which improves its aesthetic value
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Welding
 The method is not suitable for thermoplastics with high moisture content and hard/strong
thermoplastics such as polypropylene
 The process is not ideal for thick materials such as polypropylene because most ultrasonic
machine transducers have an output range between 100-150mm
 Only suitable for joints that overlap each other. Other joints such as a corner, butt, tee, and
edge are incompatible
 High lead time because of the number of tools and processes required

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2. Laser Welding
Laser welding is a plastic welding process that involves using a laser beam to thaw the plastic.
However, the heat is kept below the plastics’ evaporation temperature. Pressure is then applied on
thawing, and cooling occurs to strengthen the welded joints.
Laser welding is fast and occurs in different ways. Hence the different types of plastic laser welding
processes: are hybrid, simultaneous, contour, and single pass. However, the speed depends on the
process, plastics, and laser welding machine.

Advantages of Laser Welding

 It can heat the entire welding surface or a single spot.
 It is highly accurate hence its use in the aerospace industry
 Welding can occur at room temperature or under special conditions
 Suitable for welding plastics with complex designs
 The welded joints have a high aesthetic value, i.e., a clean appearance
 It is a speedy process making it very popular in rapid prototyping
Disadvantages of Laser Welding
 Not suitable for thickness plastics (above 0.5inches) so as not to lead to bad welded joints.
 It can lead to welding porosity and brittleness
 The initial cost of investment is high

3. Friction Welding

Friction welding does not require a direct application of heat for the welding to take place. Therefore,
it is a common process for joining plastic that does not require direct heat application. The process
uses the principle of friction to join the plastic material together.

It involves applying external pressure on both plastic materials by moving or rotating them against
each other. The movement produces friction, generating heat that melts the plastics. After melting,
there is an application of uniformly increasing pressure force to both plastic materials until a
permanent joint form. There are two types of friction welding:

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 Continuous Induce Friction Welding

The procedure follows the above procedure. However, the movement responsible for generating the
heat is from a rotor connected to a band brake. When the heat generated is higher than the plastic
temperature limit, the band brake stops the rotor as the pressure increases until welding occurs.

 Inertia friction welding

It is similar to continuous induce friction welding. However, the engine flywheel and shaft flywheel
replace the band brake. Although connected at the beginning of welding, the flywheels separate
when the friction/speed reaches the limit. The shaft flywheel’s low moment of inertia makes it stop.
Continuous application of pressure force continues till the welded joint forms.

Advantages of Friction Welding

▪ Easy removal of oxides and contaminants present during initial rubbing

▪ Suitable for dissimilar plastic
▪ No distortion and warping of material due to low heat
▪ High welded joint quality
▪ High welding speed
▪ It is environmentally friendly
▪ It does not require consumables and a special power supply

Disadvantages of Friction Welding

▪ Only suitable for round bars with the same cross-section and angular and flat butt joints
▪ It has a high initial cost of investment.

4. High Frequency Welding

High-frequency welding involves welding plastic polymers using an electromagnetic field (13–100
MHz). This generates heat inside the material (it does not require direct heat application). The
operator applies pressure continuously to fuse the plastics until the weld form, and heat removal
occurs to cool the welded joint.
This produces a strong welded joint with similar or even better properties than the original materials.
HF welding is the most suitable plastic welding process for dissimilar plastic materials. While useful
in the plastic industry, it is only compatible with a few materials. Common ones are polyvinyl
chloride, EVA, PET-G, and other PET family members.

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Advantages of High Frequency Welding

▪ Less effective splitting
▪ Small thermal influence range
▪ High welding speeds (around 100 to 120 m/min)
Disadvantages of High Frequency Welding
▪ It radiates a lot of heat
▪ Depending on the machine, it has a small heating range, i.e., the heating area
▪ Consumption of the contact head.

5. Vibration Welding

Vibration welding involves rubbing the plastic part at a certain frequency and amplitude. This leads
to the generation of frictional heat that melts the joint section and creates the welded joint. There are
two types of vibration welding:

▪ Linear Vibration Welding

It uses frictional heat generated by moving one plastic part relative to the other at a given
displacement to melt the plastic parts’ joint. The process continues at a constant pressure after
the vibration stops until the welded joint cools.

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▪ Orbital Vibration Welding

It involves vibrating the upper section of the plastic part in a continuous circular motion in all
directions. This generates heat that melts the plastic part. The vibration stops reaching the
melting point so the welded joint can solidify.
Advantages of Vibration Welding
▪ It does not require any consumable
▪ There is no need for surface preparation
▪ It is highly efficient energy-wise
▪ Suitable for welding thin plastic materials
▪ Suitable for welding plastics with irregular shapes
Disadvantages of Vibration Welding
▪ The welding surface must be flat and horizontal
▪ Limited compatible materials
▪ Expensive equipment

6. Hot Plate Welding

It involves heating a plate and using it to melt the joining surface of two thermoplastics. After
melting the two halves, they are brought together and left for a predetermined period so that a
molecular, permanent, and hermetic bond can form.
Hot plate welding requires extreme precision and control. It is suitable for any thermoplastic material
but more applicable for soft and semi-crystalline thermoplastics, e.g., PP and PE.

Advantages of Hot Plate Welding

▪ Suitable for joining large plastics
▪ It produces strong welded joints
▪ It has a short cycle time depending on the time taken to reach the plastic’s melting point
Disadvantages of Hot Plate Welding
▪ It is not suitable for welding thin plastics below 0.1 inch
▪ The equipment requires a high level of maintenance

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7. Hot Gas Welding

Hot gas welding is used in thermoplastic fabrication and involves using a hand-held welding gun that
blows steam of gas or air to heat plastic welding rods and polymers. The plastic materials soften
when heated above the melting point, forming the welded joint. This then cools off to form a solid
welded joint.
The hot gas welding process is applicable in fabricating containment vessels, pipework, heat
exchangers, water tanks, etc., made from similar plastic polymers.

Advantages of Hot Gas Welding

▪ The equipment is very portable
▪ It doesn’t require electricity to operate
▪ It doesn’t require any heavy-duty machinery
▪ It doesn’t require much technical expertise
Disadvantages of Hot Gas Welding
▪ The heating rate is very slow, making the process slow
▪ It is not suitable for thicker plastics.

8. Spin Welding
Spin welding or rotational friction welding is a process used for welding thermoplastic parts with
rotationally symmetrical joining surfaces. It involves rubbing the parts together (one stationary)
under pressure in a unidirectional circular motion. This generates frictional heat that melts and bonds
the plastics. The welded joint then solidifies after cooling.

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Advantages of Spin Welding

▪ It is a simple process and requires less technical expertise
▪ It does not require consumables
▪ It is highly energy efficient
▪ Compatible with many thermoplastics

Disadvantages of Spin Welding

▪ One of the plastic parts to be welded must have a symmetrical surface
▪ It is expensive to set up.

Applications of Plastic Welded Parts

Aeronautics

Aerospace plastics require permanent welding that is accurate without comprising their properties.
Therefore, the process is suitable for making plastic welded parts such as interior panels, holding tanks, and
trays.

Agriculture

Plastic welded parts such as gaskets, PVC fencing, tanks, and water & misting lines have wide applications
in agriculture.

Automotive

Automotive use plastic welding in joining plastics to make grills, radiators, battery cases, wheel well liners,
bumpers, etc.

Marine

The process is also applicable in making boats, ballast tanks, fish-holding wells, water-holding tanks, and
other plastic welded parts used in a marine environment. The marine environment uses plastic due to its
corrosion resistance and other properties. However, plastic welded parts might be assembled and welded
together.

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Plumbing

Plastic welding is very common in plumbing, where it is applicable in making DWV pipes, drains, faucets,
etc. Such parts are produced singly and need assembling. Unlike other plastic joining processes, welding is
permanent, which is a strong factor in its choice.

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